Flight Control Design

Lecture 1: Review and Introduction

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

1
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
 Basic definitions
• Fluid: is defined as flowing substance, that tends to deform continously when acted by a shearing force/stress.
• Pressure : Normal force per unit area. Static pressure is nothing more than the weight per unit area of the air
above the elevation being considered.

• Temperature : Temperature affects the properties of air such as density and viscosity, it physically means the
motion of molecular particles within a substance. It also helps determining the direction in which heat energy
will flow when two objects of different temperatures come into contact, such that heat energy will flow from
thehigher temperature to that at lower temperature.

• Density : The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume. Density is directly poportional to
the pressure and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

• Viscosity : is defined as the internal friction of fluid.

2
 Altitude
• A basic definition of altitude is the distance above the ground. In engineering
applications there exist six types of altitudes: absolute, geometric, geopotential,
pressure, temperature and density altitudes.
• Example: Given a helicopter and you dropped an object , then the distance between
the point you dropped that object from until it touched the ground is said to be a
geometric height above sea level (ℎ𝐺 )
• If the distance is extended until recahing the center of the earth, then this distance is
said to be absolute altitude ℎ𝑎 ,
ℎ𝑎 = ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟
• The absolute altitude is an important factor, because the local acceleration of gravity
varies with ha. Based on Newton’s law of gravitation,g is invertially proportional to
the distance from the center of the earth. The local gravitational acceleration g at a
given absolute altitude
𝑟 𝑟
𝑔 = 𝑔0 ( )2 = 𝑔0 ( )2
ℎ𝑎 ℎ𝐺 + 𝑟

Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,3 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.

Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
 The hydrostatic equation

• In order to compute the local point parameters as a function of altitude, the system
of study needs to be divided into various pieces. The foundation of this model is the
hydrostatic equation. A hydrostatic equation is nothing more than a force balance
on an element of fluid at rest.
• Consider the rectangular element below, where the top and bottom faces have sides
of unit length and the side faces, have an infenitesimally small height dhG. On the
bottom face, the pressure p is felt which gives rise to an upward force of p11
exerted on the fluid element. The top face is slightly higher in altitude (dhG) and
because pressure varies as a function oh h, the pressure on the top face will be
slightly different from that on the bottom face, differing by the infinitesimally small
value dp. On the top face the pressure p+dP is felt.
• The volume of the fluid element is 𝜌 1 1 𝑑ℎ𝐺 = 𝜌𝑑ℎ𝐺 . Given that the local
acceleration of gravity is g, then the weight of the fluid element is g𝜌𝑑ℎ𝐺 . The
pressure forces on the top, bottom and the weight must balance because the fluid
element is not moving. Hence;
𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺

Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,4 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.

Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
The hydrostatic equation

• The hydrostatic equation applies to any fluid of density 𝜌, such as air

in our course,
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔𝑑ℎ𝐺
• Equation (1) is therefore a differential relating the infinitesimally
small change in pressure dp to a small change 𝑑ℎ𝐺 . Therefore
pressure is said to depend on the altitude ℎ𝐺 . Noting that g is a
variable depending on ℎ𝐺 , thus to simplify the calculations g is
assumed to be constant and equal to the gravitational constant at sea
level . Therefore equation (1) is written as
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔0 𝑑ℎ
• Where h is the geopotential altitude that differs from the geometric
altitude, which is a fictitious altitude.

Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,5 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.

Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
Relation between geopotential and geometric altitudes

• The calculations we are doing will be by computing the pressure as function of h. Thus we need to find a relation
between h and ℎ𝐺 as the following;
𝑔 𝑑ℎ 𝑔
1= 0 ➔ dh = 𝑑ℎ𝐺
𝑔 𝑑ℎ𝐺 𝑔0
• Therefore the resulting equation is
𝑟2
dh = 𝑑ℎ
(𝑟 + ℎ𝐺 )2 𝐺

• Setting h and ℎ𝐺 to be equal to zero at sea level, and considering that at a given point of atmosphere and for a certain
geometric altitude ℎ𝐺 . Integrating the previous equation we result in the following;

