MET307 M2 Ktunotes.in

MODULE 2
2.1 Milling machines – types and specifications- Milling 1 CO3

operations and types of milling cutters used for each.
2.2 - Milling tool nomenclature - Cutting forces in milling – 1 CO1

Calculation of machining time- Indexing head and its use - CO3
2.3 Different indexing methods - Differential indexing (Self 1

learning portion discretion of faculty, fundamentals to be
explained in the class)
2.4 Grinding, honing and lapping – types of grinding machines- 3 CO1

operations: cylindrical, surface and center less grinding – CO3
internal grinding, tool and cutter grinding - cutting forces in
grinding
2.5 Grinding mechanisms – Grinding wheels: Specification – 3 CO3

types of abrasives, grain size -Types of bond, grade, and
structure – Marking system of grinding wheels – Selection of
grinding wheels –need of better surface finish; surface
roughness obtainable in grinding, honing, lapping and
burnishing; Surface roughness comparisons between different
conventional metal cutting processes.
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Milling machines
Milling is a process of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating multipoint cutter.
It is found in shops where tools and cutters are manufactured. The surface obtained by this
machine tool is superior in quality and more accurate and precise. The cutter rotates at a high
speed and because of the multiple cutting edges it removes material at a very fast rate. The
machine can also hold two or more number of cutters at a time. That is why a milling machine
finds wide application in machine shop.
Principal parts of milling machine
Base
It is made of cast iron and supports all the other parts of the machine tool. A vertical column
is mounted upon the base. In some machines, the base serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
It is mounted upon the base and is box shaped. It houses the mechanism for providing drive
for the spindle. The front vertical face of the column is machined accurately to form dovetail
guideways for the knee to move up and down. The top of the column holds an overhanging
arm.
Knee
It slides up and down on the guideways of the column. An elevating screw mounted on the
base obtains this movement. Saddle is mounted upon the knee and moves in a cross direction.
Saddle
It is mounted on the guideways of the knee and moves towards or away from the face of the
column. This movement can be obtained either by power or by hand. The top of the saddle has
guideways for the table movement.
Table
The table is moved longitudinally either by power or manually on the guideways of the saddle.
The trip dogs placed on it control the movement of the table. The table of a universal milling
machine can be swiveled horizontally to perform helical works. The top surface of the table
has got ‘T’ – slots on which the work pieces or other work holding devices are mounted.
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Spindle
It is located in the upper part of the column. It receives power from the motor through belt,
gears and clutches. The front end of the spindle has got a taper hole into which the cutters are
held with different cutter holding devices
Overhanging arm
It supports the arbor from the top of the column. The arbor is supported by the bearing fitted
within the arbor support. It is also useful while using some special attachments.
Front brace
It is an extra support fitted between the knee and the overhanging arm. It is slotted to allow the
knee to be adjusted vertically.
Arbor
It supports the different types of cutters used in the machine. It is drawn into the taper hole of
the spindle by a draw bolt. One or more cutters are mounted on the arbor by placing spacing
collars between them. The arbor is supported by an arbor support. The arbor is provided with
a Morse taper or self-releasing taper.
Advantages and disadvantages of a milling machine
1. The metal is removed at a faster rate as the cutter has got multiple cutting edges and
rotates at a higher speed.
2. It is possible to perform machining by mounting more than one cutter at a time.
3. The table of the machine can be moved to an accuracy of 0.02mm.
4. Special attachments can be mounted on the machine to perform operations that are
performed in other machine tools.
But the cost of the milling machine and milling cutters are high.
Types of milling machine
Milling machines are broadly classified as follows:
1. Column and knee type
 Hand milling machine.
 Plain or horizontal milling machine.
 Universal milling machine.
 Omniversal milling machine.
 Vertical milling machine.
2. Manufacturing or bed type
 Simplex milling machine.
 Duplex milling machine.
 Triplex milling machine.
3. Planer type
4. Special type
1. Drum milling machine.
2. Rotary table milling machine.
3. Profile milling machine.
4. Pantograph milling machine.
5. Planetary milling machine.
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Column and knee type milling machine
This is the most commonly used machine in view of its flexibility and easier setup. In such
small and medium duty machines the table with work travels above the saddle in horizontal
direction (X axis) (left and right). The saddle with table moves on the slide ways provided on
the knee in transverse direction (Y axis) (front and back). The knee with saddle and table moves
on a dovetail guide ways provided on the column in vertical direction (Z axis) as shown in
above figure.
a) Plain or horizontal milling machine
This non automatic general purpose milling machine of small to medium size possesses a single
horizontal axis milling arbor. The table may be fed by hand or power. These machines are most
widely used for piece or batch production of jobs of relatively simple design and geometry.
Work pieces are mounted on the table can be moved vertically, longitudinally and crosswise
against the rotating cutter. The table cannot be rotated. It is also called as horizontal milling
machine because the cutter rotates in horizontal plane.
b) Universal milling machine
It is so named because it may be adapted to a very wide range of milling operations. The table
of a universal milling machine can be swivelled by 45º on either side and so helical milling
works can be performed. Various milling attachments like index head, vertical milling head,
slot milling head and rotary table can be mounted. It can machine drills, reamers, milling cutters
with a very high degree of accuracy and so it finds an important place in a workshop.
c) Omniversal milling machine

