CLAS:BCA 6 THSem

Batch: 2018-21

Computer Graphics

Notes as per IKGPTU Syllabus

Name of Faculty: Mr/Ms<<<<<Jatinderpal kaur>>>

Faculty of Computer Applictions,SBS College. Ludhiana

Syllabus
SECTION-A

Introduction to Active and PassiveGraphics, Applications of Computer Graphics.

Inputdevices:lightpens,Graphic tablets,Joysticks,Trackball,Data Glove,Digitizers,Image scanner,
Graphs and Types of Graphs.
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Video DisplayDevices-- Refresh Cathode Ray Tube, Raster Scan displays, Random Scan displays,
ArchitectureofRasterandRandomScanMonitors,ColorCRT-monitorsand Colorgenerating techniques
(Shadow Mask, Beam Penetration) , Direct View Storage Tube, Flat-Panel Displays; 3-D
Viewing Devices, Raster Scan Systems, Random Scan Systems,Graphicsmonitors and
workstations, ColorModels

(RGBand CMY),Lookup Table.

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SECTION-B

ProcessandneedofScanConversion,ScanconversionalgorithmsforLine,CircleandElli
pse,effectof
scanconversion,Bresenham'salgorithmsforlineandcirclealongwiththeirderivations,
MidpointCircle

Algorithm,Area fillingtechniques, flood fill techniques, charactergeneration.

SECTION-C

2- DimensionalGraphics:Cartesian andneedof Homogeneous co-ordinate

system,Geometric transformations(Translation,
Scaling,Rotation,Reflection,Shearing),Two-dimensionalviewing
transformationandclipping (line,polygonandtext),CohenSutherland,
SutherlandHodgemanandLiang Barskyalgorithm for clipping.

SECTION-D

Introduction to 3-dimensional Graphics:GeometricTransformations (Translation,

Scaling, Rotation, Reflection,Shearing),Mathematicsof Projections(parallel&
perspective).Introductionto3-Dviewing transformations and clipping.

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Sr Topic Page No.
No.
1 Introduction to Active and PassiveGraphics, 5
2 Applications of Computer Graphics 7-8
3 Inputdevices 9-10
4 Video DisplayDevices 11-34
5 ColorModels 35
6 Lookup Table 36
7 ProcessandneedofScanConversion, 37
8 ScanconversionalgorithmsforLine, 39
9 CircleandEllipse,effectof scanconversion 40
10 ,Bresenham'salgorithmsforlineandcirclealongwiththeirderivations 41-53
11 Area fillingtechniques, flood fill techniques 54-65
12 charactergeneration 65-68
13 2DimensionalGraphics: Cartesian andneedof Homogeneous co- 68-71
ordinate system
14 Transformations(Translation, 71-90
Scaling,Rotation,Reflection,Shearing)
15 Clipping 90-101
16 Introduction to 3-dimensional Graphics 101-108
17 Projections 108-110
18 Introductionto3-Dviewing transformations and clipping 110-112
19 Important Questions 113-144

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 Unit-1
Computer graphics

Computer graphics are pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the
term refers to computer-generated image data created with the help of specialized
graphical hardware and software.

Types of Computer Graphics

Interactive Computer Graphics: Interactive Computer Graphics involves a two

way communication between computer and user. Here the observer is given some
control over the image by providing him with an input device for example the
video game controller of the ping pong game. This helps him to signal his request
to the computer.

