Polytechnic University of the Philippines College of Engineering Electronics and Communications Engineering

3rd Floor CEA Bldg., NDC Compound, Sta. Mesa, Manila

555 TIMER IC AND STEPPER MOTOR

Submitted by: Cruz, Krizelle Anne Facunla, Cynthia Galicia, John Carlin Loyola, Kareen Kay Lubi, Kelvin Dennis Mamonong, Ma. Carmella Naga, Mark Bennil Osial, Antonio Ramos, Roentgen Saddi, Jerome Victoria, Angela

Submitted to: Engr. Ben Andres

555 IC TIMER
Example circuit symbol (above)

Introduction
The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it is used in many projects. With just a few external components it can be used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing! A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a '555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be adapted to use one half of a 556. Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555.

Actual pin arrangements (below)

The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with the pins arranged to suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs supply, 555 pin 3 outputs on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are used and they are not labeled with their function. The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum). Standard 555 and 556 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg.100F) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555 or 556.

The 555 is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator applications.

Description

NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package

History
The IC was designed and invented by Hans R. Camenzind. It was designed in 1970 and introduced in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine". It is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability. Even today, Samsung in Korea manufactures over 1 billion units per year (2003). The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits ever produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP). The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, etc. Astable mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) etc. Bistable mode: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches, etc.

Specifications

Schematic symbol of the 555 timer Pins of the 555 timer are as follows: Gnd. Ground connection for chip Trigger 555 timer triggers when this pin transitions from voltage at Vcc to 33% voltage at Vcc. Output. Output pin of 555 timer Reset Resets 555 timer when low Vcc 5V to 15 V supply input Discharge Used to discharge a capacitor Threshold Used to detect when the capacitor has charged. The Output pin goes low when capacitor has charged to 66.6% of Vcc. Control Voltage Used to change Threshold and Trigger set point voltages and is rarely used These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have better specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc). Supply voltage (VCC) Supply current (VCC = +5 V) Output current (maximum) Power dissipation Operating temperature 4.5 to 15 V 3 to 6 mA 200 mA 600 mW 0 to 70 C

Supply current (VCC = +15 V) 12 to 15 mA

Applications
The 555 timer integrated circuit is one of the most popular and useful integrated circuits of all time. It has been used in hundreds or thousands of applications, for example to: Mark space adjustment.

Pulse width modulation.

Inductive current detection.

Generate a single pulse Debounce a switch i.e. create a clean pulse when a noisy switch is pressed Generate a time delay Measure time elapsed between events Measure time duration of events Measure frequency of a pulse train Generate a pulse train of specified duty cycle and frequency Create a variable-frequency train of pulses Create a fixed-frequency train of pulses having varying width (called pulse width modulation) Create a fixed-frequency train of pulses having varying position (called pulse position modulation) Create a pulse train of half the frequency of the incoming pulse train (frequency division) Generate a voltage which rises linearly (a linear ramp) Generate a sawtooth voltage (repetitive linear ramps) Detect a condition (e.g. light on or off, switch open or closed, etc.) and sound an alarm Generate interesting sounds (sirens, two-tone alternation, dial tone, busy signal, etc.)

The timing intervals available in such applications can be as short as microseconds or as long as months.

Modes of Operations
All of the timing calculations for circuits using the 555 timer are based on the response of a series R-C circuit with a step or constant voltage input, and exponential output taken across the capacitor. You should understand that standard response very well in order to understand how to use the timer.

The two basic modes of operation of the timer are (1) monostable operation, in which the timer wakes up and generates a single pulse, then goes back to sleep, and (2) astable operation, in which the timer is trapped in an endless cycle generate a pulse, sleep, generate a pulse, sleep, on and on forever. The control voltage, usually but not always 2/3 of the power supply voltage, determines the limits of a capacitor voltage in the operations described below. The monostable (one-pulse) operation can be understood as consisting of these events in sequence: 0. (up to t = 0) A closed switch keeps the C uncharged: Vc = 0, Vout is low. 1. (at t = 0) A triggering event occurs: Vtrigger drops below Vcontrol/2, very briefly. This causes the switch to open. 2. (0 < t < t1) Vc(t) rises exponentially toward Vcc with time constant RC. Vout is high. 3. (at t = t1) Vc reaches Vcontrol. This causes the switch to close, which instantly discharges the C. 4. (from t = t1 on) A closed switch keeps the C uncharged: Vc = 0, Vout is low.

Monostable operation showing current flows, pin numbers, charging, and output.

555 monostable output, a single pulse

555/556 Monostable
A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The 'output high' state is temporary. The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1:
555 monostable circuit with manual trigger

time period, T = 1.1 R1 C1

T = time period in seconds (s) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The maximum reliable time period is about 10 minutes.

The astable (pulse train) operation can be understood as consisting of these events, starting at a point where Vc = Vcontrol/2: 1. (at t = 0) Vc = Vcontrol/2, and the switch opens. 2. (0 < t < t1) Vc(t) rises exponentially toward Vcc with time constant (R1+R2)C. Vout is high. 3. (at t = t1) Vc reaches Vcontrol. This causes the switch to close. 4. (t1 < t < t1 + t2) Vc(t) falls exponentially toward zero with time constant R2C. Vout is low. 5. (at t = t1 + t2 = T) Vc reaches Vcontrol/2. This causes the switch to open. These conditions are the same as at step 1, so the cycle repeats every T seconds. (Go to step 2.)

Astable operation, showing currents, pin numbers, charge/discharge cycle, and output Notice that in both modes, the output is high only when the C is charging. Other details:

There is a reset pin (#4); whenever the voltage on that pin is below 0.7 volts, the output is forced low. This pin is usually connected to Vcc to prevent accidental resets. The negative trigger pulse used in the monostable mode (step #1) must rise back to a voltage higher than Vcontrol/2 before the monostable pulse ends, or another pulse will be generated. Usually, Vcontrol is obtained internally from a voltage divider in the 555 and is constant at (2/3)Vcc. In this case a capacitor is connected between pin 5 and ground, to keep Vcontrol at that voltage. The Vc(t) in this case ranges between the limits of (1/3)Vcc and (2/3)Vcc. The Vcc and Ground pins are often connected by a 0.01uF capacitor (a despiking capacitor) to avoid problems from imperfect power supplies and circuit wiring. The Vcontrol can be usefully varied from about 2 volts to about 1 volt less than Vcc, but not much outside of that range. The discharge of the C in monostable mode is not truly instantaneous but requires a few microseconds. Because of this and other factors, the 555 cannot reliably generate pulses shorter than about 10 microseconds, and cannot generate a pulse train with a frequency higher than about 100 KHz. The resistors R1 and R2 in the circuits shown must be greater than 1K and smaller than 3.3Megohm. The capacitor C in the circuits shown must be greater than 0.001 uF, or 1 nF.