In addition to the table movements obtained in a universal milling machine, the knee can be
tilted to a required angle. It is useful for machining helical grooves and bevel gears. It is mostly
used in tool room work.
d) Vertical milling machine
The spindle of the machine is positioned vertically. Angular surfaces are machined by
swivelling the spindle head. The cutter is moved vertically or at an angle by swivelling the
vertical head of the machine. The machine is adapted for machining slots and flat surfaces by
moving the table. By mounting end mills and face milling cutters on the spindle, vertical
milling and internal milling are performed.
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Manufacturing or bed type
The fixed bed type milling machines are comparatively large, heavy, and rigid and differ
radically from column and knee type milling machines by the construction of its table
mounting. The table is mounted directly on the guide ways of the fixed bed. The table
movement is restricted to reciprocation at right angles to the spindle axis with no provision for
cross or vertical adjustment. The cutter mounted on the spindle head may be moved vertically
on the column, and the spindle may be adjusted horizontally to provide cross adjustment. The
name simplex, duplex and triplex indicates that the machine is provided with single, double
and triple spindle heads respectively. In a duplex machine, the spindle heads are arranged one
on each side of the table. In triple mounted on a cross rail. The usual feature of these machines
is the automatic cycle of operation for feeding the table, which is repeated in a regular sequence.
Planner milling machine

This heavy duty large machine, called Plano--miller, look like planer where the single point
tools are replaced by one or a number of milling heads. This is generally used for machining a
number of longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously, such as lathe beds, table and bed of planer
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etc. Planner milling machine is mostly used for facing operation in mass production.
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Special milling machine
These machines are the modern milling machines which are developed to easy the milling
operations according to the jobs
Drum milling machine
A square drum (sometimes it may be a regular pentagon or hexagon), is mounted on a shaft
passing through the frame. Parts are carried in fixtures mounted on the drum faces. The drum
rotates continuously in a horizontal axis, carrying the parts between the cutters. The output of
such machines depends upon the number of simultaneously machined parts and the speed of
rotation of the drum
Rotary table milling machine

The construction of this machine is the modification of a vertical milling machine and is
adapted for machining flat surfaces. It possesses a large rotary work table rotates about a
vertical axis and one or two vertical spindles
Profile milling machine
This machine duplicates the full size of the template attached to the machine. This is practically
a vertical milling machine of bed type in which the spindle can be adjusted vertically and the
cutter head horizontally across the table. The movement of the cutter is regulated by a hardened
guide pin. The pin is held against and follows outline or profile of a template mounted on the
table at the side of the work piece.
Size of a milling machine
The size of a milling machine is specified as follows
1. The size of the table (length and width)
2. The maximum lengths of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table.
3. Number of spindle speeds, number of feeds
4. Spindle nose taper
5. Power required
6. Net weight of the machine
7. The floor space required
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8. Type of the machine

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Drive mechanism of milling machine
1. Spindle drive
2. Table drive mechanism
The spindle drive mechanism is incorporated in the column. All modern machines are driven
by individual motors housed within the column, and the spindle receives power from a
combination of gears and clutch assembly. Multiple speed of the spindle may be obtained by
altering the gear ratio. The spindle holds and drives the various cutting tools.
The power feed mechanism is contained in the knee and controls the work table for its slow
feed motions along X, Y and Z directions. The feed of the work piece can be given by manually
or automatically by rotating the respective wheels by hand or by power. The work piece is
clamped on the work table by a work holding device.
Work holding devices

