Microorganisms

Viruses
Bacteria
Protista
Fungi
 Biodiversity
• The earth has many different organisms that exist on it, all occurring in
different shapes and sizes.
• All organisms have been classified into the five kingdom system (learnt
in grade 10) which shows diversity of life.
• There is diversity between organisms of kingdoms as well diversity
within each kingdom.
• There is especially great diversity in respect to methods of feeding and
reproducing.
THE FIVE
KINGDOM
SYSTEM
What are Microorganisms?
• Structures found within living organisms may
be described as being macroscopic or
microscopic, depending on whether we can
see them with or without a microscope.
• Most plant and animal cells are microscopic. In
some cases, the entire organism is so small
that is cannot be seen without a microscope.
• These organisms are called microorganisms.
Microorganisms are the most abundant
organisms on earth and are found in huge
numbers in every environment.
• Examples of microorganisms are found in all
five kingdoms. There is one group of
organisms that do not fall into one of the
kingdoms these are known as viruses.
 Viruses
• Viruses are not cells, they do not possess structural features of
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• In addition, they do not perform any metabolic activity and
therefore do not fall into any of the kingdoms.
• Viruses are non-living acellular organisms however they do have
some living characteristics.
• They show both living and non-living characteristics.
• They are non-living because
• The can form crystals and survive in this form for many years
(HIV cannot do this)
• They do not respire
• Cannot reproduce, except when they are within living cells
 • Extremely small: smaller than bacteria and can
only been seen under an electron microscope. The
smallest viruses are only 20 nanometres (nm) in
diameter which makes them smaller than
ribosomes.
• Regular symmetrical shape, some are spherical,
Structure of rod-like, spiral and some have tails
• They have a Central core of nucleic acid (DNA,
Viruses RNA), covered by a protein coat. Together the
nucleic acid and the covering is referred to as the
nucleocapsid.
• Some viruses may possess an additional covering
external to the capsid. This is referred to as the
envelope and may contain spikes.
 • Viruses that possess an envelope are known as
enveloped viruses while those without are called
naked viruses.
• Each capsid is made up of a number of subunits
called capsomeres.
• Viruses that attack bacteria (called
Structure of bacteriophages) and plants contain RNA only,
those that attack animals can have either RNA or
Viruses DNA.
• Normally DNA is double stranded and RNA is single
stranded. In viruses’ DNA and RNA can be single or
double stranded.
• Non-cellular since they have no nucleus, ribosomes
or mitochondria.
Protein coat
 • Viruses are obligate intracellular
parasites that live on animals, plants
and bacteria.
• They are absolutely specific with regard
General to the host organism.
• eg: Tobacco mosaic virus will only
characteristics of live on the tobacco plant.
• The mumps virus will only live in the
viruses salivary glands of humans.
• Viruses are pathogenic and cause many
diseases like; AIDS, rabies, mumps,
measles, small pox, poliomyelitis, yellow
fever and the common cold etc.
 • Viruses reproduce by transforming the
hosts nucleic acid into the virus’s nucleic
acid when they multiply. This can result in
killing the host cells.
• Antibiotics are not effective on viruses as
General they are not living.
• It is difficult to control viruses since they
characteristics of are found inside the host cells.
Immunisations (vaccinations) can be given
to prevent a person from getting the
viruses disease as they stimulate the production of
anti-bodies, (to be discussed later in the
chapter).
• They lack metabolic and respiratory
enzymes, but are able to multiple inside
the host cells by using the hosts machinery.
For this reason, they are said to be genetic
parasites.
 Replication of viruses
• Viruses cannot multiply on their own. They require host cells to increase in number.
• They enter the host’s cell and use the cells enzymes and ribosomes to make more
viruses.
• This process of viral multiplication within a host cells is referred to as replication.
• Various patterns for viral replication exists. Some virus enters a cell, replicate and
then cause the cell to burst, releasing new viruses. This pattern is referred to as lytic
cycle.
• Other types of viruses enter a long term relationship within their host cells. Their
nucleic acid replicates as the host cells multiply.
• This pattern is called lysogenic cycle
 BIOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY

capsid
a protein coat surrounding the nucleic material of a virus
acellular
non-cellular
obligate
obligate = forced; a parasitic organism that cannot complete its life-cycle
parasite
without exploiting a suitable host (if an obligate parasite cannot obtain
a host it will fail to reproduce)
host
an organism that harbours a parasite
pathogenic
an organism that causes disease
bacteriophage
a type of virus that infects bacteria; the word "phage" means to eat”
Lytic cycle
Replication of a virus that results in bursting the host cell
Lysogenic cycle
Replication of a virus that multiplies when the host cell divides (mitosis)
 Bacteria
• Bacteria are about 50 times larger than
viruses but are the smallest LIVING
organisms on the earth.
• Found everywhere, prefer moisture and
darkness
• Reproduce best at a temp of 30-37C
however they can survive at extreme
temps (-18 C to 70 C)
• Aerobic bacteria prefer oxygen rich
environments
• Anaerobic bacteria live in the absence
of oxygen
 Types of nutrition
in bacteria Photosynthetic
Autotrophic
Chemosynthetic:
Decompose chemicals,
liberate energy