The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there are fuller explanations covering the various circuits:

555 astable output, a square wave (Tm and Ts may be different)

Astable - producing a square wave

555/556 Astable
An astable circuit produces a 'square wave', this is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs). Note that the durations of the low and high states may be different. The circuit is called an astable because it is not stable in any state: the output is continually changing between 'low' and 'high'. The time period (T) of the square wave 555 astable circuit is the time for one complete cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the number of cycles per second.

T = 0.7 (R1 + 2R2) C1 and f =

1.4 (R1 + 2R2) C1

T = time period in seconds (s) f = frequency in hertz (Hz) R1 = resistance in ohms ( ) R2 = resistance in ohms ( ) C1 = capacitance in farads (F) The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 (R1 + R2) C1 Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 R2 C1 Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if R2 is much larger than R1.

Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset

555/556 Bistable (flip-flop) - a memory circuit

The circuit is called a bistable because it is stable in two states: output high and output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop'. It has two inputs:
555 bistable circuit

Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output high. Trigger is 'active low', it functions when < 1/3 Vs. Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low. Reset is 'active low', it resets when < 0.7V. The power-on reset, power-on trigger and edge-triggering circuits can all be used as described above for the monostable.

Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

555/556 Inverting Buffer (Schmitt trigger) or NOT gate

The buffer circuit's input has a very high impedance (about 1M ) so it requires only a few A, but the output can sink or source up to 200mA. This enables a high impedance signal source (such as an LDR) to switch a low impedance output transducer (such as a lamp). It is an inverting buffer or NOT gate because the output logic state (low/high) is the inverse of the input state:
555 inverting buffer circuit (a NOT gate)

Input low (< 1/3 Vs) makes output high, +Vs Input high (> 2/3 Vs) makes output low, 0V

NOT gate symbol

When the input voltage is between 1/3 and 2/3 Vs the output remains in its present state. This intermediate input region is a dead space where there is no response, a property called hysteresis, it is like backlash in a mechanical linkage. This type of circuit is called a Schmitt trigger. If high sensitivity is required the hysteresis is a problem, but in many circuits it is a helpful property. It gives the input a high immunity to noise because once the circuit output has switched high or low the input must change back by at least 1/3 Vs to make the output switch back.

Stepper Motor
Introduction

A stepper motor is a digital version of the electric motor. The rotor moves in discrete steps as commanded, rather than rotating continuously like a conventional motor. When stopped but energized, a stepper (short for stepper motor) holds its load steady with a holding torque. Wide spread acceptance of the stepper motor within the last two decades was driven by the ascendancy of digital electronics. Modern solid state driver electronics was a key to its success. And, microprocessors readily interface to stepper motor driver circuits. Application wise, the predecessor of the stepper motor was the servo motor. Today this is a higher cost solution to high performance motion control applications. The expense and complexity of a servomotor is due to the additional system components: position sensor and error amplifier. It is still the way to position heavy loads beyond the grasp of lower power steppers. High acceleration or unusually high accuracy still requires a servo motor. Otherwise, the default is the stepper due to low cost, simple drive electronics, good accuracy, good torque, moderate speed, and low cost.

Stepper motor vs. servo motor. A stepper motor positions the read-write heads in a floppy drive. They were once used for the same purpose in hard drives. However, the high speed and accuracy required of modern hard drive head positioning dictates the use of a linear servomotor (voice coil). The servo amplifier is a linear amplifier with some difficult to integrate discrete components. A considerable design effort is required to optimize the servo amplifier gain vs. phase response to the mechanical components. The stepper motor drivers are less complex solid state switches, being either on or off. Thus, a stepper motor controller is less complex and costly than a servo motor controller. Slo-syn synchronous motors can run from AC line voltage like a single-phase permanent-capacitor induction motor. The capacitor generates a 90o second phase. With the direct line voltage, we have a 2-phase drive. Drive waveforms of bipolar () square waves of 2-24V are more common these days. The bipolar magnetic fields may also be generated from unipolar (one polarity) voltages applied to alternate ends of a

center tapped winding. In other words, DC can be switched to the motor so that it sees AC. As the windings are energized in sequence, the rotor synchronizes with the consequent stator magnetic field. Thus, we treat stepper motors as a class of AC synchronous motor.

Unipolar drive of center tapped coil at (b), emulates AC current in single coil at (a).

Characteristics
Stepper motors are rugged and inexpensive because the rotor contains no winding slip rings, or commutator. The rotor is a cylindrical solid, which may also have either salient poles or fine teeth. More often than not the rotor is a permanent magnet. Determine that the rotor is a permanent magnet by unpowered hand rotation showing detent torque, torque pulsations. Stepper motor coils are wound within a laminated stator, except for can stack construction. There may be as few as two winding phases or as many as five. These phases are frequently split into pairs. Thus, a 4-pole stepper motor may have two phases composed of in-line pairs of poles spaced 90o apart. There may also be multiple pole pairs per phase. For example a 12-pole stepper has 6-pairs of poles, three pairs per phase. Since stepper motors do not necessarily rotate continuously, there is no horsepower rating. If they do rotate continuously, they do not even approach a sub-fractional hp rated capability. They are truly small low power devices compared to other motors. They have torque ratings to a thousand in-oz (inch-ounces) or ten n-m (newton-meters) for a 4 kg size unit. A small dime size stepper has a torque of a hundredth of a newtonmeter or a few inch-ounces. Most steppers are a few inches in diameter with a fraction of a n-m or a few in-oz torque. The torque available is a function of motor speed, load inertia, load torque, and drive electronics as illustrated on the speed vs torque curve. An energized, holding stepper has a relatively high holding torque rating. There is less torque available for a running motor, decreasing to zero at some high speed. This speed is frequently not attainable due to mechanical resonance of the motor load combination.

Stepper speed characteristics. Stepper motors move one step at a time, the step angle, when the drive waveforms are changed. The step angle is related to motor construction details: number of coils, number of poles, and number of teeth. It can be from 90o to 0.75o, corresponding to 4 to 500 steps per revolution. Drive electronics may halve the step angle by moving the rotor in half-steps. Steppers cannot achieve the speeds on the speed torque curve instantaneously. The maximum start frequency is the highest rate at which a stopped and unloaded stepper can be started. Any load will make this parameter unattainable. In practice, the step rate is ramped up during starting from well below the maximum start frequency. When stopping a stepper motor, the step rate may be decreased before stopping. The maximum torque at which a stepper can start and stop is the pull-in torque. This torque load on the stepper is due to frictional (brake) and inertial (flywheel) loads on the motor shaft. Once the motor is up to speed, pull-out torque is the maximum sustainable torque without losing steps. There are three types of stepper motors in order of increasing complexity: variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. The variable reluctance stepper has s solid soft steel rotor with salient poles. The permanent magnet stepper has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The hybrid stepper has soft steel teeth added to the permanent magnet rotor for a smaller step angle.