ℎ ℎ𝐺 ℎ𝐺
𝑟2 2
1
න 𝑑ℎ = න 2 𝑑ℎ𝐺 = 𝑟 න (𝑟 + ℎ )2 𝑑ℎ𝐺
0 0 (𝑟 + ℎ 𝐺 ) 0 𝐺
2
1 1 𝑟
ℎ=𝑟 − + =( )ℎ
𝑟 + ℎ𝐺 𝑟 𝑟 + ℎ𝐺 𝐺
• It is shown that there is a little difference between h and ℎ𝐺 for low altitudes. For such case ℎ𝐺 <r, r/(r+ ℎ𝐺 )=1, hence h=
ℎ𝐺

6
 Definition of the standard atmosphere
 We can now obtain p, T and 𝜌 as function of h for the standard
atmosphere. The keystone of the standard atmosphere is a defined
variation of T with altitude, based on experiments, as shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1, consists of a series of straight lines, some vertical (called the
gradient regions)., therefore T=T(h) and p=p(h).
 We consider that;
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔0 𝑑ℎ
 Divide by the equation of the state, we get the following,
𝑑𝑝 −𝜌𝑔0 𝑑ℎ 𝑔0
= =− 𝑑ℎ
𝑝 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
 Considering the first isothermal (constant-temperature) layers of the
standard atmosphere (vertical lines). The temperature, pressure and density
at the base of the isothermal layer are 𝑇1 , 𝑃1 , and 𝜌1 .

Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,7 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.

Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
 Definition of the standard atmosphere
• The base is located at a given geopotential altitude h1. Now consider a given point in the isothermal layer above
the base, where the altitude is h. The pressure p at h can be obtained by integrating the following equation;

𝑝
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 ℎ
න =− න 𝑑ℎ
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑅𝑇 ℎ1

• Note that 𝑔0 , R and T are constants that can be taken outside the integral. We then obtain the following,
𝑝 𝑔0
ln =− (ℎ − ℎ1 )
𝑝1 𝑅𝑇
𝑝 𝑔0
−𝑅𝑇 (ℎ−ℎ1 )
=𝑒
𝑝1
• From the equation of state:
𝑝 𝜌𝑇 𝜌
= =
𝑝1 𝜌1 𝑇1 𝜌1
𝜌 𝑔0
−𝑅𝑇 (ℎ−ℎ1 )
=𝑒 Isothermal layer
𝜌1
• The previous equations give the variation of pressure and density versus the geopotential altitude for the
isothermal layers of the standard atmosphere.
Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,8 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.
Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
 Definition of the standard atmosphere
𝑇−𝑇1 𝑑𝑇
• The temperature variation is linear and geometrically given as = =𝑎
ℎ−ℎ1 𝑑ℎ
• Where a is the lapse rate for the gradient layers, which is a specified constant for each layer obtained from the defined temperature
variation in the temperature distribution in standard atmosphere, and is given as the following;
𝑑𝑇
𝑎=
𝑑ℎ
1
𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑇
𝑎
• Thus we obtain the following;
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 𝑑𝑇
=−
𝑝 𝑎𝑅 𝑇
• Integrating between the base of the gradient layer and some point at altitude h, we result in;
𝑝
𝑑𝑝 𝑔0 𝑇 𝑑𝑇
න =− න
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑎𝑇 𝑇1 𝑇
𝑝 𝑔0 𝑇
ln =− ln( )
𝑝1 𝑎𝑇 𝑇1
𝑝 𝑇 − 𝑔0
= ( ) 𝑎𝑅
𝑝1 𝑇1
• From the equation of state we know that,
𝑝 𝜌𝑇
=
𝑝1 and
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability
𝜌1 𝑇automatic
1 control (Vol. Gradient layer
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill. Anderson, J. D., & Bowden,9 M. L. (2005). Introduction to flight.
Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
 Definition of the standard atmosphere
𝜌𝑇 𝑇 − 𝑔0
= ( ) 𝑎𝑅
𝜌1 𝑇1 𝑇1
𝜌 𝑇 − 𝑔0 −1
= ( ) 𝑎𝑅
𝜌1 𝑇1
• The variation of T is therefore linear with altitude and is given by the following relation;
𝑇 = 𝑇1 + 𝑎(ℎ − ℎ1 )
• The base values for the first gradient region where standard sea level values of pressure, density, and temperature are
given as the following;
𝑝𝑠 = 1.01325𝑒5 𝑁/𝑚2
1.2250𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠 =
𝑚3
𝑇𝑠 = 288.16 𝐾
• To obtain temperature at any other given altitude we use the third equation, and then we can obtain the values for
pressure and density.
• Appendix A and B are mostly used to find the adequate values, such that the first column of the table gives the
geometric altitude, the second column gives the corresponding geopotential altitude, while the third through the fifth
give temperature, pressure and density. Note that the standard atmosphere is a reference atmosphere

