Techniques of Integration

1 Integration by Parts
In calculus, every differentiation rule has a corresponding integration rule. For instance,
the Chain Rule for differentiation corresponds to the Substitution Rule for integration.
Similarly, the Product Rule for differentiation leads to a powerful technique for evaluating
integrals called integration by parts.

1.1 Derivation of the Formula

The Product Rule states that for two differentiable functions f and g,
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x).
dx
When expressed in terms of indefinite integrals, this equation can be rearranged as:
Z Z
f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f ′ (x) dx.
′

This form is the foundation of the integration by parts formula, which is useful when
dealing with integrals of products of functions. By setting u = f (x) and dv = g ′ (x) dx,
we can rewrite the formula as:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

Formula for Integration by Parts

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

This formula helps break down complex integrals into simpler parts, especially when
we choose u and dv wisely.

1.2 LIATE Rule

When evaluating an integral that is a product of two functions, it is important first to
determine if integration by parts is the correct approach. In many cases, substitution is
a more effective technique.
Once integration by parts is chosen as the method, two questions must be addressed:
1. Which function to assign as u and which as dv.
2. When to stop the process if repeated applications of integration by parts are re-
quired.

1
1.3 Choosing u and dv
The decision of which function to select as u and which as dv in the formula
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

can greatly impact the difficulty of the integral. An appropriate choice simplifies the
integration, whereas a poor choice may complicate or even make it infeasible.

A general guideline is to select u as the function that becomes simpler when

differentiated, and dv as the function that is easy to integrate. A more specific
guideline for choosing u is the LIATE rule, which prioritizes functions in the following
order:

Abbreviation Function Type Examples

L Logarithmic ln(x), log10 (x)
I Inverse Trigonometric arcsin(x), arctan(x)
A Algebraic x2 , 5x2 + x + 1
T Trigonometric sin(x), cos(x)
E Exponential ex , 2x

Table 1: LIATE rule for choosing u in integration by parts

R Integral u dv
R 2xx ln(x) dx ln(x) x dx
R e 2 cos(x) dx cos(x) e2x dx
R x sin(x) dx x2 sin(x) dx
arcsin(x) dx arcsin(x) dx

Table 2: Examples of choices for u and dv using the LIATE rule

1.4 Stopping the Process

In some integrals, integration by parts may need to be repeated multiple times before
reaching a solution. Knowing when to stop is crucial. Below are three conditions under
which the process should be stopped:
R
1. Direct Integrability: When the integral v du can be integrated directly without
further application of integration by parts.

2. Recurring Integral: If repeated application of integration by parts produces an

integral that is a multiple of the original, the solution can be found by rearranging
algebraically.
R For an example, see Section 2.2.3, which illustrates the integration of
x
sin(x)e dx.

3. Increasing Complexity: When each iteration produces a more complex derivative

or integral. In this case, the chosen method or assignment of u and dv may need
reconsideration.

2
1.5 Step-by-Step Guide for Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is a technique that transforms the integral of a product of functions
into simpler parts. Follow these steps carefully to solve any problem using integration by
parts:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.

Steps to Follow
R
1. Identify the Parts: In any integral of the form f (x) · g(x) dx, we need to split
f (x) · g(x) into two parts:

u = f (x) and dv = g(x) dx.

Choose u and dv so that differentiating u (to find du) simplifies the expression, while
integrating dv (to find v) is straightforward.

2. Apply the LIATE Rule to Choose u: Use the LIATE rule as a guideline for
selecting u in the order of:

• Logarithmic functions (e.g., ln x)

• Inverse trigonometric functions (e.g., arctan x)
• Algebraic functions (e.g., x2 )
• Trigonometric functions (e.g., sin x)
• Exponential functions (e.g., ex )

This helps in choosing u for easier differentiation.

3. Differentiate u and Integrate dv: After choosing u and dv, calculate du (by dif-
ferentiating u) and v (by integrating dv):
Z
′
du = u dx and v = dv.

4. Substitute into the Integration by Parts Formula: Substitute u, v, and du into

the formula: Z Z
u dv = uv − v du.
R
This will give you a new integral, v du, which is ideally simpler than the original.

5. EvaluateR the New Integral: Complete the solution by evaluating the remaining
integral, v du. If this integral is still complex, consider applying integration by parts
again.

3
 R
Example Walkthrough: xex dx
R
Let’s apply these steps to solve xex dx.

1. Identify u and dv:

• Let u = x (an algebraic function) and dv = ex dx (an exponential function).

2. Differentiate u and Integrate dv:

u = x, du = dx

dv = ex dx, v = ex

3. Substitute into the Formula:

Z Z
xe dx = x · e − ex dx
x x

4. Evaluate the Remaining Integral:

Z Z
xe dx = xe − ex dx
x x

= xex − ex + C

5. Write the Final Answer:

Z
xex dx = ex (x − 1) + C

This method, with practice, helps simplify complex integrals by breaking them down
into manageable parts. Remember, choosing u and dv correctly is crucial to making the
process smooth and achieving the simplest final answer.