Stepper Motor Glossary

Absolute Positioning Refers to a motion control system employing position feedback devices (absolute encoders) to maintain a given mechanical location.

Absolute Programming A positioning coordinate reference wherein all positions are specified relative to some reference, or home, position. This is different from incremental programming, where distances are specified relative to the current position.

Acceleration Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity with respect to a fixed reference frame. Angular acceleration is the time rate of change of angular displacement with respect to a fixed rotational reference axis. The commanded step rate is started at a base velocity and accelerated to the slew velocity at a defined and controlled rate or rate of changes.

Acceleration (Linear) Linear acceleration is the most commonly utilized form of accelerating the commanded pulse rate, and is expressed mathematically as: a = dv/dt (constant) For rotating bodies, the angular acceleration is the ratio of torque to inertia, and is expressed mathematically as: a = dw/dt = Torque/Jsystem (constant)

Acceleration (Nonlinear) Nonlinear acceleration is a constantly changing acceleration of the commanded step rate and can be customized to reflect an SCurve acceleration or any other required shape to provide control of the stepper motor system. The Optimal Nonlinear acceleration technique utilized in some controller designs, allow for the high acceleration rates at low commanded pulse rates where stepper motors exhibit high torque capabilities, and a reduced acceleration rate as the slew speed commanded pulse rate is achieved. Optimal nonlinear ramping techniques allow for greater torque utilization and a faster point-to-point positioning than for linear acceleration techniques.

Accuracy A measure of the difference between expected position and actual position of a motor or mechanical system. Stepper motor accuracy is usually specified an angle representing the maximum deviation from expected position.

Ambient Temperature The temperature of the cooling medium, usually air, immediately surrounding the motor or another device.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) This code assigns a number to each numeral and letter of the alphabet. In this manner, alphanumeric information can be transmitted between machines as a series of binary numbers.

Automation The implementation of processes by automatic means. The theory, art, or technique of making a process more automatic. The investigation, design, development and application of methods of rendering processes automatic, selfmoving or self-controlling.

Axial Play (End Play) The shaft displacement axially, due to a reversal of an axial force.

Back (End of Motor) This is considered the output end, the end which drives the load.

Bandwidth The frequency range in which the magnitude of the system gain expressed in dB is greater than -3dB.

Baud A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of code elements per second.

BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) An encoding technique used to describe the numbers 0 through 9 with four digital (on or off) signal lines. Popular in machine

tool equipment, BCD interfaces are now giving way to interfaces requiring fewer wires, such as RS232C.

Back EMF (Back Electro-Motive Force) A reversed bias generated by rotation of the magnetic field (rotor of a hybrid motor), across a stators windings.

Base Speed Response range of a motor to commanded pulses over which the unloaded motor can accelerate to command pulse rate from standstill, decelerate from command pulse rate to standstill, and reverse direction (on command) without loss of synchronism.

Bifilar Winding Refers to the winding configuration of a stepper motor where each stator pole has a pair of windings, (4 electrical phases), the motor will have either 4, 6 or 8 lead wires depending on termination. This winding configuration can be driven from a unipolar or bipolar driver design.

Bipolar Drive Refers to specific type driver that is connected to a stepper motor configured for a 2 phase operation. The 4 electrical cycles required for operation are generated when the direction of current is reversed in each motor phase. A bipolar driver can be utilized with a 4, 6 or 8 lead motor.

Bit An abbreviation of binary digit. A single character in a binary number. A single pulse in a group of pulses. A unit of information capacity of a storage device.

Block Diagram A simplified schematic representing components and signal flow through a system.

Bode Plot A graph of system gain and phase versus input frequency, which graphically illustrates the steady state characteristics of the system.

Break Frequency Frequency(ies) at which the gain changes slope on a Bode Plot. Break Frequencies correspond to the poles and zeros of the system.

Buffer A storage device used to compensate for a difference in rate of flow of data, or time of occurrence of events, when transmitting data from one device to another.

Bus A circuit over which data or power is transmitted. Often one which acts as a common connection among a number of locations. Synonymous with trunk. A communications path between two switching points.

Byte A group of eight bits treated as a whole, with 256 possible combinations of ones and zeros, each combination representing a unique piece of information.

Clock A pulse generator, which controls the timing of switching circuits that control the speed of the stepper motor.

Closed Loop System A stepper motor system can be operated in a closed loop application where the output is measured and compared to the input. The output is then adjusted to reach the desired input condition. In motion control, this term is used to describe a system wherein a velocity or position sensor is used to generate signals for comparison to desired parameters. For cases where loads are not predictable, the closed loop feedback from an external encoder to the controller may be used for stall detection, position verification or position maintenance.

Command An electronic pulse, signal, or set of signals to start, stop, or continue some operation.

Compliant Coupling Complying, yielding. Limited motion of one shaft without motion of coupled shaft. Does not permit permanent displacement of one shaft with respect to the other.

Constant Current Drive Device or control for adjusting the voltage to force and maintain design current in the winding when switching from one winding to another.

Controller (stepper motor) A regulating mechanism, essentially a DC power supply, plus power switching and circuits for controlling the proper step sequence.

Counter A device capable of changing states in a specified sequence upon receiving appropriate input signals. The output of the counter indicates the number of pulses that have been applied.

Critical Damping A system is critically damped when the response to an incremental change in desired velocity or position is achieved in a minimum possible time with little or no overshoot.

Crossover Frequency The frequency at which the gain intercepts the 0dB point on a Bode plot. Used in reference to the open-loop gain plot.

Cycle (Incremental Motion) One of a sequence or series of identical events. Includes starting, moving and stopping of the mechanism.

Daisychain The term daisychain is used to describe the linking of several RS232/422/485 devices in sequence, such that a single data stream flows through one device and on to the next. The devices are usually distinguished by device addresses which serve to indicate the desired destination for the data in the stream.

Damper A device that attaches to the stepper motor shaft to absorb energy. It is useful in damping step oscillations and preventing resonances.

Damping An indication of the rate of decay of a signal to its steady state value. Related to settling time. Suppression of oscillations at the end of motion or during motion.

Damping Ratio Ratio of actual damping to critical damping. Less than one is an under-damped system and greater than one is an over-damped system.

Dead Range or Dead Band The Dead Band window is the range of input signals for which there is no system response. The angle between clockwise and counterclockwise limits to which the rotor of an energized stepper motor can stop due to internal and external friction.

