UNITED INTERNATIONAL

UNIVERSITY (UIU)
CSE 14: Electronics Laboratory

Laboratory Manual
Program: B.Sc. CSE
Trimester: Summer

This document is owned and managed by:

Dept. of CSE
United International University
CSE 124: Electronics Laboratory Page 1
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Table of Contents

Cover Page. .................................................................................... 1

Table of Contents ........................................................................... 2

Exp. No. 1: Circuits, Meters and Measurements .......................... 3

Exp. No. 2: Study of Diode I-V Characteristics ............................. 9

Exp. No: 3: Study of Diode Rectifier Circuits .............................. 12

Exp. No. 4: Study of Diode Clipping and Clamping Circuits...... 17

Exp. No. 5: Introduction to Arduino for Hardware Projects ....... 22

Exp. No. 6: Study of Logic Design & Implementation Using Diode

& CMOS ....................................................................................... 33

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UNITED INTERNATIONAL
UNIVERSITY

COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No. 1: Circuits, Meters and Measurements

Aim:
To understand:
• Basic electrical components and equipment
• Simple measurements
• Basic voltage and current laws
• Linear and non-linear components

Equipment
• Trainer Board
• Multimeters
• Ammeters
• Wires
• Resistors: 100 ohms, 120, 1K
• LED (Light Emitting Diode) – any colour

Two Terminal Devices

Figure 1. Symbols and pictures

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Multimeter

Multimeter wired for OHMS Multimeter wired

for DC Volts

Multimeter wired for mA Multimeter wired for DC 20 Amps

range
Figure 2. Various multimeter connections

Prototyping board

Figure 3. Detail of white proto board

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Figure 4 - View of insides of proto boards

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Part A – Linear Components (Ohm’s Law)

Activities:
To find the relationship between current and voltage in a resistor

Procedure:
Vary the power supply so as to measure the voltage, V1, for the
values of current given in the table.
Plot V1 versus I1.
You should get a straight line through the origin as this is a Linear
component.
The slope of the line should be the resistance.

Voltage
0V 2V 4V 6V 8V 10 V 12 V 14 V 16 V
V1
Current

Vs

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Part B – Non-linear component.

Activities:
To find the relationship between current and voltage in a diode
(LED)

Procedure:
Vary the power supply so as to measure the voltage, V1, for the
values of current given in the table.
Plot V1 versus I1.
This is a Non-Linear component.
The slope of the line should be the resistance.

Current 1mA 2mA 5mA 10mA 15mA 20mA 25mA

Voltage
V1
Vs

The shorter LED lead is the cathode, which is connected to the negative
supply.

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Report:

▪ Objectives
▪ Apparatus
▪ Part A: Linear Components
o Circuit Diagram
o Data Table
o I~V curve of resistor (use graph paper)
▪ Part B: Non-linear Components
o Circuit Diagram
o Data Table
o I~V curve of diode (use graph paper)
▪ Q/A:
o Why does the resistivity of semiconductor
decrease with increasing temperature?
o Explain color code of resistors.
o Why is ammeter connected in series whereas
voltmeter connected in parallel?

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COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No. 2: Study of Diode I-V Characteristics with
Multisim
By the end of this experiment, the students will be able to

1. Explain the DC and AC characteristics of a diode

2. Measure the cut in voltage of different models of diodes

Part-1:

A. Draw the circuit shown in figure 2-1 using ELECTRONIC

WORKBENCH (Schematics).
B. Use two separate diode models (D1N4002 and D1N750), 100ohm
resistor and compare the characteristic curves found from these two.

(Hint: Read the Electronic Workbench handout. Use DC SWEEP

ANALYSIS to simulate the variable DC source. Choose appropriate voltage
ranges yourself. While plotting, choose voltage across the diode as the X
axis variable and current through the diode as Y axis variable.)