1.6 The DI Method, Use if Polynomial Function in Integral

The DI, or Tabular Method, organizes each step of integration by parts in a table.
This method simplifies repeated integration by parts by setting up a table and capturing
each step in rows. An example below demonstrates how the table is set up and how the
steps are captured in the table.
R
Find the antiderivative of x2 sin(x) dx using the DI Method.

Initializing the Table

The function chosen as u is placed in one column, and the function chosen as dv is
placed in an adjacent column. Another column is added for the sign of each term in the
integration by parts process.
Following the LIATE rule, we choose u = x2 and dv = sin(x). The initial table with
these values is set up as shown below.

4
 index u dv sign
0 x2 sin(x)

Table 3: Initial values for the DI method

1.7 Steps of the DI Method

After the initial table is set up, each step in the integration by parts process is performed
by adding a row to the table. Each row contains: - The derivative of the preceding entry
in the u column. - The integral of the preceding entry in the dv column. - An alternating
sign in the third column, beginning with a +.
The Table after Step 1:

index u dv sign
0 x2 sin(x)
1 2x − cos(x) +

Table 4: Table after Step 1

After adding this row, we can calculate intermediate values for u and dv: - u = x2 ,
du = 2x - v = − cos(x), dv = − sin(x)
Then, the product uv is −x2 cos(x), and vdu = 2x sin(x). The intermediate integral
is therefore: Z
2
−x cos(x) + 2 sin(x) dx

The Table after Step 2:

index u dv sign
0 x2 sin(x)
1 2x − cos(x) +
2 2 − sin(x) −

Table 5: Table after Step 2

R
Since sin(x) dx can be integrated directly, the process can be stopped here. However,
since polynomials reduce to zero with continued differentiation, we proceed to one more
step to complete the process.
The Table after Step 3:

index u dv sign
0 x2 sin(x)
1 2x − cos(x) +
2 2 − sin(x) −
3 0 cos(x) +

Table 6: Table after Step 3

The final integral calculation is then:

Z
−x cos(x) + 2x sin(x) − 2 sin(x) dx = −x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x) + 2 cos(x)
2

This yields the final result for the integral.

5
1.8 Reduction Formula
In this section, we derive a reduction formula for integrals of the form sinn (x) dx, where
R

R ≥ 2n is an integer. This reduction formula allows us to simplify the integral by expressing

n
sin (x) dx in terms of an integral with a lower power of sin(x), eventually making the
integral easier to evaluate.
Example: Prove the reduction formula
n−1
Z Z
n 1 n−1
sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + sinn−2 (x) dx.
n n

Solution. To prove this formula, we apply the method of integration by parts. Let

u = sinn−1 (x) and dv = sin(x) dx.

Then, we compute du and v as follows:

du = (n − 1) sinn−2 (x) cos(x) dx and v = − cos(x).

R R
Using integration by parts, u dv = uv − v du, we have:
Z Z
sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + (n − 1) sinn−2 (x) cos2 (x) dx.
n n−1

Now, to simplify further, we use the trigonometric identity cos2 (x) = 1 − sin2 (x), so
Z Z
sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + (n − 1) sinn−2 (x)(1 − sin2 (x)) dx.
n n−1

Expanding this expression, we get:

Z Z Z
sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + (n − 1) sin (x) dx − (n − 1) sinn (x) dx.
n n−1 n−2

sinn (x) dx, we bring the last term on the right to the left side:
R
To isolate
Z Z
n sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + (n − 1) sinn−2 (x) dx.
n n−1

Finally, we divide by n to obtain the reduction formula:

Reduction Formula
n−1
Z Z
n 1 n−1
sin (x) dx = − cos(x) sin (x) + sinn−2 (x) dx.
n n

This formula is useful because, by applying it iteratively, we can reduce the power of
sin(x) inR each step. Eventually,
R we reach a base case that is straightforward to integrate,
such as sin(x) dx or dx (when n is even).

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1.9 Using Substitution Before Integration by Parts
In some cases, an integral may appear complex, and directly applying the integration by
parts technique may not yield a simplifiable expression. In such situations, performing
a substitution prior to applying integration by parts can simplify the integral, making it
easier to solve. Here are the steps for using substitution before integration by parts:

Steps for Using Substitution Before Integration by Parts

Step 1: Identify the Need for Substitution.
Look for an integral where a substitution may simplify the integrand,
typically by reducing an expression with multiple variables or functions
into a simpler form. For instance, if the integrand contains a composite
function, such as f (g(x)) · g ′ (x), substitution is often beneficial.