Deadbeat (Response) Critically damped. Moving from one step position to another without overshoot or oscillation.

Decibel A logarithmic measurement of gain. If G is a systems gain (ratio of output to input) then 20LogG = gain in decibels (dB).

Decimal, Binary Coded A decimal notation in which each individual decimal digit is represented by a pattern of ones and zeros; e.g. in the 8-4-2-1 coded decimal notation the number twelve is represented as 0001 0010 for one and 2 respectively; whereas, in pure or straight binary notation, 12 is represented by 1100.

Detent Position This position is the static angular position in which the shaft of an unloaded and unenergized stepper motor comes to rest.

Detent Torque Sometimes noted as Cogging Torque, is the periodic torque ripple resulting from the tendency of the magnetic rotor poles and stator poles to align themselves to positions of minimal reluctance. The measurement is taken with all phases de-energized.

Digital Means to operate in the manner of a switch, meaning in one of two states, either on or off. Could also be two distinct states or levels.

Diode A device used to permit current flow in one direction in a circuit and to inhibit current flow in the other.

Direction of Rotation The direction the shaft rotates when viewed from the mounting shaft end. The standard (positive) direction is defined as counterclockwise.

Driver (stepper motor) Often referred to as a translator. Drives a stepper motor based on pulses from a clock source, pulse generator, or computer. Translates the train of pulses and applies power to the appropriate stepper motor windings.

Duty Cycle For a repetitive cycle, the ratio of on time to total cycle time. Duty Cycle = On Time On Time + Off Time

Dynamic Energy in motion, effective action; active, such as in dynamic torque, which indicates the torque while the stepper motor is producing motion.

Dynamic Torque The torque developed by a motor at low stepping rates.

Efficiency The ratio of power output to power input, expressed in like units; watts, for example.

Electronic Damping A means of suppressing oscillation of the stepper motor output by switching the motor winding in sequence such that the motor and load have come to rest when the final step position has been reached.

Encoder An encoder is an electromechanical device which translates mechanical motion into electronic signals utilized by the system controller for monitoring position or velocity, (examples: position maintenance, stall detect and home on encoder Z channel). Sometimes called a pulse generator. It consists of a disc, vane or reflector attached to a stepper motor shaft to provide digital pulses to the system controller and or counters.

End Play (Axial Play) The axial shaft displacement, due to reversal of an axial force.

Excitation Current or voltage applied to the stepper motor in order to provide motive power or to hold the rotor in a particular place.

Feedback (Loops, Systems/Transducers) In a closed-loop system, a device that detects the condition being controlled and relates the information back (feedback) to the controlling device or system for comparison with the input values.

Friction (Drag or Coulomb) Friction is defined as the resistance to motion caused by surfaces rubbing together. Friction can be a constant with varying speed (Coulomb) or proportional to speed (Viscous). Limits top speed of stepper motor, slows down acceleration, increases positional error, but enables the motor to stop in less time with minimal oscillations.

Friction Torque In a stepper motor, the bearing friction, usually called coulomb or drag friction, is a representative friction torque component. In a permanent magnet stepper motor, a cog friction torque is also present and is caused by the magnetic drag between the permanent magnet in the rotor assembly and the stator lamination teeth. A viscous friction torque is also possible and is a function of drag torque, proportional to changing rotor speeds.

Friction (Viscous) A resistance to motion, proportional to velocity.

Gain The ratio of system output signal to system input signal.

Gate A circuit whose output signal is dependent on some function of its input signals.

Holding Torque The maximum torque that can be externally applied to the stepper motor shaft without causing continuous rotation when one or more phases of the motor are energized.

Home A reference position in a motion control system, usually from a mechanical datum. Often designated as the zero point.

Hysteresis The difference in response of a system to an increasing or decreasing input signal.

IEEE-488 A digital data communications standard popular in instrumentation electronics. This parallel interface is also known as GPIB, or Generic Purpose Interface Bus.

Incremental Motion A motion control term that is used to describe a device that produces on step of motion for each step command (usually a pulse) received. Motion made up of starts, moves, and stops. Motion caused by pulses. A small envelope or program of steps.

Incremental Programming A coordinate system where positions or distances are specified relative to the current position.

Inductance (Mutual) Mutual inductance is the property that exists between two current-carrying conductors or coils when magnetic lines of force from one conductor or coil are linked with those of the other.

Inductance (Self) The self-inductance of a coil is the constant by which the time rate of change of the current in the coil must be multiplied to give the self-induced counter EMF.

Inertia A measure of an objects resistance to a change in velocity. The larger an objects inertia, the greater the torque required to accelerate or decelerate it. Inertia is a function of an objects mass and shape. For the most efficient operation, the system coupling ratio should be selected so that the reflected inertia of the load is equal to or no greater than 10 times the rotor inertia of the stepper motor.

Inertia (Reflected) Inertia as seen by the stepper motor when driving through a speed change, reducer or gear train.

Input-Output The equipment used to communicate with a computer. Also, the data involved in the communication. Synonymous with (I/O).

LCD Digital instruments employ LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) readouts because they utilize minuscule amounts of power, thereby making them excellent for battery-operated instruments. LCDs are best in high ambient light levels, as they do not wash out but instead gain greater contrast in bright light.

Lead(1) A wire or terminal of the stepper motor internally connected to the motor phase windings and externally connected to the driver output(s) terminals.

Lead(2) The axial distance a nut on a leadscrew travels during one revolution of the lead screw, e.g. in./rev. The inverse of pitch.

Lead Compensation Algorithm A mathematical equation implemented by a computer to decrease the delay between the input and output of a system.

LED Light pipe LED (Light Emitting Diode) displays provide a bright, clear numeric presentation of readings in digital instruments. They generally are best for indoor environments, and can be viewed from a greater distance in normal lighting conditions. Most LED displays are red, but are also available in yellow and green.

Limits A properly designed stepper motor system has sensors called limits that alert the control electronics that a physical end-of-travel is being approached and that the motion is not allowed in a specific direction.

Linear Motion in a straight line.

Load Any external static or dynamic resistance to motion that is applied to the motor. The characteristics of the load can be defined as: Coulomb Friction, Viscous Friction, Inertial, etc.

Static Load Angle Static Load Angle is the angle through which the rotor is displaced from its energized stable equilibrium position by a given applied torque at a specified current. Dynamic Load Angle The Dynamic Load Angle is the angle between the loaded and unloaded position (theoretical zero) of the rotor at a given instant under otherwise identical conditions at a specified command pulse rate, mode of winding excitation and phase current.

Logic Ground The logic ground is the reference zero voltage to which a group

Maximum Running Torque The maximum torque load that the motor can drive without missing a step. This typically occurs when the windings are sequentially energized at approximately 5 pulses-per-second.

