INTRODUCTION

Studies in international relations, particularly historical, stem from the

changing face of diplomacy over time, where the deeper forces at play,
such as those once defined by Pierre Renouvin, are taken into account.
Individual states, and those who define and implement their policies, are
placed at the heart of global life. According to this concept, countries
pursue a course of action by taking advantage of the most diverse range of
tools they can rely on, such as economic or cultural resources, which act
alone or interact with others. The study of international relations grew into
different fields of analysis during the 20th century, but it is now subject to a
new scrutiny in this era of globalisation. This concept, which coincides with
the development of neo-liberal analysis since the 1980s, reveals a new
awareness about the increased number of actors NGOs and multinational
companies, for example but also the large autonomy they enjoy when it
comes to action. This series aims to portray these new perspectives and
their impact on current research. Without casting aside studies in
international relations that focus on states, it tries to better understand the
diverse range of factors that play out on the world stage and how they
relate to each other from the high stakes in sport to the use of colonial
memory. This series targets academics and analysts who wish to apply
20th century history to contemporary thought.

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I/ Africa
Through its unique capacities as the world’s premier vehicle for international
cooperation, the UN system plays a crucial role in coordinating assistance of
all kinds — to help Africa help itself. From promoting the development of
democratic institutions, to establishing peace between warring nations, the
UN is present on the ground supporting economic and social development and
the promotion and protection of human rights.
In this effort, the UN works closely with Africa’s regional cooperation
mechanisms and has five active peacekeeping operations at present. UN
peacekeepers serve in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA), the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), Western Sahara (MINURSO),
South Sudan (UNMISS) and in the disputed Abyei area (UNISFA).
To advance its support for Africa even further, the United Nations Office of the
Special Adviser on Africa was established in 2003 to enhance international
support for African development and security and to improve coordination of
UN system support. It also works to facilitate global deliberations on Africa,
particularly with respect to the New Partnership for Africa’s Development
(NEPAD) — a strategic framework adopted by African leaders in 2001. In 2018,
NEPAD's mandate was reformed and transformed into the African Union
Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD). It is now serving as the first
development agency of the African Union.
Africa Day is an annual commemoration of the establishment of the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) on May 25, 1963. On that day 32
independent African states signed the founding charter in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. In 2002, the OAU became the African Union. Africa Day is celebrated
around the world.

1- Challenges for Africa

Africa is diverse, and challenges can vary widely across different countries and
regions. Efforts by African governments, regional organizations, and
international partners are ongoing to address these challenges and promote
sustainable development.
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Climate change
Africa is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, with rising
temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events
affecting various regions, impacting ecosystems and livelihoods, increasing
water scarcity and contributing to desertification. It can lead to reduced crop
yields, threatening the livelihoods of many who depend on agriculture.
Adaptation strategies are crucial for building resilience in the agricultural
sector.
Climate change disrupts ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss and
threatening the sustainability of natural resources. Coastal areas are at
particular risk due to sea-level rise, affecting fisheries and coastal
communities.

2- Hunger and malnutrition

Africa is facing a food crisis of unprecedented proportions. Millions are
expected to be at risk of worsening hunger in the near future due to conflicts,
climate variability and extremes, economic slowdowns and downturns, and
the aftereffects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The 2023 report, entitled Africa, Regional Overview of Food Security and
Nutrition, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the
African Union Commission (AUC), the United Nations Economic Commission
for Africa (UNECA) and the World Food Programme (WFP), states that the
African continent is not on track to meet the food security and nutrition
targets of the Sustainable Development Goal 2 on Zero Hunger for 2030. The
authors hope that the report’s findings will trigger new momentum for
agrifood systems transformation in Africa, creating more efficient, inclusive,
resilient and sustainable agrifood systems for people and the planet.
The most recent estimates show that nearly 282 million people in Africa
(about 20 per cent of the population) were undernourished in 2022, an
increase of 57 million people since the COVID-19 pandemic began. About 868
million people were moderately or severely food-insecure and more than one-
third of them – 342 million people – were severely food-insecure.
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 3- Healthcare
Many regions in Africa face challenges in providing universal access to
healthcare. Rural and remote areas often lack sufficient healthcare
infrastructure, making it difficult for residents to access essential services.
Africa continues to grapple with infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS,
tuberculosis, and neglected tropical diseases and faces the rising prevalence
of non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and
cancer. These diseases pose a significant burden on healthcare systems and
contribute to high morbidity and mortality rates.
Many African countries have shortages of trained healthcare professionals,
including doctors, nurses, and midwives. This shortage hinders the effective
delivery of healthcare services and compromises the quality of care.
Regions affected by political instability and conflict face additional challenges
in delivering healthcare. Displacement of populations, damage to healthcare
infrastructure, and disruptions in the supply chain contribute to healthcare
crises.

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II/ Oceans and the Law of the Sea
Life itself arose from the oceans. The ocean is vast and covers 140 million
square miles, some 72 per cent of the Earth's surface. The ocean has always
been an important source of food for the life it helped generate, and from
earliest recorded history it has also served trade and commerce, adventure
and discovery. It has separated and brought people together.
Even now, when the continents have been mapped and their interiors made
accessible by road, river and air, most of the world's people live no more than
200 miles from the sea and relate closely to it.

1- Freedom of the Seas

The oceans had long been subject to the freedom of-the-seas doctrine - a
principle put forth in the 17th century, essentially limiting national rights and
jurisdiction over the oceans to a narrow sea belt surrounding a nation's
coastline. The rest of the seas were declared free for all and belonged to none.
While this situation lasted into the twentieth century, by mid-century there
was an impetus to extend national claims over offshore resources.
There was a growing concern over the toll taken on coastal fish stocks by
long-distance fishing fleets and over the threat of pollution and wastes from
transport vessels and oil tankers carrying noxious cargoes that plied sea
routes across the globe. The threat of pollution was always present for coastal
resorts and all forms of ocean life. The navies of the maritime powers were
competing for a worldwide presence in surface waters and even under the
sea.