10
Bernoulli equation

• Pressure force • Gravitational force

• Using the second law of Newton, and assuming that the flow is steady

• Bernoulli equation
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol. 2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill. 11
Aerodynamic coordinate systems and nomenclature

• Aerodynamic forces, thrust and gravitational

forces

• Body axes coordinate system: Earth and body(aircraft)

reference frames.
• Moments due to the aerodynamic load distribution and
• Earth reference frame is fixed to the earth and may be
the thrust force acting through the center of gravity.
consiered for the purpose of aircraft motion analysis to
be an inertial coordinate system , while the body
reference frame is fixed to the body.Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
12
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Aerodynamic coordinate systems-Sideslip and angle
of attack

• Sideslip and angle of attack:

• The total velocity magnitude is given as follows;

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Static stability Vs Dynamic stability

• Dynamic stability we are concerned with the time

• Static stability is the initial tendency of the vehicle to
history of the motion of the vehicle after it is
return to its equilibrium state after a disturbance.
disturbed from its equilibrium point.

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Conditions for stability-cont

• Longitudinal static stability requirement is given as

𝑑𝐶𝑚
<0
𝑑𝐶𝐿
• Lateral static stability requirement is given as the
following;
𝑑𝐶𝑙
<0
𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝐶𝑛
>0
𝑑𝛽
Such that
𝐶𝑙 , the rolling moment coefficient
𝐶𝑛 , the yawing moment coefficient
𝜙, the roll angle
𝛽, the sideslip angle
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
15 to flight.
Anderson, J. D., & Bowden, M. L. (2005). Introduction
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
Degree of stability
• Static stability is satisfied when:
1. Gradients of 𝐶𝑚 − α
2. Gradients of 𝐶𝑙 − 𝜙
3. Gradients of 𝐶𝑛 − 𝛽
• Degree of stability also called stability margin that
quantifies how much stability aircraft has over and
above zero or neutral stability.
• For a given disturbance in α, the restoring pitching
moment Cm is high for a very stable aircraft.
• The magnitude of a restoring moment decreases as the
degree of stability is smalland becomes zero at neutral
stability.
• The higher is the degree of stability the higher is the
restoring moment and thus more control actions are
required to trim the aircraft.
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol. 16 to flight.
Anderson, J. D., & Bowden, M. L. (2005). Introduction
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill. Shevell, R. S. (1989). Fundamentals of flight. Pearson Education India.
Contribution Aircraft Components-Wing contribution
• Static stability requirement deals primarly with the total aircraft pitching moment, however one of
the main contributing parts is wings.

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Contribution Aircraft Components-Wing contribution

• Assuming that the angle of attack is small,

• Assuming that the vertical contribution is negligible, thus

• Applying the condition for static stability yields

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Contribution if Aircraft Components-Aft tail contribution

• Horizontal tail surface is influenced by the flow field created by the wing, such that the aft tail is subjected to the
downwash flow, which mainly depends on the location of the tail surface with respect to the wing.
• The lift and the pitching moment of the tail is given as

• The ratio of the dynamic pressures is called the tail efficiency and can have values in the range 0.8-1.2. The
magnitude of 17 depends upon the location of the tail surface.
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
 Contribution if Aircraft Components-Aft tail
contribution
• The lift

• The downwash behind a wing with an elliptic lift distribution can be derived from finite-wing theory and can
be shown to be related to the wing lift coefficient and aspect ratio

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Flight Control System-Main Loop

Input: Output:
Pitch, Roll, Yaw Control Flight Control Altimeter, Airspeed indicator,
surfaces rate of climb indicator, angle of
System attack indicator