Step 2: Choose an Appropriate Substitution.

Select a substitution u = g(x) such that the derivative du = g ′ (x) dx
simplifies the integral. Substitute u for g(x) and du for g ′ (x) dx in the
integrand.

Step 3: Rewrite the Integral in Terms of u.

After substitution, rewrite the integral entirely in terms of u and du. This
step should result in a simpler integrand, often making it easier to identify
parts for applying the integration by parts formula.

Step 4: Apply Integration by Parts.

Use the integration by parts formula:
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

on the transformed integral in terms of u and du. Follow the LIATE rule
if necessary to choose the parts.

Step 5: Back-Substitute x into the Solution.

Once the integration is complete, substitute back in terms of the original
variable x to obtain the final result.

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2 Trigonometric Substitution
In this section, we explore methods to integrate expressions that involve products of sine
and cosine functions by using trigonometric identities and substitutions. These strategies
simplify the integrals by reducing the power of the trigonometric terms, making it easier
to evaluate them.

sinm x cosn x dx
R
2.1 Strategy for Evaluating Integrals of the Form
Strategy for Evaluating Integrals of the Form sinm x cosn x dx
R

To integrate expressions of the form sinm x cosn x dx, we apply different techniques
R

based on the parity (odd or even) of the powers m and n. Each scenario requires
a unique approach to simplify the integral.

(a) If the power of cosine is odd (n = 2k + 1):

Save one cosine factor and express the remaining powers of cos x in terms of
sin x using the identity cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x. This reduces the integral to one
that can be evaluated by substitution.
Z Z
m 2k+1

k
sin x cos x dx = sinm x 1 − sin2 x cos x dx

Now, let u = sin x, which simplifies the integral in terms of u.

(b) If the power of sine is odd (m = 2k + 1):

Save one sine factor and express the remaining powers of sin x in terms of
cos x using the identity sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x. This method also reduces the
integral to one that can be evaluated by substitution.
Z Z
2k+1 n

k
sin x cos x dx = 1 − cos2 x cosn x sin x dx

Substitute u = cos x, simplifying the integral with this substitution.

(c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even:

In this case, use the half-angle identities to rewrite sin2 x and cos2 x in terms
of cos 2x, which converts the integral into one involving functions of 2x, sim-
plifying the power.

1 1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x), cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2 2
1
It may also be useful to use the identity sin x cos x = 2
sin 2x in cases where
the integral involves the product sin x cos x.

8
 R
2.2 Strategy for Evaluating tanm x secn x dx,
In this section, we explore integrals involving products of powers of tan x and sec x func-
tions. The approach depends on whether the power of sec x or tan x is even or odd. By
making strategic substitutions, we can simplify these integrals effectively.
R
Strategy for Evaluating tanm x secn x dx

(a) If the power of secant is even (n = 2k, k ≥ 2):

When n is even, we can save a factor of sec2 x and use the identity sec2 x =
1+tan2 x to rewrite the remaining factors in terms of tan x. This substitution
reduces the power of sec x and allows us to integrate using u = tan x.
Z Z

k−1 2
tan x sec x dx = tanm x sec2 x
m 2k
sec x dx
Z

k−1 2
= tanm x 1 + tan2 x sec x dx

Substitute u = tan x, so du = sec2 x dx, which simplifies the integral in terms

of u.

(b) If the power of tangent is odd (m = 2k + 1):

When m is odd, we save a factor of sec x tan x and use the identity tan2 x =
sec2 x − 1 to rewrite the remaining powers in terms of sec x. This method
simplifies the integral by allowing the substitution u = sec x.
Z Z
2k+1 n

k
tan x sec x dx = tan2 x secn−1 x sec x tan x dx
Z

k
= sec2 x − 1 secn−1 x sec x tan x dx

Now, let u = sec x, so du = sec x tan x dx, simplifying the integral in terms of
u.
Key Integrals Z
sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + C
Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C

This integral is useful in applications due to the relationship between sec x and tan x.
Knowing this result can simplify complex integrals, such as those involving cot and csc,
by using the identity 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x.
R
2.3 Strategy for Evaluating Integrals of the Form cotm x cscn x dx
In this section, we examine integrals involving products of powers of cot x and csc x.
The integration strategy depends on whether the power of csc x or cot x is even or odd.

9
By using appropriate trigonometric identities and substitutions, we can simplify these
integrals effectively.
R
Strategy for Evaluating cotm x cscn x dx

(a) If the power of cosecant is even (n = 2k, k ≥ 1):

When n is even, save a factor of csc2 x and use the identity 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x
to rewrite the remaining powers of csc x in terms of cot x. This substitution
simplifies the integral by allowing u = cot x.
Z Z

k−1 2
cot x csc x dx = cotm x csc2 x
m 2k
csc x dx
Z

k−1 2
= cotm x 1 + cot2 x csc x dx

Let u = cot x, so du = − csc2 x dx, which reduces the integral to a form

involving u.