For effective machining operations, the work pieces need to be properly and securely held on
the machine table.
 T- bolts
 V-block
 Vises
 Angle plate
 Special fixtures
Large and irregular shaped work pieces are held on the milling machine table by ‘T’ – bolts
and clamps. ‘V’ – blocks are used for holding cylindrical work pieces on the machine table in
which keyways, slots and flats are to the machined. Angle plates are used to support the work
when surfaces are to be milled at right angles to another machined surface. Vises are commonly
used for holding work on the table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. There
are mainly three types of vises namely plain vise, swivel vise and universal vise.
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Milling machine attachments
The attachment is standard or special auxiliary devices intended to be fastened to or joined with
one or more components of the milling machine. These devices increase the capability of
milling machine. The milling machine attachments increase the range of operations, versatility,
production capacity and accuracy of machining process.
Types of Attachments
Standard Attachment & Special Attachment
1. Holding and driving the cutter by altering the cutter axis and speed.
2. For positioning, holding and feeding the work along a specified geometric path.
The different milling machine attachments are:
1) Vertical milling attachment
2) Universal milling attachment
3) High speed milling attachment
4) Slotting attachment
5) Rotary table attachment
6) Indexing head attachment
Vertical milling attachment
A horizontal milling machine is converted into a vertical milling machine by the vertical
milling attachment. Vertical milling attachment is mounted on the face of the column of the
horizontal milling machine. The attachment along with the spindle can be swiveled to any angle
for machining angular surfaces.
Universal milling attachment
By having the universal milling attachment, the spindle of the machine can be swiveled about
two perpendicular axes. This arrangement permits the spindle axis to be swiveled at practically
any angle to machine any angular surface of the work. This attachment is supported to the over
arm to operate it at higher spindle speeds.
High speed milling attachment
This attachment is used to increase the regular spindle speeds by four to six times. Milling
cutters of smaller diameters are operated efficiently at higher cutting speeds. This attachment
is bolted to the face of the column and enables the cutter to be operated at higher speeds.
Slotting attachment
The rotary movement of the spindle is converted into reciprocating movement of the ram by a
crank arrangement. This attachment makes the milling machine to be converted into a slotting
machine by accepting a single point slotting tool. The tool is mounted on the ram and used for
cutting internal or external keyways, splines etc.
Rotary table attachment
It is a special device bolted on top of the machine table to provide rotary motion to the work
piece in addition to the longitudinal, cross and vertical movements of the table. It consists of a
circular table mounted on a graduated base. The driving mechanism of this attachment is made
possible by a worm and worm gear.
Indexing head attachment
It is a special work holding device used for dividing the periphery of the work into any number
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of equal divisions. While machining gears, spirals, clutches and ratchets, this dividing head is
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used to divide the circumference of the work into any number of equal parts.

Types of milling cutters
Milling machines are mostly general purpose and have wide range of applications requiring
various types and sizes of milling cutters. A milling cutter is a multi- edged rotary cutting tool
having the shape of a solid of revolution with cutting teeth arranged either on the periphery or
on the end face or on both. Usually, the cutter is held in a fixed (but rotating) position and the
work piece moves past the cutter during the machining operation.
1. Slab or plain milling cutters:
a. Straight
b. helical fluted Plain milling cutters
2. Side milling cutter
3. Metal slitting saw
4. Angle milling cutter
5. End milling cutter
6. T–Slot milling cutter
7. Straddle milling cutter
8. Gang milling cutter
9. Formed cutter
10. Gear cutter
11. Thread milling cutters
Slab or plain milling cutters: Straight or helical fluted
Cutting edges on the circumference horizontal arbor to machine flat surfaces parallel to the
axis of rotation of the spindle. Very wide plain milling cutters are termed as slab milling cutters.
Horizontal milling machines uses the slab cutters. Cutters have teeth on the circumferential
surface only. Cutter teeth may be straight or helical according to the size of cutter. The different
types of plain milling cutters are available (light and heavy duty).
Side and Face Cutters

These cutters have teeth on the periphery the vertical and / or horizontal spindles.
and on its sides. Circumferential teeth do Generally used for high production
the actual cutting of metal while side teeth machining of large jobs
do the finishing work. Producing flat
surfaces perpendicular to the cutter axis of
rotation. They are made in varying
diameters and widths depending on the
application. Side milling is the operation of
machining a vertical surface on the side of
a work piece by using a side milling cutter.
Used only for machining flat surfaces in
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different orientations. Mounted directly in

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End mill
Such cutters have a flute in the circumferential surface and the end for milling flat, face,
shoulder angle and groove. There are straight shank, taper shank, straight flute, helical flute,
double flute, multi-flute, and so on. The basic difference between drill bit and end mill cutter is that
the drill bit can cut only in axial direction but this cutter can cut in all directions.
Very versatile and widely used in vertical spindle type milling machines. Mostly made of High
Speed steel. 4 to 12 straight or helical teeth on the periphery and face
Metal slitting saw