Bacteria Parasitic
Pathogenic or non-
pathogenic

Heterotrophic Saprotrophic

Mutualistic
Structure of bacteria

• Smallest living organisms

• Belong to the kingdom Monera and
are prokaryotes: do not have a
defined nucleus
• Bacteria function as independent
single-celled or unicellular
organisms.
• Four shapes:
Spherical coccus
Rod-like bacillus
Spiral Spirillum
Comma shaped cell: Vibro
Structure of Bacteria
• Cell wall made of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids
• Many have a slime capsule that protects it
• Have a flagella that acts like a tail
• Cytoplasm inside the cell wall
• Within the cell wall is a plasma membrane (cell membrane)
• No nucleus but does have genetic material found at the nucleoid
• Ribosomes occur within the cytoplasm
 • Maintaining a balance in the
environment
• Decomposers
• Saprotrophic
General • Break down dead organisms with
the use of enzymes and absorb
characteristics the waste
• Release water, carbon dioxide,
of Bacteria nitrogen and other elements into the
environment
• These replace the nutrients in the
soil: nutrient recycling
 • Role in food chains and webs
• Autotrophic bacteria produce food by
photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
• Make organic compounds through which
General energy is passed onto other organisms
• Role in symbiotic relationships
characteristics • Interactions between two organisms of
different species
of Bacteria • Mutualism: Both organisms benefit
• Parasitism: one benefits, other is
harmed
• Commensalism: one benefits but the
other is not harmed
 • Role as pathogens
• Disease causing: Parasitic
• Secrete enzymes which break down
the protein of the host or by
secreting toxins
General • Provide three examples of diseases
cause by bacteria
characteristics • Economic and industrial use
• Used for the production of
of Bacteria antibiotics
• Production of perfumes, enzymes
and chemicals
• Clostridium butyclicum is used for
the production of
vitamin B
 Bacteria and the production of alcohol
Glucose + anaerobic organism (bacteria, yeast, mould)

Alcoholic fermentation Lactic acid fermentation

Ethanol Carbon dioxide Lactic acid

Need to know how this knowledge has been used by

indigenous people
 • Use in medical biotechnology
• Use of organisms for medical research
• Bacteria is often used to produce vitamins,
antibiotics, proteins, hormones
• Using enzymes the bacterial cell is cut open

General • DNA contains a desired gene is inserted into

the genetic material of the bacteria
• When the bacteria replicates it produces the
characteristics gene that has been inserted, thus the desired
products is obtained
of Bacteria • This is known as recombinant DNA
technology
• Human insulin is produced in this way to
treat diabetics
• Human growth hormone (Somatotropin) has
also be produced in this way to treat
dwarfism
Bacteria Growth
and
Reproduction
Reproduction
• Bacteria Reproduce asexually by binary fission: splitting in two
• Although bacteria can live in extreme conditions that may vary greatly
they are affected by certain factors which influences rate of
reproduction
• In favourable conditions (warmth, food and moist) bacteria reproduce
rapidly by binary fission
• In unfavourable conditions (temperature is too high or too low, pH
changed, no food) bacteria reproduce slowly by sexual reproduction.
New bacteria have thick walls and are called spores
Logarithmic graph
• Graph to depict the rate of bacterial growth
• Divided into 4 sections
• Lag phase: Few individuals. Adapt to environment and reproduce slowly
• Log phase: Bacteria reproduce at their maximum rate. Rapid increase in
numbers
• Stationary phase: Reproduction slows down. Competition for resources leads
to the growth rate being zero: constant
• Decline phase: Death rate increases, reproduction decreases. Caused by a
shortage of resources and oxygen or a build up of toxic waste
 Stationary Decline
Lag phase Log phase phase phase
A table comparing viruses and bacteria.
Viruses Bacteria
Non-living Living
Smaller than Bacteria Larger than viruses. Smallest living
organism
Surrounded by a protein coat Surrounded by a slime capsule and cell wall
Acellular Cellular