(b) If the power of cotangent is odd (m = 2k + 1):

When m is odd, save a factor of csc x cot x and use the identity cot2 x =
csc2 x − 1 to express the remaining powers in terms of csc x. This allows for
the substitution u = csc x.
Z Z
2k+1 n

k
cot x csc x dx = cot2 x cscn−1 x csc x cot x dx
Z

k
= csc2 x − 1 cscn−1 x csc x cot x dx

Now, let u = csc x, so du = − csc x cot x dx, which simplifies the integral in
terms of u.

Key Integrals Z
csc x dx = ln |csc x − cot x| + C
Z
cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C

2.4 Product-to-Sum Formulas

Integrals involving products of sine and cosine functions can be simplified using product-
to-sum identities. These identities transform products into sums, which are easier to
integrate.

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 Product-to-Sum Formulas

1
sin u cos v = [sin(u + v) + sin(u − v)] ,
2
1
cos u sin v = [sin(u + v) − sin(u − v)] ,
2
1
cos u cos v = [cos(u + v) + cos(u − v)] ,
2
1
sin u sin v = [cos(u − v) − cos(u + v)] .
2
R
These identities are especially useful for integrals like sin(mx) cos(nx) dx. Applying
the identity:
1
sin(mx) cos(nx) = [sin((m + n)x) + sin((m − n)x)]
2
allows us to separate the integral into simpler terms involving sine functions.

3 Trigonometric Substitution
√
When calculating integrals involving square roots of expressions like a2 − x2 , direct
integration can be challenging. However, using trigonometric substitution can simplify
the integrals by transforming the variable x to a trigonometric function of a new variable
θ. This approach leverages trigonometric identities to eliminate the square root, making
the integral easier to solve.

3.1 Guidelines for Choosing Trigonometric Substitutions

To effectively use trigonometric substitution, follow these guidelines based on the form
of the integrand:

Case 1: When x2 + a2 is embedded in the integrand, use x = a tan(θ).

Hint: x2 + 1 appears in the derivative of tan−1 x.
dx = a sec2 (θ) dθ.
To convert back to x, use your substitution to get xa = tan θ, and draw a right triangle
√
with opposite side x, adjacent side a, and hypotenuse x2 + a2 .

√
x 2 + a2
x

θ
a

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 Case 2: When a2 − x2 is embedded in the integrand, use x = a sin(θ).
Hint: 1 − x2 appears in the derivative of sin−1 x.

dx = a cos(θ) dθ.

To convert back to x, use your substitution to get xa = sin(θ), and draw a right triangle
√
with opposite side x, hypotenuse a, and adjacent side a2 − x2 .

a
x

θ
√
a2 − x 2

Case 3: When x2 − a2 is embedded in the integrand, use x = a sec(θ).

Hint: x2 − 1 appears in the derivative of sec−1 x.

dx = a sec(θ) tan(θ) dθ.

To convert back to x, use your substitution to get xa = sec(θ), and draw a right triangle
√
with adjacent side a, hypotenuse x, and opposite side x2 − a2 .

x √
x 2 − a2

θ
a

3.2 Common Trigonometric Substitutions

In general, we can use substitutions of the form x = g(θ) to simplify integrals involv-
ing radicals. The most common substitutions are listed in Table, along with the cor-
responding trigonometric identities that make the integration more manageable. Each
substitution is chosen based on the form of the radical expression:

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 Expression Substitution Identity
√
a2 − x 2 x = a sin θ, − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π
2
1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
√
a2 + x2 x = a tan θ, − π2 < θ < π
2
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
√ π 3π
x 2 − a2 x = a sec θ, 0≤θ< 2
or π ≤ θ < 2
sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ

3.3 Explanation of the Method

The goal of trigonometric substitution is to replace x with a trigonometric function, us-
ing identities
√ to remove square roots. For instance, when using x = a sin θ, the square
2 2
root a − x becomes a cos θ, simplifying the integral. This substitution is valid over
intervals where the chosen trigonometric function is one-to-one, ensuring that the inverse
function exists.

To make this method work, we restrict θ to specific intervals, as shown in Table ??.
These intervals guarantee the substitution is well-defined and that inverse trigonometric
functions can be used without ambiguity.

4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Frac-

tion Decomposition
4.1 Introduction to Partial Fractions
Note: If 2 polynomials are equal, then their coefficients are equal.

To write a sum or difference of fractional expressions as a single fraction, we bring them

to a common denominator. For example,
1 1 (2x + 1)(x − 1) + (x − 1) 3x
+ = = 2 .
x − 1 2x + 1 (x − 1)(2x + 1) 2x − x − 1

But for some applications of algebra to calculus, we must reverse this process that is,
3x 1
we must express a fraction such as 2x2 −x−1 as the sum of the simpler fractions (x−1) and
1
(2x+1)
. These simpler fractions are called partial fractions; we learn how to find them
in this section.

