DESIGN OF

MACHINE ELEMENTS

Prof. DR. / ABDEL SALAM HEMAID

MECHANICAL ENG. DEPT.
DESIGN & PRODUCTION
SHOUBRA FACULTY OF ENG.
BANHA UNIV.
 LECTURE (05)

DESIGN AGAINST
FLUCTUATING LOAD
 STRESS CONCENTRATION

• Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high

stresses due to the irregularities present in the component and
abrupt changes of the cross section.
DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING LOAD

where 𝜎0 and 𝜏0 are stresses determined by elementary equations

and 𝜎max. and 𝜏max. are localized stresses at the discontinuities.
Kt is a factor called stress concentration factor.
The subscript t denotes the ‘theoretical’ stress concentration
factor.
 CAUSES OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
(i) Variation in Properties of Materials
• (a) Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes;
• (b) Cavities in welds;
• (c) Air holes in steel components; and
• (d) Nonmetallic or foreign inclusions.
(ii) Load Applications
a) Contact between the meshing teeth of the driving and the driven gears.
(b) Contact between the cam and the follower.
(c) Contact between the balls and the races of ball bearing.
(d) Contact between the rail and the wheel.
(e) Contact between the crane hook and the chain.
(iii) Abrupt Changes in Section.
(iv) Discontinuities in the Component.
(v) Machining Scratches.
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Fig. 5.2 Stress Concentration Factor

(Rectangular Plate with
Transverse Hole in Tension or
Compression)
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Fig. 5.3 Stress Concentration

Factor
(Flat Plate with Shoulder Fillet in
Tension or Compression)
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Fig. 5.4 Stress Concentration

Factor .
(Round Shaft with Shoulder
Fillet in Tension))
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Fig. 5.5 Stress Concentration

Factor
(Round Shaft with Shoulder
Fillet in Bending)
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

Fig. 5.6 Stress Concentration

Factor
(Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet
in Torsion)
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

(i) Tensile Force

(ii) Bending Moment

(iii) Torsional Moment

 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

where,
a = half width (or semi-major axis) of the ellipse perpendicular to
the direction of the load
b = half width (or semi-minor axis) of the ellipse in the direction of
the load
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS
• As b approaches zero, the ellipse becomes sharper and sharper.
• A very sharp crack is indicated and the stress at the edge of the
crack becomes very large.
• It is observed from Eq. (5.7) that, Kt = ∞ when b = 0
• Therefore, as the width of the elliptical hole in the direction of the
load approaches zero, the stress concentration factor becomes
infinity.
• The ellipse becomes a circle when (a = b).
• From Eq. (5.7),

Therefore, the theoretical stress concentration factor due to a small

circular hole in a flat plate, which is subjected to tensile force, is 3.
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

• (i) Ductile Materials Under Static Load

• Under a static load, ductile materials are not affected by stress
concentration, to the extent that photo-elastic analysis might
indicate.
• When the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity reaches the
yield point, there is plastic deformation, resulting in a redistribution
of stresses.
• This plastic deformation or yielding is local and restricted to a very
small area in the component.
• There is no perceptible damage to the part as a whole.
• Therefore, it is common practice to ignore the theoretical
stress concentration factor for components that are made
of ductile materials and subjected to static load.
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

• (ii) Ductile Materials Under Fluctuating Load

• However, when the load is fluctuating, the stress at the
discontinuities may exceed the endurance limit and in that case,
the component may fail by fatigue.
• Therefore, endurance limit of the components made of ductile
material is greatly reduced due to stress concentration.
• This accounts for the use of stress concentration factors for
ductile components.
• However, some materials are more sensitive than others to stress
raising notches under a fluctuating load.
• To account for this effect, a parameter called notch
sensitivity factor is found for each material.
• The notch sensitivity factor is used to modify the
theoretical stress concentration factor.
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

• (iii) Brittle Materials

• The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of brittle
materials, due to their inability of plastic deformation.
• Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment
of stresses at the discontinuities.
• Once the local stress at the discontinuity reaches the fracture
strength, a crack is formed.
• This reduces the material available to resist external load and also
increases the stress concentration at the crack.
• The part then quickly fails.
• Therefore, stress concentration factors are used for
components made of brittle materials subjected to both
static load as well as fluctuating load.
5.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
5.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
5.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
5.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
5.3 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
 EXAMPLE 5.1

• A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown

in Fig. The plate material is grey cast iron FG 200 and the
factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the thickness of the
plate.
 SOLUTION

• Given P = 5 kN Sut = 200 N/mm2 (fs) = 2.5

• Step I Calculation of permissible tensile stress

Step II Tensile stress at fillet section

The stresses are critical at two sections—the fillet section and hole section.
At the fillet section,

From Fig. 5.3, Kt = 1.8

Step IV Thickness of plate
Equating max. stress with permissible stress, we get

or t = 9 mm
 EXAMPLE 5.2

• A non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in Fig.