Pathogenic Parasitic: Pathogenic/Non-pathogenic

Vaccinations used for prevention (treated with anti-biotics)
Mutualistic
Communalistic
Requires a host to replicate Reproduces by binary fission
 BIOLOGICAL TERMS

nucleoid an irregularly shaped region within the cell of a prokaryote that contains
all or most of the genetic material

prokaryotic an organism where the nuclear material is not enclosed in a membrane

eukaryotic any single or multicellular group of organisms that have a membrane-

bound nucleus containing genetic material
flagellum a whip-like, protruding filaments that help cells or microorganisms
move; plural of flagellum is flagella

saprophytic plant or fungal microorganisms that feeds on dead or decaying issues of

other organisms

plasmid a plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is

distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA
 Protista
• Robert Whittaker placed all
eukaryotes which did not fall
into the plant, animal or fungi
kingdom, into the kingdom
Protista.
• There are more than 200 000
known species, it is the
Kingdom with the greatest
diversity.
• Organisms known as slime
moulds, protozoans, diatoms,
red, brown and green algae are
all Protista.
Copy the Algae (plant like)
following flow •Cell walls
chart. •Chlorophyll
•Photosynthesis

Protista Protozoa (Animal like)

•No Cell walls
•No pigment
•Heterotrophic

Slime Moulds (Resemble

moulds)Fungi
•Produce spores
 • Organisms in this kingdom vary greatly in
shape, size, appearance, habitats,
methods of nutrition and methods of
Basic reproduction.
• All Protists have true nuclei with the
structure of genetic material surrounded by a
membrane and are therefore eukaryotic
Protists organisms.
• Most Protists are unicellular and can only
be seen with a microscope. However,
some protists, such as sea-weed, are
multicellular and large enough to be
seen with the naked eye.
 • Most Protista are aquatic (live in
water) but some live in damp soil,
Basic in snow or as symbionts in lichens.
• Protista that contain chlorophyll are
structure autotrophic, while those that don’t
contain chlorophyll are
of Protists heterotrophic and can be
saprotrophic or parasitic.
• There is no general plan for the
kingdom Protista
 • An important Protista is Plankton: found in the upper
layers of bodies of water. Plankton provide a source of
food for many other organisms.
• Autotrophic Protista play a role as producers in aquatic
General food chains. Light energy is converted into stored
energy as glucose and it transferred from one organism

characteristics to the next. They also maintain the oxygen levels in

water.
• Saprotrophic Protists (slime moulds) cause decay of
of Protists dead material, returning minerals to soil: Nutrient
recycling. Slime moulds engulf food by phagocytosis
• A hard, glass-like substance called silica is deposited in
the cell walls of diatoms. Silica occurs in quartz and as a
main component of sandstone which has widespread
industrial use
 • Sea-weed is used for sushi as well as ice-
cream, puddings and salad dressing
• Some Protista reproduce asexually by a
General process called binary fission, where the
organism splits into two. Others such as

characteristics brown algae, have complex life cycles

with asexual and sexual reproduction.

of Protists • Reproduction is mostly asexual and

occurs by binary fission, where a single
cell divides into two cells with identical
genetic material. However, some algae
do reproduce sexually.
 • Saprotrophic Protists (slime moulds)
cause decay of dead material, returning
Biological minerals to soil: Nutrient recycling
• A hard, glass-like substance called silica is
importance of deposited in the cell walls of diatoms.
Silica occurs in quartz and as a main
Protists component of sandstone which has
widespread industrial use
• Sea-weed is used for sushi as well as ice-
cream, puddings and salad dressing
Examples of
a Protista
 Amoeba
• Free-living, aquatic, protozoan
• Unicellular: exists independently
• Asymmetrical: constantly changing shape due to outgrowths called
pseudopodia
• Surrounded by differentially permeable membrane: Plasmalemma
• Contains cytoplasm which has the:
• outer ectoplasm (clear, jelly-like) said to be in a gel state
• inner endoplasm (Granular, more fluid) undergoes constant streaming
movement called cyclosis and is in a sol state
• Has a central nucleus
• Contractile vacuole is responsible for expulsion of water
• Food vacuole digests food
 Biological Terminology

phytoplankton very small plants (algae) that float on or near the

surface of water

zooplankton consisting of small animals and the immature stages of

larger animals which float on or near the surface of
the water
Kingdom Fungi
• The position of fungi in the biological world has
been debated for many years.
• They were originally grouped with plants, and
later grouped with algae and protozoa.
• Even at this stage, mycologists (scientists who
study the structure and function of fungi), were
intrigued by several unique features of fungi that
separate it into a different kingdom.
• This was finally achieved in 1969. The kingdom is
divided into two main groups namely:
Kingdom Fungi
• Fungi are divided into two main groups:
• Macroscopic fungi- The fleshy fungi clearly
visible fruiting bodies known as mushrooms
• Microscopic fungi- The unicellular yeasts
• The multicellular thread-like molds (e.g., bread
mold) where some parts may be seen with the
naked eye, but other parts are microscopic.
• One of the defining features of fungi is that they
possess a cell wall like plant cells however unlike
plant cells the cell wall is made from chitin and
not cellulose.
 Saprotrophic:
Obtains food from dead and
decaying matter: Mushrooms,
bread mould