Rational Function
Let r be the rational function
P (x)
r(x) =
Q(x)
where the degree of P is less than the degree of Q.

By the Linear and Quadratic Factors Theorem, every polynomial with real coefficients
can be factored completely into linear and irreducible quadratic factors, that is, factors

13
of the form ax + b and ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are real numbers. For instance,

x4 − 1 = (x2 − 1)(x2 + 1) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 1).

After we have completely factored the denominator Q of r, we can express r(x) as a

sum of partial fractions of the form
A Ax + B
and .
(ax + b)j (ax2 + bx + c)j
This sum is called the partial fraction decomposition of r. Let’s examine the
details of the four possible cases.

4.2 Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors

We first consider the case in which the denominator factors into distinct linear factors.

Case 1: The Denominator is a Product of Distinct Linear Factors

Suppose that we can factor Q(x) as

Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 ) · · · (an x + bn )

P (x)
with no factor repeated. In this case, the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x)
takes the form
P (x) A1 A2 An
= + + ··· + .
Q(x) a1 x + b 1 a2 x + b 2 an x + b n

The constants A1 , A2 , . . . , An are determined as shown in the following example.

4.2.1 Example 1: Distinct Linear Factors

5x+7
Problem: Find the partial fraction decomposition of x3 +2x2 −x−2
.
Solution: The denominator factors as follows.

x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 = x2 (x + 2) − (x + 2) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)

This gives us the partial fraction decomposition

5x + 7 A B C
= + + .
x3 2
+ 2x − x − 2 x−1 x+1 x+2
Multiplying each side by the common denominator, (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2), we get:

5x + 7 = A(x + 1)(x + 2) + B(x − 1)(x + 2) + C(x − 1)(x + 1).

Expanding and combining like terms, we have:

(A + B + C)x2 + (3A + B)x + (2A − 2B − C) = 5x + 7.

If two polynomials are equal, then their coefficients are equal. Thus, since 5x + 7 has
no x2 -term, we have A + B + C = 0. Similarly, by comparing the coefficients of x, we see

14
that 3A + B = 5, and by comparing constant terms, we get 2A − 2B − C = 7. This leads
to the following system of equations for A, B, and C:

A + B + C = 0 Equation 1: Coefficients of x2
3A + B = 5 Equation 2: Coefficients of x
2A − 2B − C = 7 Equation 3: Constant coefficients
We use Gaussian elimination to solve this system:
A+B+C =0
−2B − 3C = 5 (Equation 2 + ( − 3) × Equation 1)
−4B − 3C = 7 (Equation 3 + ( − 2) × Equation 1).
Simplifying further:
A+B+C =0
−2B − 3C = 5
3C = −3 (Equation 3 + ( − 2) × Equation 2).
From the third equation, we get C = −1. Back-substituting, we find that B = −1
and A = 2. So the partial fraction decomposition is
5x + 7 2 −1 −1
= + + .
x3 + 2x2 − x − 2 x−1 x+1 x+2

4.3 Case 2: Repeated Linear Factors

We now consider the case in which the denominator factors into linear factors, some of
which are repeated.

Case 2: The Denominator is a Product of Linear Factors, Some of Which

Are Repeated

Suppose the complete factorization of Q(x) contains the linear factor ax+b repeated
k times; that is, (ax + b)k is a factor of Q(x). Then, corresponding to each such
P (x)
factor, the partial fraction decomposition for Q(x) contains

A1 A2 Ak
+ 2
+ ··· + .
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)k

4.3.1 Example 2: Repeated Linear Factors

2
x +1
Problem: Find the partial fraction decomposition of x(x−1) 3.

Solution: Because the factor x − 1 is repeated three times in the denominator, the
partial fraction decomposition has the form
x2 + 1 A B C D
3
= + + 2
+ .
x(x − 1) x x − 1 (x − 1) (x − 1)3
Multiplying each side by the common denominator x(x − 1)3 , gives

x2 + 1 = A(x − 1)3 + Bx(x − 1)2 + Cx(x − 1) + Dx.

15
Expanding, we get:

x2 + 1 = A(x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1) + B(x3 − 2x2 + x) + C(x2 − x) + Dx.

Combining like terms, we have:

(A + B)x3 + (−3A − 2B + C)x2 + (3A + B − C + D)x + (−A) = x2 + 1.

By equating coefficients, we obtain the following system of equations:

A+B =0 (Coefficients of x3 )
−3A − 2B + C = 1 (Coefficients of x2 )
3A + B − C + D = 0 (Coefficients of x)
−A = 1 (Constant coefficients)

Solving this system, we find A = −1, B = 1, C = 1, and D = 2.

