THE PHYSICS OF THE ATOM

MODELS OF THE ATOM

1. 1 describe the work done in establishing the modern view of the atom; Include
Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Chadwick.

1. 2 describe the Geiger- Marsden experiment. Establish the nuclear structure of the atom.
Consider that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons of approximately equal mass.
What is an atom?
An atom is the smallest part of an
element that can combine with itself or
with other atoms to form molecules.
The atom is comprised of electrons,
protons and neutrons.
Those who had opened up the secrets of the atom
Until the late nineteenth century atoms were thought to be indivisible.

J.J.Thomson - showed that negative particles were present in all matter. plum pudding
model.

Ernest Rutherford - found the nucleus, protons and created the nuclear model.

Niels Bohr - electrons orbit the nucleus.

James Chadwick - theorised the neutral particles (Neutrons)

Honorable mentions: John Dalton, Democritus

‘Gold Foil Experiment’
The Geiger-Marsden experiment, also called the gold foil experiment or the α-particle scattering
experiments, refers to a series of early-20th-century experiments that gave physicists their first
view of the structure of the atomic nucleus and the physics underlying the everyday world. It was
first proposed by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Ernest Rutherford.

As familiar as terms like electron, proton and neutron are to us now, in the early 1900s, scientists
had very little concept of the fundamental particles that made up atoms.

In fact, until 1897, scientists believed that atoms had no internal structure and believed that they
were an indivisible unit of matter. Even the label "atom" gives this impression, given that it's
derived from the Greek word "atomos," meaning "indivisible."

https://www.livescience.com/gold-foil-experiment-geiger-marsden
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
2.1 sketch the structure of simple atoms;

2.2 compare the mass and charge of the electron with the mass and charge of the proton;

2.3 explain why an atom is normally neutral and stable;

2.4 apply the relationship A = Z + N;

2.5 explain what is meant by the term "isotope";

2.6 relate the shell model of the atom to the periodic table.
Structure of the Atom
Nucleus - the core of the atom, contains the
protons and neutrons.
Orbits/shells - circles the nucleus contains the
electrons.
Electrons - negatively charged particles.
Protons - positively charged particles.
Neutrons - neutral charged particles.
Table showing the relative properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.

Particle Charge Mass

Electron -1 unit 1 / 1840 units

Proton +1 unit 1 unit

Neutron Neutral 1 unit

The unit mass for a proton and neutron individually are 1.67x10-27kg. The same.
The mass of an electron is 9.1x10-31kg. Hence hence the 1 : 1840 ratio. The mass of the
electrons are considered to be negligible in terms of the total mass of the atom
Atom
In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Due to the negligible mass of the electrons , the mass of the atom is determined by the
number of protons and neutrons.

Mass number (A) is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atoms of an element.

Neutron number (N) is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

Equation for mass number ; A= Z + N ; Mass # = Atomic # + Neutron #

Isotopes - Are atoms with the same number of protons but different mass number(due to a
different number of neutrons ).

Nuclide Notation
The Periodic Table
Group #:
represents # of
electrons on the
outer shell

Period #:
represents the
number of
electron shells
 RADIOACTIVITY
3.1 describe Marie Curie’s work in the field of radioactivity;
3.2 state the nature of the three types of radioactive emissions;
3.3 describe experiments to compare the ranges of α-rays , β-rays and γ-rays emission;
3.4 describe the appearance of the tracks of radioactive emissions in a cloud chamber;
3.5 predict the effects of magnetic and electric fields on the motion of and particles and rays;
3.6 interpret nuclear reactions in the standard form;
3.7 conduct an activity to demonstrate the random nature of radioactive decay;
3.8 recall that the decay process is independent of the conditions external to the nucleus;
Madame Marie Curie
Marie Curie and her husband pierre discovered
Radium and found that this element and Pollutinum
exhibited the same phenomenon.

The phenomenon is called radioactivity or

radioactive decay.