It is intended for cutting narrow, deep slots and for parting off operation. The teeth are cut on
the circumference of the cutter. The width of the cutter is very small or limited. The outside
diameter of the cutter will be upto 200mm and width of the cutter ranges from 0.75mm to 7mm.
The side of the cutter is relieved so that the side may not rub against the work.
Angle milling cutter

The teeth of the angle milling cutter are not parallel to the axis but are at an angle to it. By
using angle milling cutter, inclined surfaces, bevels and helical grooves are machined. There
are single angle milling cutter and double angle milling cutter.
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T– Slot milling cutter
It is a special form of end mills intended for machining ‘T’- slots. It looks like a side milling
cutter with a shank. The cutters have cutting teeth on the periphery as well as on both sides of
the cutter.
Formed cutter
Formed cutters have irregular profiles on their cutting edges to produce required outlines on
the work. Concave and convex milling cutters are used to produce convex and concave surfaces
respectively. Using gear milling cutters, gears are machined. Corner round milling cutters are
used for cutting a radius on the edges of the work. With the help of thread milling cutters
threads are milled to a specific form and size. Tap and reamer cutters are used for producing
grooves or flutes in taps and reamers.
Straddle milling cutter
When two or more parallel vertical surfaces are machined at a single cut, the operation is called
straddle milling. Straddle milling is accomplished by mounting two side milling cutters on the
same arbor, set apart at an exact spacing. Two sides of the work piece are machined
simultaneously and final width dimensions are exactly controlled.
Gang milling cutter

Gang milling is the term applied to an operation in which two or more milling cutters are
mounted on the same arbor and used when cutting horizontal surfaces. All cutters may perform
the same type of operation or each cutter may perform a different type of operation. For
example, several workplaces need a slot, a flat surface, and an angular groove.
Gear cutter
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Gear milling cutters are made of HSS and available mostly in disc form like slot milling cutters
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and also in the form of end mill for producing teeth of large module gears.

Thread cutter
These shank type solid HSS or carbide cutters having threaded like annular grooves with equi-
spaced gushing are used in automatic single purpose milling machines for cutting the threads
in large lot production of screws, bolts etc. Both internal and external threads are cut by the
tool.
(External thread cutting)

Fly cutter
Fly cutter is the simplest form of cutter. It consists of a single point cutting tool attached to the
end of the arbor. The cutting edge may be formed to reproduce a contoured surface. They are
used when standard cutters are not available. The work is done very slowly because of a single
cutting edge
Milling cutter materials
Intermittent cutting nature and usually complex geometry necessitate making the milling
cutters mostly by HSS which is unique for high tensile strength, fracture toughness and
formability.
Tougher grade cemented carbides are also used without or with coating, where feasible, for
high productivity and product quality. In some cutters tungsten carbide teeth are brazed on the
tips of the teeth. Carbide tipped cutter is especially adapted to heavy cuts and increased cutting
speeds.
The milling cutters are generally made of the following materials.
1. Tool steel - High speed steel (HSS) -High carbon steel (HCS)
2. Cemented carbide tips are used as tool inserts
3. Stellite
In general shop work, the high speed steel cutters are most widely used
The advantages of carbide tipped cutters (either solid or inserted blade type) are:
 Their high production capacity.
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 The high quality of the surfaces they produce.

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 Elimination of grinding operation in some cases,

