Wave Energy Course

Wave theory and wave climate

Dr. Matt Folley

(Dr. Gregory Payne)
1
 Origin of ocean waves
• Most ocean waves (i.e. not tsunami nor the
tide) are generated by the wind blowing over
the ocean.
• Wind itself is largely caused by the Sun
heating the equatorial region of the globe
more than the poles. This temperature
gradient leads to an atmospheric pressure
gradient which in turns leads to wind blowing
from high pressure to low pressure regions.

2
 Origin of ocean waves
Starting with flat water surface, the blowing
wind near the surface generates turbulence.
This pattern of eddies will produce a pattern of
pressure difference which in turn will create
capillary waves or ripples on the water surface.

3
 Origin of ocean waves
Energy is passed from wind to wave through
pressure effect and shear effect.

4
 Origin of ocean waves
Energy is transmitted from the short waves to
the longer waves. Through the generation
process waves not only become higher but also
longer.

5
 Origin of ocean waves
Three main factors affect wind wave generation:
• Wind speed
• Fetch i.e. distance over which the wind is
blowing on the surface
• Wind blowing duration

6
 Wave characteristics
phase velocity or wave celerity
c (defines velocity of wave crest)
wave length
z  Still water level
a x

z=0 H

d
water surface elevation
 ( x, t )
z = −d

d: water depth
a: wave amplitude
H: wave height = 2a

7
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Underlying assumptions

• Incompressible and constant density fluid: 𝜌= constant

• Inviscid fluid i.e. zero viscosity: 𝜇=0
• Irrotational fluid
• No surface tension
• Wave height small with respect to wave length and water
depth

8
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Main equations
c

z 
𝐻
z=0
x 𝜂 𝑥, 𝑡 = cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
H 2
d
 ( x, t ) 𝜔 𝜆
𝑐= =
𝑘 T
z = −d
T: wave period, unit: s
2𝜋
k: wave number = , unit: rad/m
𝜆
2𝜋
𝜔: wave frequency = = 2𝜋𝑓, unit rad/s
𝑇

9
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Spatial periodicity

z 

z=0
x 𝐻
H 𝜂 𝑥, 𝑡 = cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
2
d
 ( x, t )

z = −d

10
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Time periodicity

𝐻
𝜂 𝑥, 𝑡 = cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
2

11
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Dispersion relation
The dispersion relation is the relationship between 𝜔 and 𝑘:

2
2𝜋𝑔 2𝜋𝑑
𝜔 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘𝑑 = tanh
𝜆 𝜆
or
𝑔 𝑔𝜆 2𝜋𝑑
𝑐= tanh(𝑘𝑑) = tanh
𝑘 2𝜋 𝜆

12
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Dispersion relation
Physical interpretation:

2
2𝜋𝑔 2𝜋𝑑
𝜔 = tanh
𝜆 𝜆
or
𝑔𝜆 2𝜋𝑑
𝑐= tanh
2𝜋 𝜆

13
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Deep and shallow water approximation
𝜆
Deep water: 𝑑 >
2

2𝜋𝑑 2
2𝜋𝑔 𝑔𝜆 𝑔𝑇
tanh ≃1⇒𝜔 ≃ and 𝑐 ≃ ≃
𝜆 𝜆 2𝜋 2𝜋

𝜆
Shallow water: 𝑑 <
20
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑 4𝜋 2 𝑔𝑑
tanh ≃ ⇒ 𝜔2 ≃ 2
and 𝑐 ≃ 𝑔𝑑
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

14
Linear (Airy) wave theory
Water particle motion

15
Linear (Airy) wave theory
Water particle motion

16
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Water particle motion: deep and shallow water
approximation

17
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Wave power density
Energy flux through green line per unit length of wave crest:
𝜂
ℱ = න 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑑𝑧
−𝑑
z
 x
z=0 H

d
𝑑𝑧
𝑝 u
z = −d

18
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Wave power density
Average energy flux through green line per unit length of wave
crest over wave period 𝑇:
1 𝑡+𝑇 𝜂
ℱ= න න 𝑝. 𝑢 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡 −𝑑
z
 x
z=0 H

d
𝑑𝑧
𝑝 u
z = −d

19
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Wave power density
Average energy flux through green line per unit length of wave
crest over wave period 𝑇:

1 2
1 2𝑘𝑑 1
ℱ= 𝜌𝑔𝐻 𝑐 1+ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 𝑐𝑔
8 2 sinh(2𝑘𝑑) 8

where 𝑐𝑔 is the group velocity

1 2 2
𝑘𝑑
ℱ= 𝜌𝑔 𝐻 𝑇 tanh 𝑘𝑑 +
32𝜋 cosh2 (𝑘𝑑)
unit: W/m

20
 Linear (Airy) wave theory
Wave power density
• 𝑐𝑔 is the speed of transmission of energy
1
• In deep water 𝑐𝑔 = 𝑐 and
2

1 2
1
ℱ= 𝜌𝑔𝐻 𝑐 = 𝜌𝑔2 𝐻 2 𝑇
16 32𝜋

• In shallow water, 𝑐𝑔 = 𝑐 and

1 1
ℱ = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 𝑐 = 𝜌𝐻 2 𝑔1.5 𝑑
2
8 8

21
 Shoaling
Overview
Wave transformation when water depth
becomes shallow

22
 Shoaling
Impact on wave characteristics
Underlining assumptions:
• Waves are two-dimensional
• The wave period remains constant
• The average rate of energy transfer in the
direction of wave propagation is constant
• Linear wave theory throughout