Thus, the partial fraction decomposition is

x2 + 1 −1 1 1 2
= + + + .
x(x − 1)3 x x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3

4.4 Case 3: Irreducible Quadratic Factors

We now consider the case in which the denominator has distinct irreducible quadratic
factors.

Case 3: The Denominator Has Irreducible Quadratic Factors, None of

Which is Repeated

Suppose the complete factorization of Q(x) contains the quadratic factor ax2 +bx+c
(which can’t be factored further). Then, corresponding to this, the partial fraction
P (x)
decomposition of Q(x) will have a term of the form:

Ax + B
.
ax2 + bx + c

4.4.1 Example 3: Distinct Quadratic Factors

2
Problem: Find the partial fraction decomposition of 2xx3−x+4
+4x
.
3 2
Solution: Since x + 4x = x(x + 4), which can’t be factored further, we write

2x2 − x + 4 A Bx + C
= + 2 .
x3 + 4x x x +4
Multiplying by x(x2 + 4), we get:

2x2 − x + 4 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)x.

Expanding, we obtain:

2x2 − x + 4 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx2 + Cx),

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 = (A + B)x2 + Cx + 4A.
Equating coefficients gives us the system of equations:
A + B = 2 (Coefficients of x2 )
C = −1 (Coefficients of x)
4A = 4 (Constant terms)

Solving this, we find A = 1, B = 1, and C = −1.

Thus, the required partial fraction decomposition is
2x2 − x + 4 1 x−1
3
= + 2 .
x + 4x x x +4

4.5 Case 4: Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factors

We now consider the case in which the denominator has irreducible quadratic factors,
some of which are repeated.

Case 4: The Denominator Has a Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factor

Suppose the complete factorization of Q(x) contains the factor (ax2 +bx+c)k , where
ax2 + bx + c can’t be factored further. Then the partial fraction decomposition of
P (x)
Q(x)
will have the terms

A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ak x + Bk
2
+ 2 2
+ ··· + .
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)k

4.5.1 Example 4: Repeated Quadratic Factors

Problem: Write the form of the partial fraction decomposition of
x5 − 3x2 + 12x − 1
.
x2 (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 2)3
Solution:
x5 − 3x2 + 12x − 1 A B C Dx + E Fx + G Hx + I
= + + + + + .
x2 (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 2)3 x x2 x2 + x + 1 x2 + 2 (x2 + 2)2 (x2 + 2)3
To find the values of A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and K in Example 4, we would have to
solve a system of 11 linear equations. Although possible, this would certainly involve a
great deal of work!
The techniques that we have described in this section apply only to rational functions
P (x)
Q(x)
in which the degree of P is less than the degree of Q. If this isn’t the case, we must
first use long division to divide P into Q.

4.5.2 Example 5: Using Long Division to Prepare for Partial Fractions

Problem: Find the partial fraction decomposition of
2x4 + 4x3 − 2x2 + x + 7
.
x3 + 2x2 − x − 2

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 Solution: Since the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree of the denom-
inator, we use long division to obtain
2x4 + 4x3 − 2x2 + x + 7 5x + 7
3 2
= 2x + 5 + 3 .
x + 2x − x − 2 x + 2x2 − x − 2
The remainder term now satisfies the requirement that the degree of the numerator is
less than the degree of the denominator. At this point, we proceed as in Example 1 to
obtain the decomposition
2x4 + 4x3 − 2x2 + x + 7 1 1
3 2
= 2x + 5 + − .
x + 2x − x − 2 x−1 x+2
Note: Example 5 is a special case when the power of the numerator is greater than the
denominator, which requires the use of long division before performing partial fraction
decomposition.

4.6 Rationalizing Substitution

In some cases, integrands that appear non-rational can be transformed into rational
functions using appropriate substitutions. This technique, known as rationalizing sub-
stitution,
p is particularly useful when an integrand containsp an expression of the form
n
g(x). By introducing a substitution of the form u = n g(x), we can simplify the
integrand into a form that is easier to integrate.
√
x+4
R
Example 9: Evaluate x
dx.
√
Solution: To simplify this integral, let us set u = x + 4. Then we have
u2 = x + 4,
so that x = u2 − 4 and dx = 2u du.
Substituting into the integral, we get:
Z √
u2
Z Z Z  
x+4 u 4
dx = · 2u du = 2 du = 2 1+ 2 du.
x u2 − 4 u2 − 4 u −4
To proceed, we can evaluate this integral by breaking it into parts. We use partial
fraction decomposition on the term u24−4 , writing it as:
4 2 2
= − .
u2 −4 u−2 u+2
Thus, the integral becomes:
Z √ Z Z
x+4 du
dx = 2 du + 8 .
x u2 − 4
Calculating each term separately:
1 u−2
= 2u + 8 · ln + C.
2 u+2
√
Substituting u = x + 4 back, we obtain the final answer:
√
√ x+4−2
= 2 x + 4 + 2 ln √ + C.
x+4+2

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Explanation: This substitution approach allowed us to transform the original inte-
grand into a form where partial fraction decomposition could be applied, simplifying the
integration process. Rationalizing substitutions are effective for integrands containing
square roots or other roots, and the choice of substitution should aim to eliminate the
root, making the integral manageable with standard techniques.