Passive(Non-Interactive) Graphics

Passive Graphics computer graphics otherwise known as passive computer

graphics. it is the computer graphics in which user does not have any kind of

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control over the image. The image is totally under the control of program
instructions not under the user. Example: screen savers

Interactive vs Passive Graphics

Interactive Graphics Passive(Non interactive) Graphics

User have Full control on Graphics User have no control on Graphics
It is provide two way communication It is provide one way communication
It is not provide interaction between It is provide interaction between user
user and hardware and hardware
It used in Earlier Applications It used in Modern Applications
It is not provide 2D,3D updation and It is provide 2D,3D updation and motion
motion

Application of Computer Graphics

 Computational Biology: Computational biology is an interdisciplinary
field that applies the techniques of computer science, applied mathematics
and statistics to address biological problems. The main focus lies on
developing mathematical modeling and computational simulation
techniques.
 Computational Physics: Computational physics is the study and
implementation of numerical algorithm to solve problems in physics for
which a quantitative theory already exists. It is often regarded as a sub
discipline of theoretical physics but some consider it an intermediate branch
between theoretical and experimental physics.
 Information of Graphics: Information graphics or information graphics
are visual representations of information, data or knowledge. These graphics
are used where complex information needs to be explained quickly and
clearly, such as in signs, maps, journalism, technical writing, and education.
They are also used extensively as tools by computer scientists,
mathematicians, and statisticians to ease the process of developing and
communicating conceptual information.
 Scientific Visualization: Scientific visualization is a branch of science,
concerned with the visualization of three dimensional phenomena, such as
architectural, meteorological, medical, biological systems. Scientific
visualization focuses on the use of computer graphics to create visual images
which aid in understanding of complex, often massive numerical
representation of scientific concepts or results.

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 Graphic Design: The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic
and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and
presentation. Various methods are used to create and combine symbols,
images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.
Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the
communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
 Computer-aided Design: Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of
computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. The design of
geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-
aided geometric design (CAGD). CAD may be used to design curves and
figures in two-dimensional ("2D") space; or curves, surfaces, or solids in
three-dimensional ("3D") objects. CAD is also widely used to produce
computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising, technical
manuals.
 Web Design: Web design is the skill of designing presentations of content
usually hypertext or hypermedia that is delivered to an end-user through the
World Wide Web, by way of a Web browser. The process of designing Web
pages, Web sites, Web applications or multimedia for the Web may utilize
multiple disciplines, such as animation, authoring, communication design,
corporate identity, graphic design, human-computer interaction, information
architecture, interaction design, marketing, photography, search engine
optimization and typography.
 Digital Art: Digital art most commonly refers to art created on a computer
in digital form. On other hand, is a term applied to contemporary art that
uses the methods of mass production or digital media. The impact of digital
technology has transformed traditional activities such as painting, drawing
and sculpture, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and
virtual reality, have been recognized artistic practices.
 Video Games: A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction
with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a raster display device.
The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms.
This platform creates through graphics.
 Virtual Reality: Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which allows a user to
interact with a computer-simulated environment. The simulated environment
can be similar to the real world, for example, simulations for pilot or combat
training, or it can differ significantly from reality, as in VR games. It is
currently very difficult to create a high-fidelity virtual reality experience,
due largely to technical limitations on processing power, image resolution
and communication bandwidth. Virtual Reality is often used to describe a

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 wide variety of applications, commonly associated with its immersive,
highly visual, 3D environments.
 Computer Simulation: A computer simulation, a computer model or a
computational model is a computer program, or network of computers, that
attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system.
 Education: A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational
model is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to
simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations
have become a useful part of mathematical modeling of many natural
systems in physics (computational physics), chemistry and biology, human
systems in economics, psychology, and social science and in the process of
engineering new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those
systems, or to observe their behavior.
 Information Visualization: Information visualization is the study of the
visual representation of large-scale collections of non-numerical
information, such as files and lines of code in software systems, and the use
of graphical techniques to help people understand and analyze data.

The computer-generated images we see on television and in movies have

advanced to the point that they are almost indistinguishable from real-world
images. Computer graphics become a power field for the production of pictures.
There are no areas in which graphical displays can't be used to some advantages, so
it is not surprising to find the use of computer graphics so widespread.

Input devices

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube.

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When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer,
instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse.
A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disk of the computer for further manipulation.