Cutter or tool holding devices
Appropriate selection of tool holder and the method of mounting of the tool depending upon
2. Type, size and shape of work
3. Accurate and quick locating, strong support and rigid clamping
4. Minimisation of run out and deflection during cutting operation
Depending on the design of the cutter, there are several methods of supporting milling cutters
on the machine spindle.
1) Arbor
2) Collet
3) Adapter
4) Screwed on cutters
5) Chucks
Arbor
Milling machine cutters can be mounted on several types of holding device. Milling cutters
with central holes are mounted and keyed on a shaft called arbor. The arbors are made with
taper shanks for correct alignment with the machine spindle. The left side of the arbor is
threaded internally to receive a draw bolt. This draw bolt connects the arbor with the spindle.
Cutters are mounted at desired positions on the arbor by placing spacing collars between them.
The spindle rotation is transmitted to the arbor and the cutter is rotated
Collet
It is a form of sleeve bushing used to hold arbors or cutters having a smaller shank than the
spindle taper. Collets are connected to the spindle by a draw bolt and the rotary motion is
transmitted to the cutters
Adapters
Milling cutters having shanks are generally mounted on adapters. The outside taper of the
adapter conforms to the taper hole of the spindle. The shank of the cutter fits into the taper hole
of the adapter
Screwed arbor
The small cutters having threaded holes at the center are held by screwed arbors. It has a
threaded nose at one end and a taper shank at the other end. The shank of the arbor is mounted
on the spindle
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Elements of plain milling cutters/nomenclature
Body of cutter: It is the part of the cutter left after exclusion of the teeth.
Face: The portion of the teeth next to the cutting edge is known as face.
Land: The relieved back portion of the tooth adjacent to the cutting edge. It is relieved to avoid
interference between the surface being machined and the cutter.
Outside diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral cutting edges.
Central hole: It refers to the hole present at the centre of the cutter. A keyway is cut inside the
hole
Relief angle: It is angle the between the land of the tooth and the tangent to the outside diameter
of the cutter at the cutting edge of the particular tooth.
Primary clearance angle: It is the angle between the back of the tooth and the tangent drawn
to the outside diameter of the cutter at the cutting edge.
Secondary clearance angle: It is the angle formed by the secondary clearance surface and the
tangent to the periphery of the cutter at the cutting edge.
Rake angle: The angle measured in the diametral plane between the face of the tooth and a
radial line passing through the cutting edge of the tooth. The rake angles may be positive,
negative or zero. Cutting forces can be reduced with positive rake angle.
Helix angle
The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge makes with a plane containing the axis of
a cylindrical cutter. Helix angle reduces the power consumption.
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Cutting forces in milling process
In milling, cutting forces are exerted to shear away material in the form of a chip.
Knowledge of the cutting forces is essential for the following reasons:
1. Estimation of cutting power consumption,
2. Structural design of the machine – fixture – tool system
3. Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (cutting speed, feed,
tool geometry, cutting fluid etc.) on cutting forces
4. Study of behaviour and machinability characterisation of the work materials
Let us consider the cutting forces due to the single tooth engagement of a plain milling cutter
1. Tangential force PT - force will be tangential force PT tangent to the work piece, this
is the most important force.
2. Radial or transverse force PR
Now resultant of these two is R - vector summation of this tangential force and the radial
force PR.So the main forces coming from the cutting process are the tangential force P T and
the radial force PR resultant of which is R
Tangential force PT generates the torque

D
Torque (T )  PT *
2
where PT  tan gential force
D  diameter of cutter
Power consumptio n for milling  2NT
whereN  rpm of cutter
The torque is necessary to be determined for design of the cutter cutting tool, design of the
milling arbor, drilling and design of the spindle design of the gear box and so on. This P T
gives the power consumption. The resultant force (R) of PT and PR can be again resolved into
PY and PZ will be utilized and important for design of the machine tool and cutting tool
holders and any fixtures and all these things
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Fundamental milling processes
The various milling processes may be grouped under two headings:
1. Peripheral milling
2. Face milling
Peripheral milling
The machining is performed by the cutting edges on the periphery of the milling cutter. It is
classified under two headings
1. Up milling
2. Down milling
Up milling
In this method, the work piece mounted on the table is fed against the direction of rotation of
the milling cutter. The cutting force is minimum during the beginning of the cut and
maximum at the end of cut. The thickness of chip is more at the end of the cut. As the cutting
force is directed upwards, it tends to lift the work piece from the fixtures. Application of
coolant on the cutting edge is also difficult. Due to these reasons the quality of the surface
obtained by this method is wavy. This processes being safer is commonly used and
sometimes called conventional milling.
Down milling
The work piece mounted on the table is moved in the same direction as that of the rotation of
the milling cutter. The cutting force is maximum at the beginning and minimum at the end of
cut. The chip thickness is more at the beginning of the cut. The work piece is not disturbed
because of the bite of the cutter on the work. The coolant directly reaches to the cutting point.
So the quality of surface finish obtained is high. Because of the backlash error between the
feed screw of the table and the nut, vibration is setup on the work piece
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Up Milling Down Milling
1. Cutter rotates opposite direction of cutter rotates same direction of feed
feed which is also known as also known as climb milling
conventional milling.
2. chip width size is zero at initial chip size is maximum at start of cut
cut and maximum at the end of and decrease with the feed. It is zero at
feed. the end of feed.
3. In this process, heat is diffuse to In down milling most of heat diffuse
the work piece which causes the to the chip does not change the work
change in metal properties. piece properties.
4. In up milling, tool wear is more In this, tool wear is less compare to the
because the tool runs against the up milling, due to the cutter rotate with
feed. Tool rubs more at the the feed.
beginning of the cut causing faster
tool wear and decreases tool life
5. Chip length is large Chip length is small
6. The cutting chips fall down in The cutting chips fall down behind the
front of the cutting tool which tool and low vibration gives better
again cut the chips and high surface finish.
vibration cause less surface finish.
7. Due to upward force by tool, high In down milling, downward force act
fixture required to hold the work on work piece and low clamping is
piece. required
8. High quality cutting fluid is In this process heat does not diffuse in
required because heat diffuse in the work piece, so simple cutting fluid
the work piece. is required.
9. It required high cutting force It required low cutting force.
compare to down milling.
Climb milling is generally the best way to machine parts today since it reduces the load from
the cutting edge, leaves a better surface finish, and improves tool life. During conventional
milling, the cutter tends to dig into the work piece and may cause the part to be cut out of
tolerance.
Even though climb milling is the preferred way to machine parts, there are times when
conventional milling is the recommended choice. Backlash, which is typically found in older
and manual machines, is a huge concern with climb milling. If the machine does not
counteract backlash, conventional milling should be implemented. Conventional milling is
also suggested for use on casting or forgings or when the part is case hardened since the cut
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begins under the surface of the material.