FIG. 2.1. OBSERVING THE DC CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE

1. From the plots, determine rD (DC resistance) at three different diode

voltages for both cases.
2. What about the cut in voltage of the diodes?
3. How does the resistance vary with the increase of voltage?
4. Does it follow Ohm’s law?

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Part- 2:

1. Draw the circuit shown in figure 2.2 using ELECTRONIC

WORKBENCH (Schematics).
2. In this case, use diode (model D1N4002), and 1K resistor.
3. Apply VSIN from library and set the voltage source as a sinusoidal
voltage with 5V amplitude and 100Hz frequency.
4. Observe VIN, VD and VR simultaneously on the same plot. The output
is across the resistor.

Fig. 2.2 AC Circuit

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Report:
▪ Objectives
▪ Apparatus
▪ Part 1: I~V curve of Diode
o Circuit Diagram
o I~V curve of diode
▪ Part 1: Rectifier Circuit
o Circuit Diagram
o V R ~t & V IN ~t curve
o V D ~t & V IN ~t curve
▪ Q/A:
o Explain different biasing of a diode
o What is zener diode. Write a short note on it.
o What is LED? Explain its working mechanism.
o Mention some differences between a normal
diode and a light emitting diode.

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COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No: 3: Study of Diode Rectifier Circuits

By the end of this experiment, students will be able to

1. Explain the operation of different types of diode rectifiers
2. Convert A.C. signal into appropriate D.C. signal
3. Compare the efficiency of different scheme
4. Construct circuits with rectifier and voltage divider

To conduct the experiment, students will need

o p-n junction diode(1N4007) 4 pieces
o Resistor (1K) 1 piece
o Zener diode (4.7 V) 1 piece
o Capacitor (1µF, 10µF) 1 piece each
o Digital Oscilloscope 1 unit
o Chords and wire lot

PREVIEW
In electrical systems AC to DC conversion is one of the most essential
factors. In any electronic device, generally all the electronic components and
IC operate on DC power supply. Even in large industrial systems, where
high voltage is used, the AC to DC conversion is an important factor.

The component that is widely used as a rectifier is the diode. Diode is a two
terminal device that permits the flow of current in only one direction. (The
detail of the study of diode is discussed in the previous experiment). The
process of converting an AC voltage to DC voltage is called rectification.

AC VOLTAGE DC VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER
There are two types of rectifiers,

i) Half Wave Rectifier

ii) Full Wave Rectifier

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 1: (OBSERVING THE DIODE HALF WAVE

RECTIFIER CIRCUIT)

1. Construct circuit shown in Fig. 1.1 WITHOUT THE CAPACITOR.

2. Apply 6V amplitude to the AC signal and set the frequency to
1KHz.
3. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) simultaneously
on the oscilloscope in dual mode.
4. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

Fig. 1.1

5. Add a capacitor across the load. (Connect 1f capacitor across the
load resistor).
6. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) simultaneously
on the oscilloscope in dual mode.
7. Draw them in the Observation Sheet in their allotted space.
8. Replace the capacitor across the load. (Connect 10f capacitor
across the load resistor).
9. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) simultaneously
on the oscilloscope in dual mode.
10. Draw them in the Observation Sheet in their allotted space.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 2: (OBSERVING THE DIODE FULL WAVE
RECTIFIER CIRCUIT)

ATTENTION: DO NOT CONNECT THE CHANNEL PROBES

SIMULTANEOUSLY; THAT MEANS WHILE VIEWING ONE WAVE SHAPE
THROUGH THE OSCILLOSCOPE THE OTHER PROBE SHOULD NOT BE
CONNECTED WITH THE CIRCUIT.
1. Construct circuit shown in Fig. 2.1.
2. Apply 8V amplitude to the AC signal and set the frequency to 500Hz.
3. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) SEPARATELY on
the oscilloscope.
4. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
dual mode.