5 Strategy for Integration

When working with integrals, choosing the right technique can be challenging, as there
are various methods available, such as substitution, integration by parts, and partial
fraction decomposition. Selecting an appropriate strategy often depends on the structure
of the integrand and requires familiarity with fundamental integration formulas. Below,
we outline some strategies that can help identify suitable methods for different types of
integrals.

5.1 Steps to Approach Integration Problems

1. Simplify the Integrand if Possible
Simplifying the integrand can sometimes make the integration method obvious.
This may involve algebraic manipulations, trigonometric identities, or rearranging
terms to match known integration formulas. For instance:
√ √ √
Z Z
x(1 + x) dx = x + x dx

2. Look for an Obvious Substitution

Identify if a substitution, say u = g(x), makes the integral easier by transforming
it into a simpler form. For instance, in the integral
Z
x
2
dx,
x −1

a substitution u = x2 − 1 helps simplify the integral after differentiation.

3. Classify the Integrand According to Its Form

If no direct substitution is apparent, try classifying the integrand:

• Trigonometric Forms: If the integrand has terms like sin x or cos x, consider
using identities or trigonometric substitution methods.
• Rational Functions: When dealing with rational functions, partial fraction
decomposition can simplify integration. Sections on partial fractions provide
guidelines for applying this technique.
• Exponential or Logarithmic Terms: For combinations of polynomials and
exponentials (e.g., xex ), consider integration by parts as outlined in integration
techniques.

4. Relate the Problem to Previous Problems

Often, a new problem resembles one you’ve solved before. Recognizing patterns

19
 allows you to apply previous solutions to similar integrals, especially when similar
forms or identities are involved. For example:
Z Z
tan x dx = sec2 x − 1 dx
2

Using identities can transform a challenging integral into a more familiar form.

5. Use Multiple Methods if Necessary

Some integrals may require combining techniques, such as substitution followed by
integration by parts or using several substitutions in sequence. Being flexible and
adapting techniques can often lead to successful integration where straightforward
approaches do not work.

By applying these strategies and being familiar with basic integration techniques,
you can develop a more systematic approach to solving integrals. Practice and pattern
recognition are key to mastering integration techniques.

6 Improper Integrals
In previous sections, we defined a definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a

for a function f over a finite interval [a, b], assuming that f does not have any infinite
discontinuities on this interval. However, there are cases where we want to extend the
concept of integration to situations where:
1. The interval of integration is infinite, or 2. The function f has an infinite discon-
tinuity within [a, b].
Integrals that fall under either of these cases are called improper integrals. Im-
proper integrals allow us to handle cases that go beyond the typical application of definite
integrals and have important applications, such as in probability theory and physics.

6.1 Type 1: Infinite Intervals

When integrating over an infinite interval, we consider an integral like
Z ∞
f (x) dx,
a

where f (x) is integrated over a range that extends infinitely to the right. To make sense
of this, we use the limit of a definite integral as the upper bound approaches infinity.
Specifically, we define: Z ∞ Z t
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx,
a t→∞ a
provided that this limit exists as a finite number. Rt
This limit-based approach allows us to evaluate the integral by calculating a f (x) dx
for a finite upper limit t, and then taking the limit as t approaches infinity.

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Example: Consider the function f (x) = x12 on the interval [1, ∞). The area under the
curve y = x12 from x = 1 to infinity can be found by:
Z ∞ Z t
1 1
dx = lim dx.
1 x2 t→∞ 1 x2
Rt 1
Evaluating 1 x2
dx, we get:
Z t  t
1 1 1
2
dx = − =1− .
1 x x 1 t

Taking the limit as t → ∞,  

1
lim 1− = 1.
t→∞ t
Therefore, we say that Z ∞
1
dx = 1.
1 x2
1
This means that the area under f (x) = x2
over [1, ∞) converges to a finite value of 1.

6.2 Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 1

To formalize the definition of improper integrals over infinite intervals, we consider the
following cases:

Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 1

Rt
(a) If a f (x) dx exists for every number t ≥ a, then we define
Z ∞ Z t
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx,
a t→∞ a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

Rb
(b) If t f (x) dx exists for every number t ≤ b, then we define
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx,
−∞ t→−∞ t

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

R∞ Ra
(c) If both a f (x) dx and −∞ f (x) dx are convergent, then we define
Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
−∞ −∞ a

In part (c), any real number a can be used to split the integral.