2- United Nations Law of the Sea Convention (UNCLOS)

The United Nations is working to ensure the peaceful, cooperative, legally
defined uses of the seas and oceans for the individual and common benefit of
humankind. Urgent calls for an effective international regime over the seabed
and the ocean floor beyond a clearly defined national jurisdiction set in motion
a process that spanned 15 years and saw the creation of the United Nations
Seabed Committee, the signing of a treaty banning nuclear weapons on the
seabed, the adoption of the General Assembly’s declaration that all seabed
resources beyond the limits of national jurisdiction are the common heritage
of mankind, and the convening of the Stockholm Conference on the Human
Environment.
The UN’s groundbreaking work in adopting the 1982 Law of the Sea
Convention stands as a defining moment in the extension of international law
to the vast, shared water resources of our planet. The convention has resolved
several important issues related to ocean usage and sovereignty, such as:
 Established freedom-of-navigation rights
 Set territorial sea boundaries 12 miles offshore
 Set exclusive economic zones up to 200 miles offshore
 Set rules for extending continental shelf rights up to 350 miles
offshore
 Created the International Seabed Authority

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  Created other conflict-resolution mechanisms (e.g., the UN
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf)

3- A Historic New Maritime Biodiversity Treaty to Protect the Marine

Environment
Countries are responsible for conserving and sustainably using waterways
within their national jurisdiction. However, the high seas, which are beyond
national jurisdiction, now have additional protection from harmful practices
such as pollution and unsustainable fishing activities.
On June 19, 2023, after nearly two decades of intense negotiations, the 193
member states of the United Nations adopted a landmark, legally binding
agreement on marine biodiversity to create a common wave of conservation
and sustainability in the high seas beyond national boundaries - covering two-
thirds of the planet's oceans.
The Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond
National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) adopted a treaty aimed at taking responsibility for
the ocean on behalf of present and future generations. This treaty, known as
the "high seas" treaty, is in line with the Convention on the Law of the Sea.
The agreement aims to protect, care for, and ensure responsible use of the
marine environment. It seeks to maintain the integrity of ocean ecosystems
and conserve the inherent value of marine biological diversity.

4- Protection of marine environment and biodiversity

The UN Environment Programme (UNEP), particularly through its Regional
Seas Programme, acts to protect oceans and seas and promote the
sustainable use of marine resources. The Regional Seas Conventions and
Action Plans is the world's only legal framework for protecting the oceans and
seas at the regional level. UNEP also created The Global Programme of Action
for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. It is
the only global intergovernmental mechanism directly addressing the link
between terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), through its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission,
coordinates programmes in marine research, observation systems, hazard
mitigation and better managing ocean and coastal areas.
In 2017, the United Nations General Assembly declared the UN Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030), also known as
the Ocean Decade. This decade aims to promote ocean science and
knowledge generation to improve the state of the ocean system and facilitate
sustainable development of this vast marine ecosystem.
The vision of the Ocean Decade is to achieve "the science we need for the
ocean we want". The initiative provides a framework for scientists and
stakeholders from various sectors to collaborate and develop the scientific

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knowledge and partnerships required to expedite and leverage progress in
ocean science. These efforts can lead to a better understanding of the ocean
system and deliver science-based solutions to achieve the 2030 Agenda.
The UN General Assembly tasked UNESCO's Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) with coordinating the preparations and
implementation of the Decade.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the key United Nations
institution for the development of international maritime law. Its main task is
to create a fair and effective, generally accepted and implemented legal
framework for the shipping industry.

5- Marine shipping and pollution

To ensure that shipping is cleaner and greener, IMO has adopted regulations
to address the emission of air pollutants from ships and has adopted binding
energy-efficiency measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
international shipping. These include the landmark International Convention
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships of 1973, as modified by a 1978
Protocol (MARPOL), and the 1954 International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution of the Sea by Oil.

6- Polar Code
In 2017, the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar
Code) entered into force. The Polar Code covers the full range of design,
construction, equipment, operational, training, search and rescue and
environmental protection matters relevant to ships operating in the
inhospitable waters surrounding the two poles. It was an important regulatory
development in the field of transport and trade facilitation, alongside a range
of regulatory developments relating to maritime and supply chain security and
environmental issues.

7- Piracy

MONUSCO peacekeepers land at beach to guard against piracy in the

Democratic Republic of the Congo. UN Photo/Sylvain Liechti
In recent years there has been a surge in piracy off the coast of Somalia and
in the Gulf of Guinea. Pirate attacks are a danger to the welfare of seafarers
and the security of navigation and commerce. These criminal acts may result
in the loss of life, physical harm or hostage-taking of seafarers, significant
disruptions to commerce and navigation, financial losses to shipowners,
increased insurance premiums and security costs, increased costs to
consumers and producers, and damage to the marine environment.
Pirate attacks can have widespread ramifications, including preventing
humanitarian assistance and increasing the costs of future shipments to the

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affected areas. The IMO and UN have adopted additional resolutions to
complement the rules in the Law of the Sea Convention for dealing with
piracy.

CONCLUSION
Global climate change, species extinction, antibiotic resistance, water
shortages, loss of topsoil, desertification and the classic threat of
thermonuclear war; all of these things have the potential to end
civilisation as we know it, they are all global problems and they
will all have to be solved in this century.