Fig. 2.1
5. Add a capacitor across the load. (Connect 1f capacitor across the
load resistor).
6. Observe the output (Vo) on the oscilloscope and draw them in the
Observation sheet
7. Replace the capacitor by 10uf across the load resistor
8. Observe the output (Vo) on the oscilloscope and draw them in the
Observation sheet

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Observation Sheet of Exp. 3:

STUDY OF DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

GROUP NO: NAME: STUDENT ID:

GRAPH1 (FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT)

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
Without Capacitor

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
With 1µF Capacitor

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
With 10µF Capacitor

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GRAPH2 (FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT)

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
Without Capacitor

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
With 1µF Capacitor

Vin and Vout

(Dual Mode)
With 10µF Capacitor

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Report:

▪ Objectives
▪ Apparatus
▪ Part A: Half wave rectifier
o Circuit Diagram
o Output Graph (Attach page 15 of lab sheet)
▪ Part B: Full wave rectifier
o Circuit Diagram
o Output Graph (Attach page 16 of lab sheet)
▪ Q/A:
o Write a short note on rectifier circuit and its use
in electronics?
o Why is Full wave rectifier better than half wave
rectifier? Explain in detail.
o Discuss various types of full wave rectifier
circuit.

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COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No. 4: Study of Diode Clipping and
Clamping Circuits

By the end of this experiment, the students will be able to

1. Distinguish between different types of clipper and clamper
circuits
2. Construct circuits to shape the output in specific levels
3. Propose a voltage doubler circuit

To perform the experiment, students will need

o p-n junction Diode(1N4007) 1 piece
o 4.7V Zener Dode 2 pieces
o Resistor (1K) 1 piece
o Capacitor (10µF) 1 piece
o Digital Oscilloscope 1 unit
o Chords and wire lot

PREVIEW
LIMITER/CLIPPER
Limiter or clippers are used to cut-off or eliminate a portion of an ac signal.
A limiter can be realized by using diode, resistor and a DC source.

LIMITER/
CLIPPER
INPUT SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL
FIG. 1

CLAMPER
The clamper circuit is one that will clamp a signal to a different dc level. A
clamping circuit can realized using a diode, resistor and a capacitor.

CLAMPER

INPUT SIGNAL FIG.2 OUTPUT SIGNAL

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PERFORMANCE 1 (OBSERVING THE DIODE CLIPPING CIRCUIT)

1. Construct circuit shown in Fig.3.
2. Apply 10V p-p voltage as the AC signal and set the frequency to
500Hz.
3. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) simultaneously on
the oscilloscope in DUAL MODE.
4. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.
5. Observe and sketch the waveforms in XY MODE in the Observation
Sheet in their allotted space.

Fig. 3
6. Construct circuit shown in Fig.3. Reverse the polarity of the
diode.
7. Apply 10V p-p voltage as the AC signal and set the frequency to
500Hz.
8. Observe the input voltage (Vi) and the output (Vo) simultaneously on
the oscilloscope in DUAL MODE.
9. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.
10. Observe and sketch the waveforms in XY MODE in the Observation
Sheet in their allotted space.

Fig. 4

11. Construct circuit shown in Fig. 4.

12. Apply 16V p-p voltage to the AC signal and set the frequency to
500Hz.
13. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

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14. Observe and sketch the waveforms in XY MODE in the Observation
Sheet in their allotted space.

PERFORMANCE 2 (OBSERVING THE DIODE CLAMPING CIRCUIT)

1. Construct circuit shown in Fig. 5.

2. Apply 10V p-p SQUARE WAVE to the input and set the frequency to
500Hz.
3. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

Fig. 5

4. Construct circuit shown in Fig. 5. Reverse the polarity of the

diode.
5. Apply 10V p-p SQUARE WAVE to the input and set the frequency to
500Hz.
6. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

7. Apply 10V p-p SINE WAVE to the input and set the frequency to
500Hz.
8. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

9. Reverse the polarity of the diode.

10. Apply 10V p-p SINE WAVE to the input and set the frequency to
500Hz.
11. Sketch input and output waveforms in the Observation Sheet in
their allotted space.