Maximum Slew Rate The maximum slew rate is the maximum velocity at which the unloaded stepper motor can remain synchronous with the command pulses under the specified drive conditions. This velocity is usually defined in the Full Step Mode of 1.8 steps or as shaft speed in revolutions per second.

Maximum Safe Operating Temperature The maximum temp-erature the stepper motor, either continuously or intermittently rated, may safely be allowed to achieve (measured by the change of winding resistance method). They may bear little or no relation to the class on insulation needed in the construction of the motor, but may be dictated by considerations such as bearing lubricant, etc.

Maximum Start-Stop Rate The maximum switching rate at which an unloaded stepper motor can start and run without losing sychronism (missing steps) or stop without taking more steps than pulses.

Microsecond One millionth of a second.

Microstepping Microstepping refers to a control technique that proportions the current in a stepper motors windings to provide additional intermediate positions between poles. The advantages of microstepping is the smooth rotation with a reduction of system resonances over a wide speed range and semi-high positional resolution.

Millisecond One thousandth of a second.

Mode A particular sequence of excitation defined by the drive circuit, which, when applied to a stepper motor, will energize certain windings or phases.

Multi-Level Drive (See Bilevel Drive)

Nanosecond One billionth of a second.

Noncumulative Error An error that does not repeat or accumulate for multiple steps or increments.

Open Collector A term used to describe a signal output that is performed with a transistor. An open collector output acts like a switch closure with one end of the switch at ground potential and the other end of the switch accessible. Also called Open Drain.

Open Loop System An open loop stepper motor system refers to a system where no external sensors are used to provide position or velocity feedback signals, such as encoder feedback of position. When an application is selected that consists of loads without discontinuity and the proper motor and drive is utilized for positional accuracy, the motor will remain in synchronism with the command pulse rate and the expected results will occur.

Opto-Isolated A method of sending a signal from one piece of equipment to another without the usual requirement of common ground potentials. The signal is transmitted optically with a light source (usually a Light Emitting Diode) and a light sensor (usually a photosensitive transistor). These optical components provide electrical isolation.

Overshoot (Permanent) The amount (in degrees) that the shaft of a stepper motor remains beyond the commanded position.

Overshoot (Transient) The Overshoot (transient) is the peak angular distance the shaft of the stepper motor rotates beyond the actual final position under the specified drive and load conditions.

Parallel Refers to a data communication format wherein many signal lines are used to communicate more than one piece of data at the same time.

Permanent Magnet stepper motor A stepper motor having permanent-magnet poles.

Permeance Conducting power of a magnetic circuit for magnetic flux.

Phase Angle The angle at which the steady state input signal to a system leads the output signal.

Phase Angle Rotor-Stator The angle of lag of the rotor to the axis of the stator magnetic field under load. The angle of lag between rotor and stator teeth under load.

Phase Margin The difference between 180 degrees and the phase angle of a system at its crossover frequency.

Phase (stepper motor) A motor phase is a set of electrically excited stator poles, consisting of one or more pairs of oppositely polarized poles. stepper motor manufacturers provide 4 lead motors with bifilar ratings and 6 or 8 lead motors with unifilar ratings. (See the section on Speed/Torque Relation- ships for benefits on driving a motor with a unifilar or bifilar winding configuration).

Positional Error Position error (sometimes designated Absolute Accuracy) is the deviation from the theoretically correct angular position of any step position in a complete revolution. The zero position used in determining the theoretically

correct angular position shall be the midpoint between the two extremes of position error. It is expressed as either percentage of the nominal full step or as an angular measure and is noncumulative. It is measured under rated motor conditions.

Pole That part of the magnetic circuit where a magnetic pole is generated either by a permanent magnet or by windings. A frequency at which the transfer function of a system goes to infinity.

Power (Motor Heat Dissipation) The heat generated by a stepper motor during standstill operation or while responding to a command pulse rate is expressed by the mathematical equation: P (watts) = I2 R for single phase operation P (watts) = (I2 R)2 for dual phase or microstep operation Where the square of the drive output current (I) times the motor resistance (R) is the dissipated heat generated in the motor.

Power (RMS) The Root Mean Square power of a stepper motor is the effective value of time varying power consumption of the stepper motor.

Pull-In Step Rate The pull-in step rate or error-free start speed is the maximum command pulse rate (constant) at which the energized stepper motor can accelerate an applied load from standstill to command pulse rate, and run synchronously without missing any steps.

Pull-In Torque The pull-in torque is the maximum positive coulomb friction torque which an energized stepper motor will accelerate to command pulse rate and run synchronously without missing any steps.

Pull-Out Step Rate The pull-out step rate is the maximum command pulse rate (constant) at which the energized stepper motor can run in synchronism.

Pull-Out Torque Pull-out torque is the maximum positive coulomb friction torque which can be applied to the rotating shaft of a stepper motor (already running at Slew Speed) at a given pulse rate without missing any steps.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Refers to a technique of con-trolling the average current in a motor winding by varying the duty cycle of an applied voltage.

Resonance Since a stepper motor system is a discrete incremental positioning system, it is subject to the effects of resonance, where the system is operated at this given frequency, it may begin to oscillate. Primary resonance frequency occurs at about one revolution per second. This oscillating will cause a loss of effective torque and may result in loss of synchronism. When an application is being considered, the design should allow for working outside the primary resonance frequency or by utilizing half-step or microstep techniques to reduce or shift the resonance frequency. The resonance frequency may also be shifted by changing the system friction or inertia.

Ringing Refers to the oscillation resulting in a system following a sudden change in velocity or position state.

Settling Time Refers to the total time from the application of the last pulse signal until the amplitude of the oscillatory motion of the rotor has diminished to a specified level under certain conditions.

Slew Refers to the position of a move profile where the motor is operating at a constant velocity.

Static Torque This is the peak torque that can be applied to the shaft of an energized motor at standstill, also called holding torque. The mode of winding excitation and applied current shall be specified.

Stepper motor A stepper motor is a polyphase synchronous inductor motor, the rotor of which rotates in discrete angular increments when the stator windings thereof are energized in a programmed manner either by appropriately timed DC states or by polyphase AC states. Rotation occurs because of the magnetic interaction between the rotor poles and the poles of the sequentially energized stator phases.

Variable Reluctance (VR) A variable reluctance stepper motor utilizes a rotor which has pole salients (soft iron) without magnetic bias in the de-energized state.

Permanent Magnetic (PM) A permanent magnet stepper motor utilizes a rotor which has magnetized poles.

Hybrid (HY) A hybrid stepper motor utilizes a permanent magnet to polarize soft iron pole pieces. Stiffness (Sometimes called Torque Gradient) is the derivative (slope) of the torque-verse-angle curve. The curve is the sum of the stiffness due to holding torque and detent torque.