Adjust
(Control Action)

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Aircraft primary motions

Primary Primary Axis Stability Control Pilot action

Motion surface primary
surface
Roll Longitudinal Wings Aileron Yoke twist left
or right
Pitch Lateral Horizontal Elevator Yoke twist
stabilizer forward or aft
Yaw Vertical Vertical Rudder Rudder pedals
stabilizer
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Longitudinal Control
• Control of an airplane can be achieved by providing an incremental lift force on one or more of the
airplane's lifting surfaces. The incremental lift force can be produced by deflecting the entire lifting
surface or by deflecting a flap incorporated in the lifting surface.
• Pitch control can be achieved by changing the lift on either a forward or aft control surface. If a flap is
used, the flapped portion of the tail surface is called an elevator.
• Control of the pitch attitude of an airplane can be achieved by deflecting all or a portion of either a forward
or an aft tail surface.
• Factors affecting the design of a control surface are control effectiveness, hinge moments, and
aerodynamic and mass balancing.
• Control effectiveness is a measure of how effective the control deflection is in producing the desired
control moment.
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
 Elevator Effectiveness
• When the elevator is deflected, the slope does not change, but shifts the curves by changing the lift and pitching
moment of the airplane, as expressed below; Elevator
effectiveness

Elevator
contol power

• The larger the value of 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 , the more effective the control is in creating the control moment. Adding the
pitching moment difference to the pitching moment equation yields

• The change in lift of the airplane due to deflecting the elevator is equal to the change in lift
force acting on the tail. The derivatives of lift and pitching moment coefficient with
respect to the elevator angle can be related to the aerodynamic and geometric
characteristics of the horizontal tail. Elevator • Tail efficiency
effectiveness
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
 Elevator Effectiveness
• Elevator effectiveness is proportional to the size of the flap being used as an elevator and can be estimated as
follows;

• The increment in an airplane pitching moment is given as;

• The horizontal tail volume ratio

• The designer can thus control the magnitude of the elevator control effectiveness by proper selection of the
volume ratio and flap size. Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
25
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
 Elevator angle to trim
• An airplane is said to be trimmed if the forces and moments acting on the airplane are in equilibrium.
The elevator angle required to trim the airplane is given as follows;

• Since that, the lift coefficient to trim is given as

• The angle of attack at trim conditions is given as follows;

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Stick fixed neutral point

• When Cm=0 (i.e. the center of gravity is at the neutral point), thus we plot the various slopes as function of
center of gravity to estimate the stick fixed neutral point, by extrapolating to find the center of gravity position
that makes

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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Elevator hinge moment
• Hinge moment is defined as the moment the pilot must overcome by exerting a force on the control stick.
Therefore, to design the control system properly we must know the hinge moment characteristics.

• If we assume that the hinge moment can be expressed as the addition of the effects of angle of attack, elevator
deflection angle, and tab angle taken separately,

• The hinge moment parameters defined above are very difficult to predict analytically with great precision. Wind tunnel
tests are usually required to provide the control system designer with the information needed to design the control
system properly. Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
28
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Elevator hinge moment
• When the elevator is set free, i.e. the control stick is released the stability and control characteristics of the airplane are
affected. For simplicity, we shall assume that both 𝛿𝑡 and 𝐶ℎ0 are equal to zero. Then, for the case when the elevator is
allowed to be free,

• The last equation tells us that the elevator will float upwards as the angle of attack is increased. The lift coefficient
for a tail with a free elevator is given by ,

Therefore;

• The slope of the tail lift curve is modified

Nelson,by
R. C.the term
(1998). instability
Flight the parentheses. The(Vol.
and automatic control factor f can be greater than or less29
2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
than unity depending on the sign of the hinge parameters.
Elevator hinge moment- Reminder of the pitching
moment equation
• The pitching moment coefficient about the center of gravity is given as

• The stick fixed neutral point

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Elevator hinge moment
• The total pitching moment for the free elevator case, we get the following;

• Such that the prime indicates elevator free values. The stick free neutral point:

• The difference between the stick fixed neutral point and the stick free neutral point can be expressed as;

• The factor f determines whether the stick free neutral point lies forward or aft of the stick fixed
neutral point.