She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, and she
is the only woman to win the award in two different
fields.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous breaking up of unstable nuclei of atoms of elements
which have large number of neutrons. One or more of the neutrons may decay giving off
certain particles together with electromagnetic radiation.

Types of radioactive-decay and there particles:

Alpha ~ Beta ~ Gamma ~

 Properties of α-rays , β-rays and γ-rays
Radiation Charge Mass Nature Penetrating Range in air Ionising power
power

Positive deflected 4 atomic Helium nuclei Absorbed by A few cm Very great 105
α-rays by electric and mass units skin or sheet ion per cm
magnetic fields of paper

Negative 1/1840 electrons Absorbed by A metre or Much less than α

β-rays deflected by atomic a few mm of so - particles 102
electric and mass units aluminum ion pairs per cm
magnetic fields.

None undeflected none Electromagnetic Very Very high Very low

γ-rays by electric and radiation of very penetrating
magnetic fields. short absorbed by
wavelength thick lead or
concrete
Compare the ranges of α-rays , β-rays and γ-rays emission
Radioactive emissions can be detected by
several methods:
● The emissions fog photographic film.
● When radioactive emissions strike certain
crystals, they cause the crystals to give off
flashes of light.
● Radioactive emissions cause particles in
their path to become ionised (electrically
charged). When an emission collides with
an atom, an electron may be knocked out
of the atom. The remainder of the atom
becomes a positive ion. Hus a negatively
charged (the electron) and the positive ion
are produced when a collision takes place.
The following detecting devices all make use of the ionising
effect produced by radiation.

1. Electroscope
2. Cloud Chamber
3. Geiger Muller (G-M) tube
The Cloud Chamber
The tracks formed by the radiation appear to be white lines in the cloud. As
the radiation passes through, it knocks the electrons out of the atoms in the
air. The alcohol vapour then condenses on the charged particles, forming little
“storms” along the path. These tracks disappear almost immediately.
The effect of electric fields on radiation
Alpha particles are
positively charged hence
are pulled towards the
cathode.

Beta particles are

negatively charged hence
are pulled to the anode.

Gamma rays have no

charge hence are unaffected
by the electric field.
The effect of magnetic fields on radiation
Because they consist of
charged particles, alpha and
beta radiation can also be
deflected by magnetic fields.
Just as with electric fields,
gamma radiation is not
deflected by magnetic fields.
When alpha and beta particles
move in magnetic fields they
experience a deflecting force -
provided their motion is not
parallel to the field.
Interpreting nuclear reactions in the standard form
Have fun!
Half-life
3.9 use graphs of random decay to show that such processes have constant half-lives;

3.10 solve problems involving half-life;

Radioisotopes
3.11 discuss the useful applications of radio-isotopes;
Half-life
The nuclei of radioactive atoms are unstable. They breakdown and change into a
completely different type of atom. This is called radioactive decay.

For example, carbon-14 decays to nitrogen-14 when it emits beta radiation. As this
breakdown occurs, the activity of any radioactive source becomes less.

Radioactive decay happens randomly (i.e it is a random process). It is not possible to

predict when an individual atom might decay. But it is possible to measure how long it
takes for half the nuclei of a piece of radioactive material to decay. This is called the
half-life of the radioactive isotope.
Half-life
There are two definitions of half-life, t1/2 - but they mean essentially the same thing:

1. the time it takes for the number of nuclei of the isotope in a sample to be halved
2. the time it takes for the count rate from a sample containing the isotope to fall to half
its starting level.

Different radioactive isotopes have different half-lives. For example, the half-life of
carbon-14 is 5,715 years, but the half-life of francium-223 is just 20 minutes.
Half-life on a graph
It is possible to find out the half-life of a
radioactive substance from a graph of the count
rate against time. The graph shows the decay
curve for a radioactive substance.