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Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital
form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are
printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

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Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works
of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Data glove

A data glove is an interactive device, resembling a glove worn on the hand, which
facilitates tactile sensing and fine-motion control in robotics and virtual reality.
Data gloves are one of several types of electromechanical devices used in haptics
applications.

Tactile sensing involves simulation of the sense of human touch and includes the
ability to perceive pressure, linear force, torque, temperature, and surface texture.
Fine-motion control involves the use of sensors to detect the movements of the
user's hand and fingers, and the translation of these motions into signals that can be
used by a virtual hand (for example, in gaming) or a robotic hand (for example, in
remote-control surgery).

Within a virtual reality room or other VR environment, a data glove can allow you
to interact normally with objects -- turning doorknobs, for example -- and receive
haptic feedback to replicate grasping a doorknob and feeling the object in your
hand rather than just making a gesture in air. Haptic feedback is essential to
immersiveness, which enables user engagement in virtual environments,
particularly for applications like VR gaming.

Digitizer tablet (digitizer or graphics tablet)

A digitizer tablet (also known as a digitizer or graphics tablet) is a tool used to

convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing. Images
are usually drawn onto a flat surface with a stylus and then appear on a computer
monitor or screen. Digitizer tablets can also be used as an input device, receiving
information represented in drawings and sending output to a CAD (computer aided
design) application and PC-based software like AutoCAD.

Digitizers are often used along with takeoff software because they can quickly
measure, transfer and store quantities seen on a blueprint. Additional benefits are
found in features such as a dimension list, which can be saved and used for a future
estimate.

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Digitizer tablets are compatible with most digitizer software programs that have a
32-bit WinTAB driver.

Graph
A graph can be defined as a pictorial representation or a diagram that represents
data or values in an organized manner. The points on the graph often represent the
relationship between two or more things

Types of Graphs

Though, there are a lot of different types of graphs depending upon the number of
vertices, number of edges, interconnectivity, and their overall structure, some of
such common types of graphs are as follows:

1. Null Graph

A null graph is a graph in which there are no edges between its vertices. A null
graph is also called empty graph.

2. Trivial Graph

A trivial graph is the graph which has only one vertex.

Example

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In the above graph, there is only one vertex 'v' without any edge. Therefore, it is a
trivial graph.

3. Simple Graph

A simple graph is the undirected graph with no parallel edges and no loops.

A simple graph which has n vertices, the degree of every vertex is at most n -1.

Example

In the above example, First graph is not a simple graph because it has two edges
between the vertices A and B and it also has a loop.

Second graph is a simple graph because it does not contain any loop and parallel
edges.

4. Undirected Graph

An undirected graph is a graph whose edges are not directed.

Example

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In the above graph since there is no directed edges, therefore it is an undirected
graph.

5. Directed Graph

A directed graph is a graph in which the edges are directed by arrows.

Directed graph is also known as digraphs.

Example

In the above graph, each edge is directed by the arrow. A directed edge has an
arrow from A to B, means A is related to B, but B is not related to A.

6. Complete Graph

A graph in which every pair of vertices is joined by exactly one edge is

called complete graph. It contains all possible edges.

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A complete graph with n vertices contains exactly nC2 edges and is represented by
Kn.

Example

In the above example, since each vertex in the graph is connected with all the
remaining vertices through exactly one edge therefore, both graphs are complete
graph.

7. Connected Graph

A connected graph is a graph in which we can visit from any one vertex to any
other vertex. In a connected graph, at least one edge or path exists between every
pair of vertices.

Example

In the above example, we can traverse from any one vertex to any other vertex. It
means there exists at least one path between every pair of vertices therefore, it a
connected graph.

8. Disconnected Graph

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A disconnected graph is a graph in which any path does not exist between every
pair of vertices.

Example

The above graph consists of two independent components which are disconnected.
Since it is not possible to visit from the vertices of one component to the vertices
of other components therefore, it is a disconnected graph.

9. Regular Graph

A Regular graph is a graph in which degree of all the vertices is same.

If the degree of all the vertices is k, then it is called k-regular graph.