An improper integral is said to be convergent if the corresponding limit exists as a

finite number, and divergent if the limit does not exist.

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6.3 Interpretation of Improper Integrals as Areas
When f (x) is a positive function, an improper integral canR ∞ often be interpreted as an
area. For instance, in case (a), if f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, ∞) and a f (x) dx is convergent, then
we can interpret the area under the curve of f (x) from x = a to infinity as
Z ∞
A(S) = f (x) dx.
a

This approach allows us to consider the area over an infinite interval as the limit of the
area from a to t as t → ∞.

6.4 Type 2: Discontinuous Integrands

Improper integrals can also occur when the integrand f (x) has a discontinuity within the
interval of integration. In this case, f (x) might approach infinity at some point in the
interval, creating an infinite discontinuity. For example, consider the situation where
f (x) is defined on a finite interval [a, b] but has a vertical asymptote at x = b.
To handle this, we again turn to limits. If we want to compute the area under f (x)
from a to b, we instead evaluate the integral from a to a point t that approaches b from
the left, defining: Z b Z t
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx,
a t→b a
provided that this limit exists as a finite number.
This approach generalizes to various situations where the function is unbounded at a
point within the interval, allowing us to extend integration to cases of infinite disconti-
nuities.

Example: Suppose f (x) = √1x on [0, 1], where f (x) becomes unbounded as x → 0. To
R1
evaluate 0 √1x dx, we set up the integral with a limit as follows:
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
√ dx = lim √ dx.
0 x t→0+ t x

6.5 Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 2

The formal definition of an improper integral of Type 2 is based on whether the function
has a discontinuity at the endpoint or within the interval:

22
 Definition of an Improper Integral of Type 2

(a) If f is continuous on [a, b) and has a discontinuity at b, then we define

Z b Z t
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx,
a t→b a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

(b) If f is continuous on (a, b] and has a discontinuity at a, then we define

Z b Z b
f (x) dx = lim+ f (x) dx,
a t→a t

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

(c) If f has a discontinuity at an interior point c where a < c < b, and both
Z t Z b
lim− f (x) dx and lim+ f (x) dx
t→c a t→c t

are convergent, then we define

Z b Z t Z b
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx + lim+ f (x) dx.
a t→c a t→c t

Convergence and Divergence An improper integral of Type 2 is called convergent

if the corresponding limit exists as a finite number. Otherwise, it is called divergent. In
practice, determining the convergence or divergence of an improper integral often requires
applying limit-based techniques to evaluate if the area under f (x) remains finite near the
point of discontinuity.

Remark on Generality The concept of improper integrals of Type 2 applies even when
f (x) is not a positive function. The limit-based definition ensures that we can evaluate
integrals where f (x) has various types of discontinuities, whether at the endpoints or
within the interval.

6.6 A Comparison Test for Improper Integrals

In many cases, finding the exact value of an improper integral is challenging, but it is
still useful to determine if the integral is convergent or divergent. The Comparison
Theorem provides a method for this by comparing the given function with another
function whose behavior is easier to evaluate. Although we present this theorem for
Type 1 integrals, a similar result also applies to Type 2 integrals.

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 Comparison Theorem

Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with f (x) ≥ g(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ a.
R∞ R∞
(a) If a f (x) dx is convergent, then a g(x) dx is also convergent.
R∞ R∞
(b) If a g(x) dx is divergent, then a f (x) dx is also divergent.

The Comparison Theorem essentially states that if we have two functions, f and
g, where f (x) is at least as large as g(x) for all x ≥ a, we can make conclusions about
the convergence or divergence of g(x) based on the behavior of f (x) (and vice versa).

Explanation and Intuition: We omit the formal proof of the Comparison Theorem
here, but its plausibility
R∞ can be illustrated intuitively. If the area under the curve y = f (x)
is finite (i.e., if a f (x) dx converges), then the area under the curve y = g(x), which lies
entirely below yR = f (x), must also be finite. Conversely, if the area under y = g(x) is
∞
infinite (i.e., if a g(x) dx diverges), then the area under y = f (x), which is at least as
large, must also be infinite.

Important Note: It is crucial to understand that the reverse is not necessarily

true. For example:
R∞ R∞
• If a g(x) dx is convergent, we cannot conclude that a f (x) dx is convergent.
R∞ R∞
• Similarly, if a f (x) dx is divergent, we cannot conclude that a g(x) dx is diver-
gent.

The Comparison Test is a powerful tool for evaluating the convergence of improper
integrals, especially when direct computation is challenging. By comparing a given in-
tegral with a known, simpler integral, we can often determine the behavior of complex
functions more efficiently.

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