Synchronism Synchronism exists when the motors output is correctly corresponding to the systems input signals. Load torques exceeding the motors capabilities will cause loss of synchronism. This condition will not damage the stepper motor.

Thermal Resistance Thermal resistance is the opposition to the flow of heat in the materials of which the motor is constructed. It is expressed as degrees Celsius per watt. All measurements are taken after steady state conditions have been achieved and without heatsinking in still air.

Thermal Resistance (Winding to Frame) This is the measured difference in temperature between the winding and the specified point on the surface of the motor divided by the total electrical Power input to the motor. Thermal Resistance (Frame to Air) This is the same as Thermal Resistance (Winding to Frame), except that the temperature difference is the temperature at a specified point on the surface of the motor and the ambient air surrounding the motor.

Thermal Time Constant This is the time required for the winding temperature of a motor to reach 63% of its steady state temperature rise with constant power applied to the motor. It is measured by allowing the motor to reach steady state temperature and then disconnecting the electrical power input. The winding temperature is recorded as a function of time; zero time being the time at which the power source is disconnected. The time required to drop 37% of the steadystate temperature rise is the thermal time constant. Usually expressed in seconds, conditions will be specified.

Translator Logic Translator logic (Driver Logic) converts the signal channel pulse train-into multichannel states to be applied to the power amplifier (Driver) which energizes the motor.

Unifilar Winding The term Unifilar winding refers to the winding configuration of a stepper motor where each stator pole has one set of windings, (4 electrical phases), the motor will have only 4 lead wires. This winding configuration can only be driven from a bipolar driver design.

Unipolar Drive The term Unipolar refers to specific type driver that is connected to a stepper motor configured for 4 phase operation. A unipolar driver can only be utilized with a bifilar wound motor, 6 or 8 leads.

Winding Inductance The winding inductance of a stepper motor winding varies both with rotor position and with excitation current. Measurements can also be effected by the rate of change of current; thus, when a figure for inductance is given, the conditions under which the measurements were taken must be quoted.

Winding Inductance, Incremental Unenergized An inductance bridge having a test frequency of 1KHz 1 volt RMS open circuit voltage is used to make this measurement. The inductance is measured with the rotor locked in the aligned or unaligned position, with no DC current applied to any of the windings, the conditions will be stated.

Winding Resistance Winding resistance is the lead-to-lead (terminal-toterminal) ohmic resistance measured with the windings at 25C.

Unipolar Drive Excitation applied such that torque generating current in each winding occurs in one direction only. The polarity of voltage to each winding is always the same.

Viscous Damping A damping that provides a retarding torque during motion. At zero velocity there is no retarding torque. The higher the velocity, the higher the retarding torque.

Zero A frequency at which the transfer function of a system goes to zero.

Stepper Motors
5V Stepper Motor

ST-02: Rated Voltage: 5 VDC Rated Current: .1 amps (100 mA) Phase Resistance: 50 ohms Weight: 135 g Unipolar 6 wire 5 Degrees per step Shaft Size: 1/8 dia. X 9/16 length

12V Stepper Motor

ST-03: Rated Voltage: 12 VDC Rated Current: .16 amps (160 mA) Size: 1.70" D x 1.125" H Weight: 235 g Unipolar 5 wire 3.6 degrees per step

Stepper Motor Control Information

Step 1 2 3 4 5 A B A' B' Common + + + + +

Stepper Motor Controller Kit

The stepper motor controller kit allows one to control a 5 volt uni-polar stepper motor from Windows. The exclusive Windows interface is designed to teach fundamental stepper motor control. Automatic and manual control of the stepper motor is available through the Windows interface. Windows controls available are speed, direction full step and half step and manual step.

Basic theory of Stepping Motors

Construction

Variable reluctance Permanent Magnet Hybrid

Stepping motor resolution and step angle

Flux vectors

Operation

Phase switching sequences

Stepping motor characteristics

Static or holding torque - displacement characteristic Static load angle Friction torque Systematic angle tolerance Resonance Torque ripple Defining the start / stop frequency

Construction
Stepping motors are electromagnetic, rotary, incremental devices which convert digital pulses into mechanical rotation. The amount of rotation is directly proportional to the number of pulses and the speed of rotation is relative to the frequency of those pulses. Stepping motors are simple to drive in an open loop configuration and for their size provide excellent torque at low speed. The benefits offered by stepping motors include:

a simple and cost effective design high reliability maintenance free (no brushes) open loop (no feed back device required) known limit to the 'dynamic position error'

Although various types of stepping motor have been developed, they all fall into three basic categories. 1. variable reluctance (V.R) 2. permanent magnet (tin can) 3. hybrid The variable reluctance or V.R. motor consist of a rotor and stator each with a different number of teeth. As the rotor does not have a permanent magnet it spins freely i.e. it has no detent torque. Although the torque to inertia ratio is good, the rated torque for a given frame size is restricted. Therefore small frame sizes are generally used and then very seldom for industrial applications.

Figure 1. cross section through a variable reluctance stepping motor The permanent magnet (PM) or tin can (fig. 2) motor is perhaps the most widely used stepping motor in non-industrial applications. In it's simplest form the motor consists of a radially magnetized permanent magnet rotor and a stator similar to the V.R. motor. Due to the manufacturing techniques used in constructing the stator they are also sometimes known as 'claw pole' motors.

Figure 2. cross section through a permanent magnet

The Hybrid is probably the most widely used of all stepping motors. Originally developed as a slow speed synchronous PM motor it's construction is a combination of the V.R. and tin can designs. The Hybrid consists of a multiphased toothed stator and a three part rotor (single stack). The single stack rotor contains two toothed pole pieces separated by an axially magnetized permanent magnet, with the opposing teeth off-set by half of one tooth pitch (fig. 3) to enable a high resolution of steps.

Figure 3. exploded drawing illustrating the tooth pitch off-set The increasing demands on the modern stepping motor system of reducing acoustic noise, improving drive performance while at the same time reducing costs were satisfied in the past with two main types of Hybrid stepping motor. The 2(4) phase which has generally been implemented in simple applications and the 5 phase which has proven to be ideal for more the demanding of tasks. The advantages offered by the 5 phase included:

higher resolution lower acoustic noise lower operational resonance lower detent torque Although the characteristics of the 5 phase offered many benefits; especially when micro stepping, the increased number of power switches and the additional wiring required could have an adverse affect on a system's cost. With advances in electronics allowing circuits with ever higher degrees of integration and ever more features to be realized, SIG Positec saw an opportunity and took the initiative in their ground breaking development in stepping motor technology.