Example

In the above example, all the vertices have degree 2. Therefore they are called 2-
Regular graph.

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Video Display Devices

Computer Graphics | Cathode ray tube (video display device)

Computer Graphics has become a common element in today’s modern world. Be it

in user interfaces, or data visualization, motion pictures etc, computer graphics
plays an important role. The primary output device in a graphics system is a video
monitor. Although many technologies exist, but the operation of most video
monitors is based on the standard Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) design.

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) –

A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are
produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.It modulates,
accelerates, and deflects electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images.
Most desktop computer displays make use of CRT for image displaying purposes.

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Construction of a CRT –

1. The primary components are the heated metal cathode and a control grid.
2. The heat is supplied to the cathode (by passing current through the filament).
This way the electrons get heated up and start getting ejected out of the
cathode filament.
3. This stream of negatively charged electrons is accelerated towards the
phosphor screen by supplying a high positive voltage.
4. This acceleration is generally produced by means of an accelerating anode.
5. Next component is the Focusing System, which is used to force the electron
beam to converge to small spot on the screen.
6. If there will not be any focusing system, the electrons will be scattered
because of their own repulsions and hence we won’t get a sharp image of the
object.
7. This focusing can be either by means of electrostatic fields or magnetic
fields.

Types Of Deflection:

1. Electrostatic Deflection –
The electron beam (cathode rays) passes through a highly positively charged
metal cylinder that forms an electrostatic lens. This electrostatic lens focuses
the cathode rays to the center of the screen in the same way like an optical
lens focuses the beam of light. Two pairs of parallel plates are mounted
inside the CRT tube.
2. Magnetic Deflection –
Here, two pairs of coils are used. One pair is mounted on the top and bottom
of the CRT tube, and the other pair on the two opposite sides. The magnetic
field produced by both these pairs is such that a force is generated on the
electron beam in a direction which is perpendicular to both the direction of
magnetic field, and to the direction of flow of the beam. One pair is mounted
horizontally and the other vertically.

Raster Scan
In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a
time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam
intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated spots.

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Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame
Buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.
Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and “painted” on
the screen one row (scan line) at a time as shown in the following illustration.

Each screen point is referred to as a pixel (picture element) or pel. At the end of
each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line.

Random Scan (Vector Scan)

In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where
the picture is to be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom
as in raster scan. It is also called vector display, stroke-writing display, or
calligraphic display.

Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of

memory referred to as the refresh display file. To display a specified picture, the
system cycles through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each
component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the
system cycles back to the first line command in the list.

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Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30
to 60 times each second.

Architecture and components of Raster-Scan Systems

Raster-scan Systems:

An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with a
graphics package. Graphics commands in the program are translated by the
graphics package into a display file stored in the system memory. This display file
is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen. The display
processor cycles through each command in the display file program once during
every refresh cycle. Sometimes the display processor in a random-scan system is
refreshed to as a display processing unit or a graphics controller.

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Graphic patterns are drawn on a random scan system by directing the electron
beam along the component lines of the picture. Lines are defined by the values for
their co-ordinate endpoints, and these input co-ordinate values are converted to x
and y deflection voltages. A scene is then drawn one line at a time by positioning
the beam to fill in the line between specified endpoints.

Video Controller

A fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video
controller is given direct access to the frame buffer memory. The co-ordinates of
the graphics monitor starts at the lower left screen corner. Positive x values
increasing to the right and y values increasing from bottom to top.

The above diagram shows the refresh operation of video controller. Two registers
are used to store the co-ordinates of the screen pixels. Initially x=0 and y=ymax.
The value stored in the frame buffer corresponding to this pixel position is
retrieved. And the x value is incremented by 1 and the corresponding y value is
retrieved, like that the pixel values are retrieved line by line. Once the last pixel is
reached again the registers are reset to initial value to repeat the process.