Milling operations
1. Face milling and end milling
In the operation of face milling, axis of the milling cutter remains perpendicular to the
surface being milled. The surface obtained by the processes is perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the cutter. Also, up and down types of milling are available,
depending on directions of the tool rotation and feed.
2. End Milling
In case of end milling thin (low diameter) cutter are used as compared to work piece
width. It is used to make slot in the work piece. End milling is a process of the
machining by milling cutters which have cutting edges both on the end face and on
the periphery.
3. Gang milling
4. Straddle milling
5. End milling
6. Saw milling
7. Angular milling
8. Form milling
9. Profile milling
10. Keyway milling
The operation of production of keyways, grooves and slots of different shapes and
sizes can be performed in a milling machine by using a plain milling cutter, a metal
slitting saw, an end mill or by a side milling cutter.
11. Drilling and reaming
The operation of drilling and reaming are performed in a milling machine by
mounting drills and reamers into the spindle of the machine.
12. Boring
A single point cutting tool is mounted on the arbor to perform boring. By adjusting
the single point cutting tool radially, different diameters of bores are machined.
13. Gear cutting
Gear cutting operation is performed in a milling machine by using a form cutter. The
work is held between centers on a universal dividing head. A proper gear cutter is
selected and the teeth are cut by DP, module method.
14. Thread milling
This operation is performed in a special thread milling machine by rotating both the
work and the cutter. Several cuts are made to cut the threads to their depth.
15. Cam milling
Cam milling is the operation of producing cams in a milling machine with the use of a
universal dividing head and a vertical milling attachment. It is performed by end mills
on the cam blank.
Specification of milling machine
1. Dimension of the table and the length of longitudinal, vertical and cross travel of
table.
2. Number of feeds available (specify their values).
3. Number of spindle speeds (specify their values).
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4. Total power available.

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5. Floor space require

Calculation of machining time
Cutting speed
It is the distance travelled by a point on the cutting edge of the milling cutter to remove metal
in time duration of one minute. It is expressed in meters per minute.
𝝅𝑫𝑵
Cutting Speed=𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓/𝒔𝒆𝒄
Where: D = The diameter of the milling cutter in mm N = Spindle speed in rpm

The cutting speed depends upon the material to be machined, the cutter material, depth of cut,
feed, type of operation and the coolant used.
Feed
The feed in a milling machine is defined as the distance the workpiece advances under the
cutter. The feed in a milling machine depends on the material to be machined, cutter material,
depth of cut, cutting speed, type of operation and the rigidity of the machine.Feed can be
expressed in three different methods:
1. Feed per tooth: It is the distance the work advances in the time between engagements by
the two successive teeth. It is expressed in mm per tooth.
2. Feed per cutter revolution: It is the distance the work advances in the time when the cutter
turns through one complete revolution. It is expressed in mm per revolution of the cutter.
3. Feed per minute: It is the distance the work advances in one minute. It is expressed in mm
per minute.
Depth of cut
The depth of cut is the thickness of the material removed in one pass of the work below the
cutter. It is expressed in mm.
Machining time for milling