The shaft is made of brittle material, with an ultimate tensile
strength of 300 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 3. Determine the
dimensions of the shaft.
 SOLUTION
• Given P = 2.5 kN Sut = 300 N/mm2 (fs) = 3
• Step I Calculation of permissible stress

Step II Bending stress at fillet section

Due to symmetry, the reaction at each bearing is 1250 N. The stresses are
critical at two sections—(i) at the center of span, and (ii) at the fillet.
At the fillet section,

From Fig. 5.5, Kt = 1.61

SOLUTION
 5.4 FLUCTUATING STRESSES

𝜎max. and 𝜎min. are max. and min. stresses,

while 𝜎m and 𝜎a are called mean stress and
stress amplitude
5.5 FATIGUE FAILURE

Fatigue failure is defined

as time delayed fracture
under cyclic loading.
5.6 ENDURANCE LIMIT
5.7 LOW-CYCLE AND HIGH-CYCLE FATIGUE
 5.8 NOTCH SENSITIVITY
Kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor, which is defined as follows:

Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the

damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. The notch sensitivity
factor q is defined as

Since
𝜎o = nominal stress as obtained by elementary equations
actual stress = Kf 𝜎o
theoretical stress = Kt 𝜎o
increase of actual stress over nominal stress = ( Kf 𝜎o – 𝜎o)
increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt 𝜎o – 𝜎o)
• Therefore,

Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1)

(i) When the material has no sensitivity to notches,

q=0 and Kf = 1
(ii) When the material is fully sensitive to notches,
q=1 and Kf = Kt
 5.9 ENDURANCE LIMIT — APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION

• S’e = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to

reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
• Se = endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected
to reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
• For steels,
S’e = 0.5 Sut (5.13)
• For cast iron and cast steels,
S’e = 0.4 Sut (5.14)
• For wrought aluminum alloys,
S’e = 0.4 Sut (5.15)
• For cast aluminum alloys,
S’e = 0.3 Sut (5.16)
5.9 ENDURANCE LIMIT — APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION

•Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S’e (5.17)

•where,
•Ka = surface finish factor
•Kb = size factor
•Kc = reliability factor
•Kd = modifying factor to account for stress concentration
Ka = a(Sut)b [if Ka > 1, set Ka = 1] (5.18)
(I) SURFACE FINISH FACTOR
(II) SIZE FACTOR
(III) RELIABILITY FACTOR
 EXAMPLE 5.3

• A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and
normalized condition is shown in Fig. It is subjected to a completely
reversed axial load of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be
taken as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size factor is
0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness for
infinite life.
 SOLUTION
• Given P = ± 30 kN Sut = 440 N/mm2 (fs) = 2
• R = 90% q = 0.8 Kb = 0.85
• Step I Endurance limit stress for plate
• S’e = 0.5 Sut = 0.5(440) = 220 N/mm2
• From Fig. 5.24 (hot rolled steel and Sut = 440 N/mm2),
• Ka = 0.67 Kb = 0.85
• For 90% reliability,
• Kc = 0.897
• d/w = 10 / 50 = 0.2
• From Fig. 5.2, Kt = 2.51
• From Eq. (5.12),
• Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1) = 1 + 0.8 (2.51 – 1) = 2.208
 EXAMPLE 5.8

• A rotating shaft, subjected to a nonrotating force of 5 kN and

simply supported between two bearings A and E is shown in Fig.
(a). The shaft is machined from plain carbon steel 30C8 (Sut = 500
N/mm2) and the expected reliability is 90%. The equivalent notch
radius at the fi llet section can be taken as 3 mm. What is the life
of the shaft?
 SOLUTION
• Bending Moment Diagram

RA = 2.857 kN RE = 2.143 kN
 SOLUTION

• Step I Selection of failure-section

• Taking the moment of the forces about bearings A and E, the
reactions at A and E are 2143 and 2857 N respectively.
• The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. (b).
• The values of the bending moment shown in the figure are in N-m.
The possibility of a failure will be at the three sections B, C and D.
• The failure will probably occur at the section B rather than at C or
D.
• At the section C, although the bending moment is maximum, the
diameter is more and there is no stress concentration.
• At the section D, the diameter is more and the bending moment is
• less compared with that of section B.
• Therefore, it is concluded that failure will occur at the section B.