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It consists of raster-scan generator, x and y address registers and pixel value
register. The raster-scan generator produces deflection signals that generate the
raster scan. The raster scan generator also controls the x and y address registers
which in turn define the memory location to be accessed next. Frame buffer
locations, and the corresponding screen positions, are referenced in Cartesian
coordinates. For many graphics monitors, the coordinate origin is defined at the
lower left screen corner. The screen surface is then represented as the first quadrant
of a two-dimensional system, with positive x values increasing to the right and
positive y values increasing from bottom to top. (On some personal computers, the
coordinate origin is referenced at the upper left comer of the screen, so the y values
are inverted.) Scan lines are then labeled from y, at the top of the screen to 0 at the
bottom. Along each scan line, screen pixel positions are labeled from 0 to xmax.
During each fetch the pixel value is read and is used to control the intensity of the
CRT beam

Display Processor

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The purpose of the display processor or graphics controller is to free the CPU from
the graphics chores. In addition to the system memory a separate display processor
memory area can also provided.

Architecture and components of Random-Scan Displays

Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time and for this reason are also
referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing or calligraphic displays).The
component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a random-scan system
in any specified order .

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be

displayed . Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in
an area of memory referred to as the refresh display file. Sometimes the refresh
display file is called the display list, display program, or simply the refresh buffer.
To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in

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the display file, drawing each component line in turn. After all line- drawing
commands have been processed, the system cycles back to the first line command
in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to draw al the component lines of a
picture 30 to 60times each second.

Scan conversion functionality is implemented using programmed logic array or

microcode in this display system. Random scan display processor is called display
processing unit (DPU)/Graphics controller. DPU has instruction set and instruction
address register and guess through the classic instruction fetch, decode, execute
cycle found in any computer. It must execute program 30 to 60 times per second in
order to draw all the component lines of a picture. Program executed by DPU is in
main memory which is shared by the general CPU and DPU. Application program
and graphics subroutine package reside in main memory and execute on general
CPU. Graphics package creates a display program of DPU instruction and tells the
DPU where to start the program. DPU then asynchronously executes the display
program until told to stop. Jump instruction transfers control back to start so
display continues to be refreshed without CPU intervention.

Difference between Random and Raster System

Raster Scan System Random Scan System

It has poor or less Resolution It has High Resolution because it
Resolution
because picture definition is stores picture definition as a set of

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 stored as a intensity value. line commands.
Electron Beam is directed from
Electron Beam is directed to only
top to bottom and one row at a
Electron- that part of screen where picture is
time on screen, but electron
Beam required to be drawn, one line at a
beam is directed to whole
time so also called Vector Display.
screen.
It is less expensive than It is Costlier than Raster Scan
Cost
Random Scan System. System.
Refresh Rate depends on the number
Refresh Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frame
of lines to be displayed i.e 30 to 60
Rate per second.
times per second.
It Stores picture definition in It Stores picture definition as a set of
Picture
Refresh Buffer also called line commands called Refresh
Definition
Frame Buffer. Display File.
Zig – Zag line is produced Smooth line is produced because
Line
because plotted value are directly the line path is followed by
Drawing
discrete. electron beam .
It contains shadow, advance
It does not contain shadow and
Realism in shading and hidden surface
hidden surface technique so it can
display technique so gives the realistic
not give realistic display of scenes.
display of scenes.
It is designed for line drawing
Image It uses Pixels along scan lines
applications and uses various
Drawing for drawing an image.
mathematical function to draw.

Color Generating Techniques of CRT Monitors

Beam Penetration method

This CRT is similar to the simple CRT, but it makes use of multi coloured
phosphorus of number of layers. Each phosphorus layer is responsible for one
colour. All other arrangements are similar to simple CRT. It can produce a
maximum of 4 to 5 colures

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The organization is something like this - The red, green and blue phosphorus are
coated in layers - one behind the other. If a low speed beam strikes the CRT, only
the red colored phosphorus is activated, a slightly accelerated beam would activate
both red and green (because it can penetrate deeper) and a much more activated
one would add the blue component also.