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Report:

▪ Objectives
▪ Apparatus
▪ Part 1: Clipping circuit
o Circuit Diagram
o V in ~t & V out ~t curve
▪ Part 2: Clipping circuit with Zener diode
o Circuit Diagram
o V in ~t & V out ~t curve
▪ Part 3: Clamping circuit
o Circuit Diagram
o V in ~t & V out ~t curve
▪ Q/A:
o Write a short note on clipping circuit and its use
in electronics?
o Write a short note on clamping circuit and its
use in electronics?
o How is energy stored in a capacitor? Explain in
detail.
o Prove that half-wave rectifier is a clipping
circuit.

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COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No. 5: Introduction to Arduino for
Hardware Projects
OBJECTIVE:

1. To understand the basic use of Arduino.

2. To do some simple projects with Arduino

EQUIPMENTS:

Arduino Uno 1pieces

Resistor 10K
Breadboard 1 pieces
DC Motor 2 pieces
Potentiometer 10k ohm
Wires Lots of

Preview

Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform in electronics based on

easy-to-use hardware and software. Subtly speaking, Arduino is a
microcontroller based prototyping board which can be used in developing
digital devices that can read inputs like finger on a button, touch on a
screen, light on a sensor etc. and turning it in to output like switching on an
LED, rotating a motor, playing songs through a speaker etc.

The Arduino board can be programmed to do anything by simply

programming the microcontroller on board using a set of instructions for
which, the Arduino board consists of a USB plug to communicate with your
computer and a bunch of connection sockets that can be wired to external
devices like motors, LEDs etc.

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The aim of Arduino is to introduce the world of electronics to people who
have small to no experience in electronics like hobbyists, designers, artists
etc.

Figure 5: Arduino Family

Arduino Products:
• ENTRY LEVEL :
o Uno
o Leonardo
o Micro
o Nano
• ENHANCED FEATURES:
o Mega
o Zero
o Due
o Motor Shield
• INTERNET OF THINGS
o Yun
o Ethernet
o GSM Shield

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Figure 6 : Arduino UNO

Arduion Uno : The UNO is the best board to get started with electronics
and coding. If this is your first experience tinkering with the platform, the
UNO is the most robust board you can start playing with. The UNO is the
most used and documented board of the whole Arduino family.

Specifications:

Microcontroller ATmega328P
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage
7-12V
(recommended)
Input Voltage (limit) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
PWM Digital I/O Pins 6
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 20 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
32 KB (ATmega328P) of which 0.5 KB used by
Flash Memory
bootloader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328P)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328P)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
LED_BUILTIN 13

Hardware :

UNO has 14 digital input – output (I/O) pins which can be used as either
input or output by connecting them with different external devices and
components. Out of these 14 pins, 6 pins are capable of producing PWM
signal. All the digital pins operate at 5V and can output a current of 20mA.

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Some of the digital I/O pins have special functions which are describe below.
• Pins 0 and 1 are used for serial communication. They are used to
receive and transmit serial data which can be used in several ways
like programming the Arduino board and communicating with the
user through serial monitor.
• Pins 2 and 3 are used for external interrupts. An external event can
be triggered using these pins by detecting low value, change in value
or falling or rising edge on a signal.
• As mentioned earlier, 6 of the 14 digital I/O Pins i.e. 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and
11 can provide 8-bit PWM output.
• Pins 10, 11, 12 and 13 (SS, MOSI, MISO AND SCK respectively) are
used for SPI communication.

Pin 13 has a built-in LED connected to it. When the pin is HIGH, the LED
is turned on and when the pin is LOW, it is turned off.

Figure 8 : Analog Pins

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Arduino Uno has 6 analog input pins which can provide 10 bits of resolution
i.e. 1024 different values. The analog pins on the Arduino UNO are labelled
A0 to A5.

Figure 9 : Power Pin and Ports

There is a power jack, using which an external regulated power supply in

the range of 7V – 12V can be supplied. Additionally, the power can also be
supplied from a battery through the VIN pin.