23
 Shoaling
Impact on wave characteristics
𝑐0 , 𝑐𝑔0 , 𝐻0 and 𝜆0 are the wave characteristics in deep water.

𝑐 𝜆 𝐻 𝑐𝑔0 2 cosh2 (𝑘𝑑)

= = tanh(𝑘𝑑) and = =
𝑐0 𝜆0 𝐻0 𝑐𝑔 2𝑘𝑑 + sinh(2𝑘𝑑)

where 𝑘𝑑 can be obtain from the dispersion relation:

𝑑 𝑑
𝑘𝑑 tanh 𝑘𝑑 = 4𝜋 2 2
= 2𝜋
𝑔𝑇 𝜆0

24
 Shoaling
Impact on wave characteristics

where 𝐿 = λ

25
Wave refraction

26
Wave refraction

27
Wave refraction

28
 Representation and modelling of
the wave climate
• Introduction
• Wave climate characteristics
• Definition of the wave energy resource
• Shoreline and offshore waves
• Wave measuring instruments
• Wave modelling

29
Conventional wave climate representation

30
Key point

Conventional representation
Is generally inadequate for
wave energy

31
Representation and modelling
of the wave climate

32
 Wave climate characteristics

Wave energy
Directional Seasonal Spectral Temporal Extreme
distribution distribution distribution distribution distribution

33
Spectral distribution

Source: Faltinsen, "Sea Loads on Ships and Offshore Structures", 1991

34
Directional distribution

35
Directional spectrum - bimodal

36
Seasonal distribution - Galle

37
Temporal distribution – long term

38
Extreme distribution

39
Parameterisation of the wave resource

Zero-crossing Energy Significant

Mean period
period period wave height

Directional Spectral Peak

Run-length
spreading bandwidth direction

Maximum
Peak period Power ....
wave height

40
IEC standards for wave energy resource

41
Representation and modelling
of the wave climate

42
 Wave energy resource - definitions
• Omni-directional (gross) wave energy resource
– Includes all wave energy
• Directionally-resolved (net) wave energy resource
– Includes all wave energy crossing a line orthogonal to the
mean direction of wave propagation
• Exploitable wave energy resource
– Includes all wave energy crossing a line orthogonal to the
mean direction of wave propagation limited to 4 x mean
wave energy density

43
 Wave resource for wave farms

Orientation of wave Power capture of wave

farms orthogonal to the
mean direction of wave energy converters is
propagation limited by plant rating

Exploitable
wave
energy
resource

44
 Resource at EMEC
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30

25

20

15

10

0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

45
 Resource at EMEC
10 kW/m less than other North Atlantic sites
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30

25

20

15

10

0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

46
 Resource at EMEC
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30
15% of wave energy travelling away from shore
25

20

15

10

0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

47
 Resource at EMEC
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30

25

20

15 Smaller reduction in net power

than gross power
10

0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

48
 Resource at EMEC
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30

25

20

15

10

Resource at 30m deep site greater

5
than for 50m deep site
0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

49
 Resource at EMEC
45
Offshore (all directions)
40 Offshore
Average incident wave power density (kW/m)

50m deep wave site

35 30m deep wave site
10m deep wave site
30
Small difference in exploitable wave energy
25 resource for all sites

20

15

10

0
Gross power Net power Exploitable power

50
 Change in wave directionality at EMEC

Offshore Deep water wave berth Shallow water wave berth

N N N

W E W E W E

S S S

51
Reduction in net wave energy at EMEC
500
Net wave power density at 10 metre depth contour (kW/m)
450

400

350 P10 = 0.9 P 50 - 6x10-7 P350

300

250

200

150 Typically net wave power at 10m

depth contour only 10% less than
100 net wave power at 50m depth
50
contour

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Net wave power density at 50 metre depth contour (kW/m)

52
Key point

Gross wave energy resource

can give a distorted
impression of the
Exploitable wave energy
resource

53
Representation and modelling
of the wave climate

54
Nearshore waves

55
Offshore waves

56
Key point

Waves offshore are not the

same as waves viewed from
the beach

57
Representation and modelling
of the wave climate

58
 Wave measurement (local)

Waverider Acoustic Doppler Pressure

Buoy Profiler Sensor
• Conventional solution • Recent technology • Shallow water
• Long-term deployment • Short-term deployment deployment
• Remote deployment • Nearshore deployment • Low-cost

59
 Wave measurement (distal)

Radar Satellite
• Shore-based • Low resolution
• High-cost • Low-cost (for data)
• May require • Measures wave
calibration height only

60
Representation and modelling
of the wave climate

61
 Available wave models
• Linear diffraction models
• Mild-slope models
• Bousinnesq models
• Spectral wave models

62
 Third generation spectral wave models
Model characteristics Tools available
• Conserves action density • Commercial
– Similar to wave energy – Mike 21 SW
• Propagation of wave energy • Open-source
– Refraction – SWAN
– Shoaling – Tomawac
• Source terms – Wavewatch III
– Wind input
– Bottom friction
– Wave breaking
– White-capping
– Quadruplet interactions
– Triad interactions

63
Third generation spectral wave models

64
 Gross, Net,
Exploitable
resource Wave
measuring Any
Temporal & instruments simplification
seasonal
variability Wave of the wave
climate resource
involves a
Spectral loss of
wave information
Frequency models
directional
spectrum

65