The count rate drops from 80 to 40 counts a

minute in two days, so the half-life is two days.
In the next two days, it drops from 40 to 20 - it
halves. In the two days after that, it drops from
20 to 10 - it halves again - and so on.
Half-life a bit of math
Starting with a number of atoms, N,
after one half-life the number
remaining is N/2; after the second
half-life that number becomes N/4, then
N/8, and so on and so on until all the
atoms have decayed.
Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are radioactive atoms produced in nuclear reactors. They have useful
applications in medicine, agriculture, industry and research.
Safety precautions
Radioactive radiation is hazardous to health. It can damage body tissue. Beta rays and
gamma rays cause radiation burn to sensitive parts of the body and the skin. Alpha rays are
dangerous if they enter the body.
Because of these hazards radioactive sources should always be held with tongs. They
should also be kept away from the eyes and the body and must be replaced in their boxes
and covered with lead immediately after use.
Applications of radioisotopes
Carbon dating - uses the ratio of Carbon-14 isotopes found in a deceased organism to
determine when it died.

Radiotherapy - Although ionising radiation can cause cancer, high doses can be directed at
cancerous cells to kill them.

Radioactive tracers - Certain chemicals concentrate in different damaged or diseased parts

of the body, and the radiation concentrates with it. Emitters of beta radiation or gamma
radiation are used because these types of radiation readily pass out of the body, and they
are less likely to be absorbed by cells than alpha radiation.
Dangers of ionising radiation
When radiation collides with molecules in living cells it can damage them. This can cause
a mutation. If the DNA in the nucleus of a cell is damaged, the cell may become
cancerous. In this case the cell divides rapidly and causes serious health problems.
The degree to which each different type of radiation is most dangerous to the body
depends on whether the source is outside or inside the body.
If the radioactive source is inside the body, perhaps after being swallowed or breathed in:
● alpha radiation is the most dangerous because it is easily absorbed by cells
● beta and gamma radiation are not as dangerous because they are less likely to be
absorbed by a cell and will usually just pass right through it
Dangers of ionizing radiation
If the radioactive source is outside the body:

● alpha radiation is not as dangerous because it is unlikely to reach living cells inside
the body
● beta and gamma radiation are the most dangerous sources because they can penetrate
the skin and damage the cells inside
Nuclear Energy
3.12 relate the release of energy in a nuclear reaction to a change in mass; Application of
Einstein’s equation: E = mc2. Include fission and fusion.

3.13 cite arguments for and against the utilisation of nuclear energy. Cost of environmental
impact; disposal; safety.
Nuclear energy
When a neutron or an alpha particle strikes a heavy nucleus a reaction takes place which
produces lighter nuclei. This is called fission.
Another type of nuclear reaction takes place when light nuclei interact to form heavier
nuclei. This is called fusion.
In both cases vast amounts of energy are released due to the changes in mass. The energy
released can be calculated using Einstein’s mass-energy equation which gives the energy
equivalent for any change in mass i.e.
E = mc2
E - energy , m - mass , c - speed of light
Nuclear fission

The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission and is used in nuclear
power reactors. Fission is another word for splitting.

Uranium or plutonium isotopes are normally used as the fuel in nuclear reactors. Their
atoms have relatively large nuclei that are easy to split, especially when hit by
neutrons.
When a uranium-235 or plutonium-239
nucleus is hit by a neutron, the following
happens:

● the nucleus splits into two smaller

nuclei known as daughter nuclei,
which are radioactive
● two or three more neutrons are
released
● some energy is released in the form
of kinetic energy of the particles
produced
“YAY” Nuclear energy “NAY”
Pros
If carefully managed they do not contaminate the environment

They do not release greenhouse gasses or other harmful chemicals

When compared to energy from fossil fuels they are safer

Radioactive materials produced at power plants are used in medicine

A small amount of radioactive fuel produces a large amount of energy

Cons
Radiation can destroy or damage living organisms it can alter the DNA of cells causing
cancers.

Staff working with radioactive material can contaminated themselves if not careful

Used radioactive fuel is still dangerous and has to be stored carefully