The UNO board has on-board voltage regulators for 5V and 3.3V, which can
be used as power supply for small external devices like LEDs.

Programming : The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the (Arduino

Software (IDE)). Select "Arduino/Genuino Uno from the Tools > Board
menu (according to the microcontroller on your board).

CSE 124: ElectronicsFigure

Laboratory
10 : Connecting
Page 26
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Writing Code :

Figure 11 : Basic functions

Setup : Set pin’s I/O operation, and other initializations. The setup
function runs once when you press reset or power the board

Example:
//set pin 5 as input :
pinMode(5, INPUT);
//set pin 6 as output :
pinMode(6, OUTPUT);
//use the serial port :
Serial.begin(9600);

loop :
works as infinite loop , working logic and other code and written here . The
loop function runs over and over again forever

Example :
loop(){
// print hello world
Serial.println("Hello World");

// assigning value to a pin

digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
}

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Experiment : A (Blink)

Problem : Turns on an LED on for one second, then off for one second,
repeatedly.

Circuit Diagram:

Task : Connect a LED’s positive leg to pin 13 with a resistor and connect the
other leg to ground pin. Provide HIGH voltage to pin 13 and wait for some
milliseconds and then provide LOW voltage to pin 13 thus the led will blink

Code Snippets
void setup() {
// initialize digital pin 13 as an output.
pinMode(13, OUTPUT);
}

void loop() {
// turn the LED on (HIGH is the voltage level)
digitalWrite(13, HIGH);
// wait for a second
delay(1000);
// turn the LED off by making the voltage LOW
digitalWrite(13, LOW);
// wait for a second
delay(1000);
}

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Experiment : B (Button)
Problem : Turns on and off a light emitting diode(LED) connected to digital
pin 13, when pressing a pushbutton attached to pin 2.

Circuit Diagram:

Task:
Attached LED from pin 13 to ground. Attached pushbutton attached to pin
2 from +5V. Attached 10K resistor attached to pin 2 from ground.

Code Snippets :

// constants won't change. They're used here to

// set pin numbers:
const int buttonPin = 2; // the number of the pushbutton pin
const int ledPin = 13; // the number of the LED pin

// variable for reading the pushbutton status

int buttonState = 0;
void setup() {
// initialize the LED pin as an output:
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
// initialize the pushbutton pin as an input:
pinMode(buttonPin, INPUT);
}

void loop() {
// read the state of the pushbutton value:

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buttonState = digitalRead(buttonPin);

// check if the pushbutton is pressed.

// if it is, the buttonState is HIGH:
if (buttonState == HIGH) {
// turn LED on:
digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH);
} else {
// turn LED off:
digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW);
}
}

Experiment : C (PWM)
Problem: This example shows how to fade an LED on pin 9 using the
analogWrite() function.
[ Note: The analogWrite() function uses PWM, so if you want to change the
pin you're using, be sure to use another PWM capable pin. On most
Arduino, the PWM pins are identified with a "~" sign, like ~3, ~5, ~6, ~9,
~10 and ~11]

Circuit Diagram:

Task : Connect the anode (the longer, positive leg) of your LED to digital
output pin 9 on your board through a 220 ohm resistor. Connect
the cathode (the shorter, negative leg) directly to ground.

PWM: Pulse Width Modulation, or PWM, is a technique for getting analog

results with digital means. Digital control is used to create a square wave, a
signal switched between on and off. This on-off pattern can simulate
voltages in between full on (5 Volts) and off (0 Volts) by changing the
portion of the time the signal spends on versus the time that the signal
spends off. The duration of "on time" is called the pulse width. To get
varying analog values, you change, or modulate, that pulse width. If you
repeat this on-off pattern fast enough with an LED for example, the result
is as if the signal is a steady voltage between 0 and 5v controlling the
brightness of the LED.