But the basic problem is a reliable technology to accelerate the electronic beam to
precise levels to get the exact colors - it is easier said than done. However, a
limited range of colors can be conveniently produced using the concept.

Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including color

TV) because they produce a much wider range of color than the beam penetration
method. A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the third emits
a blue light. This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each color dot, and a
shadow- mask grid just behind the phosphor –coated screen.Fig.below illustrates
the delta-delta shadow-mask method, commonly used in color CRT systems. The
three electron beam are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask,
which contains a series of holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns. When the
three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle,
which appears as a small color spot the screen the phosphor dots in the triangles
are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its corresponding color

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 dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

DVST - Direct View Storage Tube

Conceptually the Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) behaves like a CRT with
highly persistent phosphor. Pictures drawn on there will be seen for several
minutes (40-50 minutes) before fading. It is similar to CRT as far as the electronic
gun and phosphor-coated mechanisms are concerned. But instead of the electron
beam directly writing the pictures on the phosphor coated CRT screen, the writing
is done with the help of a fine-mesh wire grid.

The grid made of very thin, high quality wire, is located with a dielectric and is
mounted just before the screen on the path of the electron beam from the gun. A
pattern of positive charges is deposited on the grid and this pattern is transferred to

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the phosphor coated CRT by a continuous flood of electrons. This flood of
electrons is produced by a "flood gun" (This is separate frame the electron gun that
produces the main electron beam).

Just behind the storage mesh is a second grid called the collector. The function of
the collector is to smooth out the flow of flood electrons. Since a large number of
electrons are produced at high velocity by the flood gun, the collector grid, which
is also negatively charged reduces, the acceleration on these electrons and the
resulting low velocity flood pass through the collector and get attracted by the
positively charged portions of the storage mesh (Since the electrons are negatively
charged), but are repelled by the other portions of the mesh which are negatively
charged (Note that the pattern of positive charges residing on the storage mesh
actually defines the picture to be displayed).

A flat panel display

A flat panel display is a television, monitor or other display appliance that uses a
thin panel design instead of a traditional cathode ray tube (CRT) design. These
screens are much lighter and thinner, and can be much more portable than
traditional televisions and monitors. They also have higher resolution than older
models.

Types LCD,LED

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What is a LCD(Liquid Crystal Display)?

A liquid crystal display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is
combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid
crystal to produce a visible image. Liquid crystal displays are super-thin
technology display screen that are generally used in laptop computer screen, TVs,
cell phones and portable video games. LCD’s technologies allow displays to be
much thinner when compared to cathode ray tube (CRT) technology.

Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized
panel filters and electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the image in
notebook or some other electronic devices like mini computers. Light is projected
from a lens on a layer of liquid crystal. This combination of colored light with the
grayscale image of the crystal (formed as electric current flows through the crystal)
forms the colored image. This image is then displayed on the screen.

Liquid crystal display screen works on the principle of blocking light rather than
emitting light. LCD’s requires backlight as they do not emits light by them. We
always use devices which are made up of LCD’s displays which are replacing the
use of cathode ray tube. Cathode ray tube draws more power compared to LCD’s
and are also heavier and bigger.

Simple facts that should be considered while making an LCD:

1. The basic structure of LCD should be controlled by changing the applied

current.
2. We must use a polarized light.
3. Liquid crystal should able be to control both of the operation to transmit or
can also able to change the polarized light.

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The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric
current is applied to them, they tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light
angle passing through them. This causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing
filter with respect to it. So little light is allowed to pass through that particular area
of LCD. Thus that area becomes darker comparing to others.