The time required to mill a surface for any operations can be calculated from the formula
L
T
f *Z *N
where ,
T  time for machining in min ute
Z  number of teeth
f  table feed per tooth in mm
N  rpm
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Indexing
Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a work piece into any number of equal
parts. An important use of milling machines is for cutting slots, teeth, grooves etc. which are
to be equally spaced around the circumference of a blank. This necessitates holding of the
blank (work piece) and rotating it the exact amount for each groove or slot to be cut. This
process is known as “indexing”. The indexing operations can also be adapted for producing
hexagonal and square bolts, splines etc.
Index head/dividing head of milling machine
The worm gear has 40 teeth and the worm has simple thread. Crank is directly attached with
the worm. Since the gear ratio of worm and worm wheel is 40:1, it takes 40 turns of the crank
to rotate the spindle and hence the work piece through one complete revolution. One
complete turn of the crank will revolve the spindle only by 1/40th revolution (turn).
In order to turn the crank precisely a fraction of a revolution, an indexing plate is used. An
indexing plate is a circular disc having concentric rings of different number of equally spaced
holes. Normally indexing plate is kept stationary by a lock pin. The work piece may also be
mounted on a mandrel between these centres or chuck.
Three indexing plates are used. These plates have concentric circles of holes with their
different numbers as described below:
If the pin is moved by one hole on the indexing plate in the circle of 20 holes, the spindle will
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
revolve by 𝟒𝟎 ∗ 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 th turn of one rotation
Dividing heads are three types:

1. Simple dividing head
2. Universal dividing head
3. Optical dividing head
Plain indexing head
A plain dividing head has a fixed spindle axis and the spindle rotates only about a
horizontal axis.
Optical indexing head
7
These models are used for high precision angular setting of the work piece with respect to the
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cutter. For reading the angles, an optical system is built into the dividing head.

Universal Dividing Head
In this, the spindle can be rotated at different angles in the vertical plane from horizontal to
vertical. As indicated by its name “universal”, it can be used to do all types of indexing on a
milling machine.
Universal dividing head is using for the following purposes
a) Universal dividing head can set the work piece in vertical, horizontal, or in inclined
position relative to the table surface.
b) To impart indexing movement.
c) For imparting a continuous rotary motion to the work piece for milling helical grooves
Indexing method
a. Direct indexing
b. Simple indexing
c. Compound indexing
d. Differential indexing
Plane/Simple Indexing
It is also named as plain indexing. It over comes the major limitation of direct indexing that is
possibility of dividing circumference of work piece into some fixed number of divisions. In
this case, worm and worm gear is first engaged. Since the gear ratio of worm and worm
wheel is 40:1, it takes 40 turns of the crank to rotate the spindle and hence the work piece
through one complete revolution. One complete turn of the crank will revolve the spindle
only by 1/40th revolution (turn). If the number of divisions on the job circumference (that is
number of indexing) needed is N, then the number of turns (n) that the crank must be rotated
for each indexing can be found from the formula:
40
Number of turns of crank 𝑛 = 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑁
Indexing Procedure
a) Divide 40 by the number of divisions to be done on the circumference of work piece.
40
Indexing crank movement= 𝑁
N is the number of divisions to be made on the circumference of work piece.
b) If the above number is a whole number, then crank is rotated by that much number of
revolutions after each milling operations, till the completion of the work.
For example, if we want to divide the circumference into 10 number of parts
40
Indexing crank movement 10 = 4 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
That is the indexing crank is given 4 revolutions after each of milling operation
c) If indexing crank movement calculated by 40/N is not whole number, it is simplified and
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then expressed as a whole number and a fraction.

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d) The fractional part of the above number is further processed by multiplying its
denominator and numerator by a suitable common number so that the denominator will
turn to a number equal to any number of holes available on the any of indexing plates.
e) The numerator of the process fraction stands for the number of holes to be moved by the
indexing crank in the selected hole circle in addition to complete turns of indexing crank
equal to whole number part of 40/N.
Example 1
To cut 30 teeth on a spur gear blank
That means we need to divide the circumference of gear blank into 30 identical, parts.
40 40
Crank movement= = 30
𝑁
Here, N = 30
10 1
=1 =1
30 3
Let us multiply both numerator and denominator by 5.
5
=1
15
Denominator becomes “15” so we will select 15-hole circle of plate 1.
Action
After each milling operation we will rotate indexing crank by one complete turn and 5 holes
in 15 holes circle. This way we do milling total 30 times.
or
We can multiply numerator and denominator by 7 instead of 5 as above.
Action
We will select the hole circle of 21 holes. After each milling operation indexing crank will be
rotated by 1 complete circle and 7 holes in 21 holes’ circle. This way milling operation will
be done by total 30 times.
This method can use for indexing upto 50 for any number of divisions after 50 this method is
not capable for some numbers like 96, etc. Compound indexing overcomes the limitations.
Problem
Indexing 48 holes
40
Rotation of crank required = 𝑁
40
ie= 48 which means crank has to be rotated 40 holes in 48 holes circle after every cut for 48
times.
Since 48 holes are not available