Figure 4. Sections illustrating laminations and rotors for 2-, 3- and 5-phase stepping motors The 3 phase Hybrid stepping motor Although similar in construction to other Hybrid stepping motors (see fig. 4), implementing 3-phase sine drive technology made it possible for the number of motor phases to be reduced leaving the number of rotor pole pairs and the drive electronics to determine the resolution (steps per revolution).

Figure 5. Cross section through a Hybrid stepping motor (3 phase) As 3-phase technology has been used for decades as a cost effective method of generating rotating fields, the advantages of this system are self evident. The 3phase stepping motor was therefore a natural progression incorporating all the best features from the 5-phase system at a significant cost reduction.

Stepping motor resolution and step angle As already mentioned, the resolution (number of steps) and step angle of a stepping motor is dependent on:

the number of rotor pole pairs the number of motor phases the drive mode (full or half step) The resolution can be calculated using the formula:

The step angle can then be calculated by dividing one rotation (360) by the number of steps.

Flux vectors
Flux vectors are used to illustrate the natural step angles of stepping motors

Figure 6. Flux vector diagrams for 2-, 3- and 5 phase stepping motors If the phase currents are switched in small increments, these field vectors can point in virtually any direction.

Operation
Phase switching sequences To enable rotation the magnetic field generated by the stator windings needs to move. This is achieved by switching the direction of current flow through each winding. Full step: Using a simple two phase stepping motor with one pole pair as an example the phase switching sequence when driven in full step mode is as follows: Start = Step angle 0 - Windings W1 and W2 are energized producing a north and south pole which attracts the rotor's respective poles and holds the rotor in position.

Step 1 = Step angle 90 - Winding W1 remains the same but the current flow in winding W2 is switched (reversed). This results in a movement of the stator's magnetic field which the rotor follows until it is held at the new position.

Step 2 = Step angle 180 - This time the current flow in Winding W1 is switched (reversed) and W2 stays the same. Again, the stator's magnetic field moves, the rotor follows and is held in the new position. Step 3 = Step angle 270 - Winding W1 stays as before, the current flow in W2 is switched (reversed) and the rotor follows the stator field to it's new position.

Switching phases further can then either return the rotor to the starting position or the switching sequence can be reversed. Current traces can also be used to illustrate switching sequences as follows:

Current trace for a 2 phase stepping motor driven in full step mode Half step: Using the same stepping motor driven in half step mode doubles the resolution (steps per rotation). Although the switching sequence is similar, instead of just reversing the flow of current through a phase, a phase is switched off, allowing the rotor to follow and take up even more positions. The sequence for one rotation is as follows:

Rotation sequence for a 2 phase stepping motor driven in half step

Current trace for a 2 phase stepping motor driven in half step Current trace for a 2 phase stepping motor driven in half step By using these simplified models, we have demonstrated the operational principle of the 2 phase stepping motor. This step by step switching of current results in a 'virtual' rotating field which the permanent magnet rotor then follows.

Illustrates this step by step switching of current for a 3 phase motor in half step mode and its corresponding current trace. Full step operation occurs when only the even (t) numbers are used in the step sequence.

Figure 11 Step sequence and current trace of a 3 phase stepping motor

Stepping motor characteristics

Static or holding torque - displacement characteristic

The characteristic of static (holding) torque - displacement is best explained using an electro-magnet and a single pole rotor (fig. 12). In the example the electro-magnet represents the motor stator and is energized with it's north pole facing the rotor

Figure 12 Curve illustrating static torque verses rotor position Assuming there are no frictional or static loads on the rotor, fig. 11 illustrates how the restoring torque varies with rotor position as it is deflected from it's stable point. As the rotor moves away from it's stable position, the torque steadily increases until it reaches a maximum. This maximum value is called the holding torque and represents the maximum load that can be applied to the shaft without causing continuous rotation. If, the shaft is deflected beyond this point, the torque will fall until it is again at zero. However, this zero point is unstable and the torque reverses immediately beyond it back to the stable point. A pendulum (fig. 13) can also be used to demonstrate the effects we observe.

Figure 13 Pendulum effect of static torque verses rotor position Depending on the number of phases, the cycle in figures 11 and 12 would be equivalent to the following number of full steps:

2 phase 4 steps 3 phase 6 steps 5 phase 10 steps The torque required to deflect the shaft by a given angle can be calculated using the formula:

Although this static torque characteristic is not a great deal of use on it's own, it does explain some of the effects we observe. For example, it dictates the static stiffness of the system, in other words; how the shaft position changes when a load is applied to a stationary motor. The shaft must deflect until the torque generated matches the applied load. Therefore, the static position varies with the load.

Static load angle The static load angle is defined as, the angle between the actual rotor position and the stable end position for a given load. Figure 14 illustrates (whether for full or half step) that as the torque increases so does the shaft deflection from the stable position.

Figure 14 The static load :angle can be calculated using the formula

Friction torque Friction torque is the load implemented on the shaft through mechanical tolerances in the application. Figure 14 illustrates how that for a given load the friction torque needs to be considered if accurate positioning is required. also

This phenomenon can also be explained using the mountain model (fig 13). Although the ball tries to find it's natural place of rest, friction on the surface prevents it from doing so.

Figure 15 The mountain model Systematic angle tolerance 'Systematic angle tolerance' is the deviation from the theoretically correct position of any angle stepped. Also know as 'absolute accuracy', it can either be

expressed as a percentage of a full step or as an angular measure. It is also noncumulative as it remains constant for any angle stepped. 'Systematic angle tolerance' is caused by manufacturing tolerances in the motor (i.e. differing winding resistances or turns, unequally magnetized magnets, air gaps etc.) and drive electronics. Although with modern manufacturing techniques these tolerances are negligible, for extreme accuracy they may need to be considered. The 'static load angle curve' (fig. 14) illustrated what happens to a stationary stepping motor under load. Therefore, if it is producing torque the motor must be lagging behind the stator field under dynamic conditions i.e. motor running. Similarly there will be a lead situation during deceleration. From the static torque curve, it is clear that the lag or lead can not exceed the maximum holding torque if the motor is to maintain it's synchronism. Therefore, for a Hybrid (50 pole pair) stepping motor the maximum lead or lag angle is 3.6 or, depending on the number of phases 2, 3 or 5 full steps. Figure 16 illustrates the maximum lag which occurs under dynamic load conditions.