Advantages of an LCD’s:

 LCD’s consumes less amount of power compared to CRT and LED

 LCD’s are consist of some microwatts for display in comparison to some
mill watts for LED’s
 LCDs are of low cost
 Provides excellent contrast
 LCD’s are thinner and lighter when compared to cathode ray tube and LED

Disadvantages of an LCD’s:

 Require additional light sources

 Range of temperature is limited for operation
 Low reliability

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  Speed is very low
 LCD’s need an AC drive

LED monitor

Short for light-emitting diode monitor, an LED monitor or LED display is a flat
screen, flat panel computer monitor or television. It has a very short depth and is
light in terms of weight. The actual difference between this and a typical LCD
monitor is the backlighting. The first LCD monitors used CCFL instead of LEDs to
illuminate the screen

LED Monitors

In the previous decade, the display technology has changed significantly. LED
displays are one of the latest developments.

Fig. 8 : A Representational Image of a LED Monitor

In this field. LED monitors use light emitting diodes that acts as a performance
booster in the monitors. Basically LED monitors are the LCD monitors with a LED
backlight to power up the LCD panel. It means that LEDs are placed behind or
around the LCD panel to enhance the luminosity and video definition of the
monitor screen.

As we have seen in the above section of LCD monitors, they use a cold cathode
light as backlight. In the LED monitors all the concepts are same except this
backlight, which is replaced by LEDs.

There are three different types of LED monitors available based on the manner
how the diodes are arranges in the monitor. These are – Direct LEDs, Edge LEDs
and RGB LEDs. Both Edge and Direct LED display monitors use white diodes that

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are used to illuminate the LCD panel to produce the improved picture quality. The
arrangement of LEDs in the monitor is shown in the below image:

Fig. 9: An Image Showing Comparison of Direct LED and Edge LED Technology
In the Direct LEDs display, white diodes are placed all over the panel to produce
higher quality image while the Edge LEDs display uses LEDs only on the borders
of the LCD panel. Direct LEDs are generally used in the production of high
definition TV whereas the Edge LEDs is mainly used in the production of
computer screens. RGB LEDs display is better among the three types of LED
monitors as it uses red, green and blue diodes to produce the lifelike images with
amazing contrast ratio

LED monitor advantages

LED monitors offer many benefits when compared to those that are CCFL lit
including:

 Typically are less expensive.

 Broader dimming range.
 Overall more reliable.
 They run at a lower temperature, and consume much less power, as few as
20 watts.
 Higher dynamic contrast ratio.
 Longer lifespan and less environmental impact.

What is Plasma?

Plasma is referred to be the main element of a fluorescent light. It is actually a gas

including ions and electrons. Under normal conditions, the gals has only uncharged
particles. That is, the number of positive charged particles [protons] will be equal
to the number of negative charged particles [electrons]. This gives the gas a
balanced position.

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Suppose you apply a voltage onto the gas, the number of electrons increases and
causes an unbalance. These free electrons hit the atoms, knocking loose other
electrons. Thus, with the missing electron, the component gets a more positive
charge and so becomes an ion.

In plasma, photons of energy are released, if an electrical current is allowed to pass

through it. Both the electrons and ions get attracted to each other causing inter
collision. This collision causes the energy to be produced. Take a look at the figure
illustrated below.

Working of Plasma display

The working of the pixels has been explained earlier. Each pixel has three
composite coloured sub-pixels. When they are mixed proportionally, the correct
colour is obtained.

There are thousands of colures depending on the brightness and contrast of each.
This brightness is controlled with the pulse-width modulation technique. With this
technique, it controls the pulse of the current that flows through all the cells at a
rate of thousands of times per seconds.

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Characteristics of Plasma Display

1. Plasma displays can be made upto large sizes like 150 inches diognal.
2. Very low-luminance “dark-room” black level.
3. Very high contrast.
4. The plasma display panel has a thickness of about 2.5 inches, which makes
the total thickness not more than 4 inches.
5. For a 50 inch display, the power consumption increases from (50-400) watts
in accordance with images having darker colures.
6. All displays are sold out in shop mode which consumes more power than the
above described. It can be changed to home mode.
7. Has a life-time of almost 100,000 hours. After this period, the brightness of
the TV reduces to half.