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Stick forces
• In order to deflect a control surface, the pilot must move the control stick
or rudder pedals. The forces exerted by the pilot to move the control
surface is called the stick force or pedal force, depending upon which
control is being used. The stick force is proportional to the hinge
moment acting on the control surface:

• The work of displacing the control stick is equal to the work done in
moving the control surface to the desired deflection angle. The work
performed at the stick and the elevator is given as,

• Such as G is the gearing ratio, which is a measure of the mechanical

advantage provided by the control system.
• The stick force is therefore found to be equal to
• The magnitude of the stick force increases with the size of the airplane
and with the square of the airplane's speed.
• The control system is designed to convert the stick and pedal movements
Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.
into control surface deflections 2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
32
Directional Static Stability-about the z-axis

• Directional static stability is the ability of the aircarft to yaw

(maintain directional equilibrium) (weathercock) into wind.
• Remember that all aircrafts are required to fly with zero sideslip in
the yaw sense, therefore the positive directional stability is designed
in from the outset.
• Consider an aircraft subjected to a + sideslip disturbance, and that
the combination of a sideslip velocity v and axial velocity
component U, gives a (+) sideslip angle (β) and a (-) yaw angle
since that the aircraft has swung to the left of the resultant V.
• The disturbance of the fin is at a non-zero angle of attack equivalent
to the sideslip angle (β). The fin generates lift, creating a positive
yawing moment N, that is stabilizing.
• The aircraft condition for directional stability
𝑑𝐶𝑛 𝑑𝐶𝑛
< 0 or >0
𝑑Ψ 𝑑β

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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Contribution of aircraft components

• The contribution of the wing to directional stability is usually

quite small in comparison to the fuselage, provided the angle of
attack is not large.
• The fuselage and engine nacelles create a destabilizing contribution
to directional stability.

• The empirical factors can be found using the graphs to the

right.

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Contribution of aircraft components

• Considering the vertical tail surface, we see that when the airplane is flying
at a positive sideslip angle, the vertical tail produces a side force (lift
force in xy plane) which tends to rotate the airplane about its center of
gravity (a restoring moment).

• Such that the subscript v refers to the vertical tail properties,

• And σ is the sidewash angle, which is analogous to the downwash angle

for the horizontal tail plane.
• Sidewash angle is caused by the flow field distortion due to the wings
and fuselage.
• The moment and moment coefficients are given as the following,

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Contribution of aircraft components

• The contribution of the vertical tail to directional stability is given as

follows;

• Where

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Directional Control
• Directional control is achieved by a control surface called a rudder (hinged flap which
forms the aft portion of the vertical tail) which is located on the vertical tail.
• By rotating the flap, the lift force (side force) on the fixed vertical surface can be varied
to create a yawing moment about the center of gravity. The size of the rudder is
determined by the directional control requirements.
• The yawing moment produced by the rudder depends upon the change in the lift on the
vertical tail due to the deflection of the rudder times its distance from the cg;

• where
• The yawing moment coefficient yields to

• The rudder control effectiveness is the rate of change of yawing moment with rudder
deflection angle:

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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Roll Stability
• Static roll stability, is when the restoring rolling moment can be shown to be a function
of the sideslip angle, as shown in the figure to the right .
• The roll moment created on an airplane when it starts to sideslip depends upon wing
dihedral, wing sweep, position of the wing on the fuselage, and the vertical tail.
• The major contributor to 𝐶𝑙𝛽 is the wing dihedral angle.
• The local change in the angle of attack can be estimated as;

• The sideslip angle is given as;

• Assuming a small dihedral angle, the change in the angle of attack can be written as;

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.
Roll Control

• Roll control is achieved by the differential deflection of small flaps called

ailerons which are located outboard on the wings, or by the use of spoilers.

• The basic principle behind these devices is to modify the spanwise lift
distribution so that a moment is created about the x axis.

• The incremental change in roll moment due to a change in aileron angle can
be expressed as the following;

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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 END

Nelson, R. C. (1998). Flight stability and automatic control (Vol.

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2). New York: WCB/McGraw Hill.