EAB5100 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
DATA COLLECTION
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

• We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do
research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can
obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form
or another or through personal interviews.
• This, in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys
and descriptive researches.
• Important ones are:
i. observation method
ii. interview method
iii. through questionnaires
iv. through schedules, and
v. other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b) distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer
panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h)
content analysis.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

Observation Method
• The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences.
• In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability.
• Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent.
• For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist
watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch.
 Methods of Data Collection

• The main advantage of this method is that:

✓ subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
✓ Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
✓ Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or
the questionnaire method.

• This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable
of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.
• However, observation method has various limitations:
➢ Firstly, it is an expensive method.
➢ Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
➢ Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
➢ At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this
method to collect data effectively.
 Methods of Data Collection

• While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be observed? How the
observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
• In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording
the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.
• But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is
termed as unstructured observation.
• Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the
observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
 Methods of Data Collection

• We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of studies, particularly
of social sciences.
• This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing.
• If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can
experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the participant observation.
• But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through
participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation.
(When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is
observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)
• There are several merits of the participant type of observation:
i. The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
ii. The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a
disinterested fashion.
iii. The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a
questionnaire or a schedule.
• But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the objectivity to the
extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it may narrow-down
the researcher’s range of experience.
 Methods of Data Collection

• Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled observation.

• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when
observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is
then termed controlled observation.
• In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments. The major aim of this type of
observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and
completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
• But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and
standardisation. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations can be
built with some degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective
interpretation.
• There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the observed phenomena than we
actually do.
• Generally, controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or
under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

Interview Method
• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-
verbal responses.
• This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
• The chief merits of the interview method are as follows:
i. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
ii. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method
can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
iii. There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
specially in case of unstructured interviews.
iv. Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
v. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
vi. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-
response generally remains very low.
vii. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in
mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
 Methods of Data Collection

viii. The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous reactions
than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
ix. The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
x. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics
and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
 Methods of Data Collection

• But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important weaknesses, mention
may be made of the following:
i. It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.
ii. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also
remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
iii. Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income groups
may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate.
iv. This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and recalls upon the
respondents are necessary.
v. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the
extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
vi. Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and supervising the field-
staff is more complex with formidable problems.
vii. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
viii. Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and frank
responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

Collection of data through questionnaires
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
• It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by
governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request
to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of
forms.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
• The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
 Methods of Data Collection

• The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively employed in
various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
i. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
ii. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
iii. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
iv. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
v. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.

• The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

i. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
ii. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
iii. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
iv. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have
been despatched.
v. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions;
interpretation of omissions is difficult.
vi. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
vii. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

Collection of data through schedules
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by
the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in
the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.
• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in
recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any
respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of
difficult terms.
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is,
however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by
some big organisations.
• Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of primary data

Collection of data through schedules
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by
the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in
the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.
• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in
recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any
respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of
difficult terms.
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is,
however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by
some big organisations.
• Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
 Methods of Data Collection

Collection of secondary data

• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been
collected and analysed by someone else.
• When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can
obtain them.
• In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of
original data.
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
• Usually published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b)
various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c)
technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of various
associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by
research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records and statistics,
historical documents, and other sources of published information.
 Methods of Data Collection

• The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organisations.
• Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.
• He must make a minute scrutiny because it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may
be inadequate in the context of the problem which the researcher wants to study.
• In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is never safe to take published statistics at their
face value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticise arguments that
can be based on them.
 Methods of Data Collection

• By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following
characteristics:
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data: (a) Who
collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t) What level of accuracy
was desired? Was it achieved ?
2. Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found suitable in
another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not be used by the
researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of various terms and
units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. Similarly, the
object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in
these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should not be used.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of the
present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher. The data
will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider
than the area of the present enquiry.
 Methods of Data Collection

Selection of appropriate method for data collection

• Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a
particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be
conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method
to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will
have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other
costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this
limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data
collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of
the method by which the data are to be collected.
 Methods of Data Collection

• Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a
particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be
conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available
(secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method
to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will
have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other
costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this
limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data
collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of
the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of
selecting the method of collection of data.
Terima Kasih