Heterotrophic
Fungi: Do not contain
Multicellular chlorophyll

Parasitic:
Depend on other organisms to
obtain food: Athletes foot
Classification of fungi
• Although all fungi reproduce by spores, fungi are not all the same in
terms of where these spores are produced. For example:
• Sporangium fungi: Spores are in spore cases called sporangia. E.g.
bread mould
• Club fungi: Spores are in club shaped structures. E.g. Mushrooms.
• Sac fungi: Spores are in sac-like structures: E.g. yeast and
penicillium
 Example of fungi
• Bread mould: Rhizopus- best grown in dark, warm damp
places
• Structure
• Rhizopus is a thallus: does not have true roots,
stems and leaves
• Made up of entangled mass of fine filaments called
Hyphae
• All the filaments form a mycelium
• Three types of hyphae
• Rhizoids: penetrate bread (root like structure)
• Stolon: Creep over the surface (branch like)
• Sporangiophores: upright hyphae, holding
sporangia high to disperse spores
 • Does not have strengthening tissue: does
not grow very tall
• Doesn’t have conducting tissue, cannot
transport food and water far distances

Rhizopus which also limits the height of the fungi

• Cells making up the hyphae do not have
cross-walls which allows for the
movement of food and water
• Cytoplasm of one cell to the next is
continuous to aid transport
Sporangium
with spores
 • As decomposers
• They secrete enzymes which breakdown
organic substances to be absorbed
• This releases, CO2, water, ammonia and heat
Biological • Return nutrients to the soil
• As food for humans
importance • Mould such as Penicillum roqueforti and
Penicillum cambemberti are important for
the production of cheese
• Yeast converts sugars to alcohol and carbon
dioxide during alcohol fermentation:
produce alcohol as well as breads
 Used to
produce
Medicinal antibiotics
value of fungi
Penicillin
 BIOLOGICAL TERMINOLOGY

Chitin A fibrous substance consisting of polysaccharides, which is the major constituent

in the exoskeleton of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi
Hyphae A network of multi-celled threadlike filaments forming the mycelium of a fungus

Mycelium A vegetative mass or network of fungal hyphae found in and on soil or organic substrates

Multinucleate Cells that have more than one nucleus per cell, i.e., Multiple nuclei shared in one
common cytoplasm
Rhizoids Threadlike structures that anchor lower plants and fungi to a surface
Budding A form of asexual reproduction which involves the pinching off of offspring from the
parent cell; the offspring cell is
Genetically identical to the parent
Spore A reproductive cell capable of developing into a new individual without fusion with
another reproductive cell
 Some micro-organisms are autotrophic and produce
their own food. These include photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic bacteria as well as Protists like euglena,
algae, diatoms and dinoflagellates. These autotrophic
organisms are producers making food which carries
Role of micro- energy to the consumers.
organisms in These autotrophic organisms also use up carbon dioxide
maintaining and release oxygen into the environment. In this way
they maintain the balance between oxygen and carbon
balance in the dioxide.
environment and
web of life.
Heterotrophic micro-organisms act as decomposers,
breaking down dead and decaying matter, this returns
vital nutrients to the soil.
 • Symbiosis refers to an interaction in which
two organisms of different species live
together in direct contact.
• There are three types of symbiotic
Symbiotic relationships
Relationships • Mutualism: Both organisms benefit.
• Parasitism: One organism benefits and
the other is harmed.
• Commensalism: One organism benefits
and the other is not harmed.
 • There are two very important
symbiotic relationships that we are
Symbiotic going to study.
Relationships • Nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
• E.coli in human intestines.
 • Plants and animal need nitrogen to
produce protein. Although the
atmosphere is approximately 79%
nitrogen plants cannot use the nitrogen in
this form. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Nitrogen- converts atmospheric nitrogen into
fixing bacteria. nitrates which the plants can use to
produce protein. Animals eat the plants
and get nitrogen from the plant proteins.
• The relationship between the plants and
the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is mutualistic
as the bacteria obtain carbohydrates from
plants.
 • The number of different species of
bacteria within the human intestine is
estimated to be between 500 and 1000.
E.coli in
• Many of the species are mutualistic. They
Human benefit by obtaining food.
Intestines • We benefit in two ways.
• First, they help us decay indigestible
food into faeces.
• Secondly, they synthesise vitamins B, E
and K for our use.