Import Terms for 2 marks

Resolution

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width of an image to the height of the image. This
ratio is expressed as x:y, and differs in case of different images used in
photography, television, computer applications and so on. Changing this ratio may
distort the images. The resolution of an image is the total number of pixels
displayed on your computer or television screen. Generally, the higher the
resolution, the higher is the quality of the image.

Pixel

The term "pixel" is actually short for "Picture Element." These small little dots are
what make up the images on computer displays, whether they are flat-screen
(LCD) or tube (CRT) monitors. The screen is divided up into a matrix of thousands
or even millions of pixels.

Frame buffer

A frame buffer (frame buffer, or sometimes frame store) is a portion of random-

access memory (RAM) containing a bitmap that drives a video display. It is a
memory buffer containing data representing all the pixels in a complete
video frame.

Refresh rate

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The refresh rate of your display refers to how many times per second the display
is able to draw a new image. This is measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, if your
display has a refresh rate of 144Hz, it is refreshing the image 144 times per
second.

Aspect ratio

Aspect ratio is the ratio between width of an image and the height of an image. It
is commonly explained as two numbers separated by a colon (8:9).
This ratio differs in different images, and in different screens.

Display Processor

Display Processor is the interpreter or a hardware that converts display

processor code into picture. The Display Processor converts the digital
information from CPU to analog values.

Persistence

Persistence is defined as the time it takes the emitted light from the screen to
decay to one tenth of its original intensity.

Workstations
1) A workstation is a computer intended for individual use that is faster and more
capable than a personal computer. It's intended for business or professional use
(rather than home or recreational use). Workstations and applications designed for
them are used by small engineering companies, architects, graphic designers, and
any organization, department, or individual that requires a faster microprocessor, a
large amount of random access memory (RAM), and special features such as high-
speed graphics adapters. Historically, the workstation developed technologically
about the same time and for the same audience as the UNIX operating system,
which is often used as the workstation operating system. Among the most
successful makers of this kind of workstation are Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, DEC, and IBM.

A color model is a system that uses three primary colors to create a larger range of
colors. There are different kinds of color models used for different purposes, and
each has a slightly different range of colors they can produce. The whole range of

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colors that a specific type of color model produces is called a color space. All
color results from how our eye processes light waves, but depending on the type of
media, creating that color comes from different methods.

The RGB Color Model

There are two basic kinds of color models, additive and subtractive. Let's look at
an additive color model first. The most common one is Red/Green/Blue, usually
referred to as RGB. This color model uses light to create color, and it is used for
digital media. When you play a game on your smart phone or watch an action
movie on TV, you are seeing color in an RGB color space. RGB is called an
additive color model because when the three colors of light are shown in the same
intensity at the same time, they produce white. If all the lights are out, they create
black.

Image of a RGB Color Model. The middle is where all the colors at equal strength
form white

The CMYK Color Model

When printing color images, you can't use colored light, and that means images can
not be printed in RGB. That is where the other color model comes in. A
subtractive color model adds pigment in the form of ink or dye that causes an
absence of white. The most common subtractive color model is
Cyan/Magenta/Yellow/Black, usually referred to as CMYK. It is what printers use,
and you will sometimes also see it called process color because it is used in the

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four color printing process. To print a color image on paper, you have to use ink.
Starting with the bright white paper surface, the colors are printed according to a
pattern. The more color is applied, the more the white surface is masked. That is
why it is called subtractive. But why the addition of black ink? Because when all
the colors are mixed, they create a muddy brown. To get rich deep black, you have
to use black ink.

A lookup table
In computer science, a lookup table is an array that replaces runtime computation
with a simpler array indexing operation. The savings in terms of processing time
can be significant, since retrieving a value from memory is often faster than
undergoing an "expensive" computation or input/output operation.[1] The tables
may be precalculated and stored in static program storage, calculated (or "pre-
fetched") as part of a program's initialization phase (memoization), or even stored
in hardware in application-specific platforms.

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