Figure 16 Dynamic load curve Resonance The phenomenon of 'resonance' is suffered by all stepping motors, to some degree or other. Resonance is the term used for the effect which occurs when a

stepping motor is stepped at it's natural oscillating frequency. Stepping at this natural frequency can result in the stepping motor desynchronizing or even stalling. For a Hybrid stepping motor under no load conditions this resonance occurs between 80 and 200 Hz i.e. 80 to 200 steps per second. A stepping motor's resonance can be calculated using the formula:

For ease of use and so that the values can be used directly from SIG Positec' 'Complete Catalogue', the formula can be altered as follows:

Resonance can be overcome by operating outside the resonance range, through half-step or micro-stepping, shifting the resonance frequency through changes in the system's inertia or electrical or mechanical friction. Increasing the systems inertia or friction generally known as damping. Torque ripple If, a motor is driven close to it's maximum run torque, torque ripple can have a resonance effect. Torque ripple is illustrated on 'dynamic torque diagrams' (figs. 17 & 18) and the improvements gained through higher resolution and micro stepping are clearly visible.

Figure 17 Dynamic torque diagram for a 2-phase stepping motor

Figure 18 Dynamic torque diagram for a 5-phase stepping motor As previously discussed, the phase currents of the 3-phase motor are controlled with a sine wave. Although this switching technique is more demanding than the straight forward block commutation used for 2- and 5-phase stepping motors, it does offer considerable benefits in the operating characteristics. The higher the resolution, the lower the current change per step, i.e. the greater the approximation to a sine function. This ensures the motor has a lower current ripple and subsequently a lower torque ripple. As only the fundamental component of the wave form generates torque, any ripple only has a heating effect on the motor. Which is easily dissipated through the motor body. This lower tendency to ripple also has a positive effect in reducing acoustic noise.

Figure 19 Sine wave commutation of a 3-phase stepping motor Defining the start / stop frequency For the simplest of positioning requirements, driving a stepping motor in it's start / stop mode is the least time consuming method. The maximum no load starting frequency (fAom) is always given by manufacturers and it will obviously be reduced when the motor is subjected to a load ML and it's subsequent load inertia JL. The starting frequency's load dependence is also illustrated on two logarithmic curves (fig. 20).

Figure 20 These curves are used as follows: 1. Starting with the inertia curve, the load inertia (JL) is plotted and transposed to the torque curve.

2. From this point, and parallel to the maximum no load start frequency curve, a new start frequency curve which accounts for the load inertia is drawn. 3. From the known load torque and the new start frequency curve, the maximum start / stop frequency can be found . Calculate the following: Using the performance curve (fig 21) from SIG Positec's 'Complete Catalogue', find the maximum start / stop frequency of the motor for an application where:

Inertia 13.5 kgcm Torque 210 Ncm

Figure 21

The difference between Stepper motors, Stepper Motors, Servos, and RC Servos
A stepper motor's shaft has permanent magnets attached to it, together called the rotor. Around the body of the motor is a series of coils that create a magnetic field that interacts with the permanent

magnets. When these coils are turned on and off the magnetic field causes the rotor to move. As the coils are turned on and off in a certain sequence the motor will rotate forward or reverse. This is called the phase pattern and there are several types that will cause the motor to turn. Common types are full-double phase, full-single phase, and half step. To make a stepper motor rotate, you must constantly turn on and off the coils. If you simply energize one coil the motor will just jump to that position and stay there resisting change. This energized coil pulls full current even though the motor is not turning. This is the main way steppers generate heat, when at standstill. This ability to stay put at one position rigidly is often an advantage of stepper motors. The torque at standstill is called the holding torque. Because steppers can be controlled by turning on and off coils, they are easy to control using digital computers. The computer simply energizes the coils in a certain pattern and the motor will move accordingly. At any given time the computer will know the position of the motor since the number of steps given can be stored. This is true only if some outside force of greater strength than the motor has not interfered with the motion. An optical encoder could be attached to the motor to verify its position but this is not necessary. A stepper motor can be run in "open-loop" mode (without feedback of an encoder or other device). Most stepper motor control systems will have a home switch associated with each motor that will allow the software to determine the starting or reference "home" position. Servo motors: There are several types of servo motors but I'll just deal with a simple DC type here. If you take a normal DC motor that can be bought at Radio Shack it has one coil (2 wires). If you attach a battery to those wires the motor will spin (see, very different from a stepper already!). Reversing the polarity will reverse the direction. Attach that motor to the wheel of a robot and watch the robot move noting the speed. Now add a heavier payload to the robot, what happens? The robot will slow down due to the increased load. The computer inside of the robot would not know this happened unless there was an encoder on the motor keeping track of its position. So, in a DC servo, the speed and current draw is affected by the load. For applications that the exact position of the motor must be known, a feedback device like an encoder MUST be used (not optional like a stepper). The control circuitry to perform good servoing of a DC motor is MUCH more complex than the circuitry that controls a stepper motor. RC Servos: Often when talking about robots the word "servo" really means an RC

(remote control) servo motor. This is a small box designed for use in hobby airplanes and cars. Inside this box is a complete servo system including: motor, gearbox, feedback device (pot), servo control circuitry, and drive circuit. It's really amazing that they can stick all of that in such a small package. RC servos normally have 3 wires: +v, ground, control. The control signal is a pulse that occurs at about 50hz. The width of the pulse determines the position of the servo motors output. As you can see, this would be pretty easy to control with a digital controller such as a Basic Stamp. Most will run on 5-6 volts and draw 100-500ma depending on size.

QUESTION EXERCISES

Give the three operating modes of the 555 timer IC.

o Monostable, Astable, Bistable

One of the operation of timer IC in which the timer wakes up and generates or produces a single pulse, then goes back to sleep. o Monostable operation

An operation of timer IC that is considered unstable because the output is continually changing between low and high; also produces a square wave. o Astable operation

It is the duration of pulse. o Time period

It is the digital version of the electric motor. o Stepper motor

The predecessor of the stepper motor. o Servo motor

It is used to illustrate the natural angles of stepping motors. o Flux vectors

The angle between the actual rotor position and the stable end position for a given load. o Static load angle

The load implemented on the shaft through mechanical tolerances. o Friction torque

It is the term used for the effect which occurs when a stepping motor is stepped at its natural oscillating frequency. o Resonance

How does stepper motor differ from a conventional motor? o A stepper motor is a digital version of the electric motor. The rotor moves in discrete steps as commanded, rather than rotating continuously like a conventional motor.

How does servo motor precedes stepper motor? o Application wise, the predecessor of the stepper motor was the servo motor. Today this is a higher cost solution to high performance motion control applications. The expense and complexity of a servomotor is due to the additional system components: position sensor and error amplifier.

It is still the way to position heavy loads beyond the grasp of lower power steppers.

What are the three types of stepper motor in order of increasing complexity? Describe each type. o There are three types of stepper motors in order of increasing complexity: variable reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. The variable reluctance stepper has s solid soft steel rotor with salient poles. The permanent magnet stepper has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The hybrid stepper has soft steel teeth added to the permanent magnet rotor for a smaller step angle.