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Code Snippets:

int led = 9; // the PWM pin the LED is attached to

int brightness = 0; // how bright the LED is
int fadeAmount = 5; // how many points to fade the LED by

// the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup() {
// declare pin 9 to be an output:
pinMode(led, OUTPUT);
}

// the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop() {
// set the brightness of pin 9:
analogWrite(led, brightness);
// change the brightness for next time through the loop:
brightness = brightness + fadeAmount;
// reverse the direction of the fading at the ends of the fade:
if (brightness == 0 || brightness == 255) {
fadeAmount = -fadeAmount ;
}
// wait for 30 milliseconds to see the dimming effect
delay(30);
}

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Experiment : D (Using Analog Pin)

Problem: Reads an analog input on pin 0, converts it to voltage, and prints
the result to the serial monitor and use the voltage to fade a led (as
experiment 3).

Circuit Diagram:

Code: Write Your own code

Writing Report
Problem: Control a motor speed with a potentiometer draw circuit and
write code.

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COURSE NO. CSE 124 (ELECTRONICS LABORATORY)

Exp. No. 6: STUDY OF LOGIC DESIGN &

IMPLEMENTATION USING DIODE & CMOS

OBJECTIVE :

1. To design AND, OR gate using diode.

2. To design NOT, NAND, NOR gate using CMOS.

EQUIPMENTS:

• p-n junction diode(1N4007) 2 pieces

• Resistor (1K) 1 piece
• NMOS 3 piece
• PMOS 3 piece
• Multimeter 1 unit
• Chords and wire lot

OR GATE USING DIODE:

Procedure:
Connect the circuit very carefully according to Fig. 1, where VA and VB
are two input voltages.

Output:
Check the output for various combinations of input voltages (00, 01,
10, 11), where 0 represents Ground and 1 represents +5v.
Fill up the Truth Table in the observation sheet.

Fig 1: Implementation of OR gate using diode.

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AND GATE USING DIODE:

Procedure:
Connect the circuit very carefully according to Fig. 2, where VA and VB
are two input voltages.

Output:
Check the output for various combinations of input voltages (00, 01,
10, 11), where 0 represents Ground and 1 represents +5v.
Fill up the Truth Table in the observation sheet.

Fig 2: Implementation of AND gate using diode.

GATES USING MOSFET:

➢ In CMOS circuits the pull-up device is replaced by a pull-up network

(PUN) build using PMOS transistors.
➢ For any valuation of inputs, either PDN pulls Vf down to Gnd or
PUN pulls Vf
➢ up to VDD.

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➢ PDN and PUN have equal number of transistors, which are arranged
so that the networks are dual

NOT Gate Using CMOS:

NAND Gate using CMOS:

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NOR Gate Using CMOS:

AND Gate Using CMOS:

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Group:
EXP 7
ID:

(Report including simulation and hardware copy to be submitted)

DATA COLLECTION & OBSERVATION SHEET

TABLE 1: OR GATE USING DIODE:

INPUT 1 INPUT 2 OUTPUT OUTPUT

{VOLTAGE {VOLTAGE MEASURED LOGIC
(LOGIC)} (LOGIC)} VOLTAGE

TABLE 2: AND GATE USING DIODE:

INPUT 1 INPUT 2 OUTPUT OUTPUT

{VOLTAGE {VOLTAGE MEASURED LOGIC
(LOGIC)} (LOGIC)} VOLTAGE

TABLE 3: NOT GATE USING CMOS:

INPUT OUTPUT OUTPUT

{VOLTAGE MEASURED LOGIC
(LOGIC)} VOLTAGE

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TABLE 4: NAND GATE USING CMOS:

INPUT 1 INPUT 2 OUTPUT OUTPUT

{VOLTAGE {VOLTAGE MEASURED LOGIC
(LOGIC)} (LOGIC)} VOLTAGE

TABLE 5: NOR GATE USING CMOS:

INPUT 1 INPUT 2 OUTPUT OUTPUT
{VOLTAGE {VOLTAGE MEASURED LOGIC
(LOGIC)} (LOGIC)} VOLTAGE

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