40 20 5 5∗3 15
= 24=6 = 6∗3 = 18 so 15 holes in 18 holes circle after every cut (18 no holes are available)
48
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Differential indexing
This is an automatic way to carry out the compound indexing method. Differential indexing
has to be employed when the number of divisions to be achieved is not possible by simple
indexing where indexing holes are not available in any of index plate. In that case use the
nearest hole circle and give the index plate a definite amount of rotation to compensate for
the mismatch.
In this the required division is obtained by a combination of two movements
 The movement of the index crank similar to the simple indexing.
 The simultaneous movement of the index plate, when the crank is turned through the
back gears.
The spindle and index plate is connected by a trains of gears so that index plate will turn
either in the same direction or in the opposite direction as the crank is rotated
Procedure
1. Lock pin is disengage to permit rotation of index plate.
2. Select a nearst approximate number to that of number of divisions required
3. Find the gear ratio between spindle and gear mounted with index plate
40
𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (𝐴 − 𝑁) ∗
𝐴
A = approximate number of divisions
N = required number of divisions to be indexed
4. Engage the gears as per the equation (numerator is gear on spindle and denominator is
gear on driven gear on the index plate
40
5. 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝐴 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡
 If A is greater than N, resulting fraction is positive and the index plate must move in
same direction as crank (clockwise). This positive rotation uses an idler gear.
 If N is greater than A, resulting fraction is negative and index plate must move
counterclockwise. This negative rotation required use of two idler gears.
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Example 1
Obtain the indexing for 87 divisions.
First of all, find out whether the number can be indexed by plain indexing or not
40 40
In plain indexing, crank movement = 𝑁 = 87 , cannot be indexed as 87 number holes are
not available
Procedure for differential indexing

1. Index plate is disengaged
2. Selected the nearest number to the required indexing number---- ie A=90
40
3. Then gear ratio (𝐴 − 𝑁) ∗ 𝐴
40 40 120 24
(90 − 87) ∗ =3∗ = =
90 90 90 18
4. Engage the gears of driver shaft with 24 gears and driven shaft 18 gears ratio (index
plate rotation in the same direction of rotation of crank)
40 8
5. Rotate the crank = 90 = 18 (moving 8 holes in 18 number hole circle)
6. After the every cut, rotate the crank 8 holes in 18 number hole circle for 87 times to
get 87 divisions on the surface
Example 2
Index the given surface to 209 divisions
The required indexing is 40/209 which cannot be obtained with any of the index plate
available. Choose the nearest possible divisions.
1. Selected the nearest number to the required indexing number---- ie A=200

40
2. Then gear ratio (𝐴 − 𝑁) ∗ 𝐴
40 40 360 36
(209 − 200) ∗ =9∗ = =
200 200 200 20
𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 36
3. Change of gear = 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 20 with opposite index plate rotation
40 4
4. Rotate the crank = 200 = 20 (moving 4 holes in 20 number hole circle)
5. After the every cut, rotate the crank 8 holes in 18 number hole circle for 87 times to
get 87 divisions on the surface
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Differences between a plain milling machine and a universal milling machine
CONVENTIONAL MILLING
In conventional milling, also called up milling, the maximum chip thickness is at the end of the cut.
The feed movement is opposite to the tool rotation.
Pros:
1. Tooth engagement is not a function of work piece surface characteristics.
2. Contamination or scale on the surface does not affect tool life.
3. The cutting process is smooth, provided that the cutter teeth are sharp.
4. The width of the chip starts from zero and increases as the cutter finishes slicing.
5. The tooth meets the work piece at the bottom of the cut.
6. Upward forces are created that tend to lift the work piece during face milling.
7. More power is required to conventional mill than climb mill.
8. Surface finish is worse because chips are carried upward by teeth and dropped in front
of cutter. There’s a lot of chip re-cutting. Flood cooling can help!
9. Tools wear faster than with climb milling.
10. Conventional milling is preferred for rough surfaces.
Cons:
12
1. The tool has the tendency to chatter.

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2. The workpiece has the tendency to be pulled up, thus proper clamping is important.

General
Types of milling cutter in detail
Milling cutters are classified into different categories depending on different criteria as
described below :
According to the Construction of Milling Cutter
(a) Solid milling cutter
(b) Inserted teeth cutter
(c) Tipped solid cutter
Solid cutter consists of teeth integral with the cutter body, in tipped cutter, teeth are made of
cemented carbide or satellite, teeth are brazed to steel cutter body called shank. Inserted teeth
cutter are larger in diameter, teeth of hard material are inserted and secured in the shank.
According to Relief Characteristics of the Cutter Teeth
(a) Profile relieved cutter
(b) Form relieved cutter
In case of profile relieved cutter, a relief to cutting edges is provided by grinding a narrow
land at their back. In case of form relieved cutters a curved relief is provided at the back of
the cutting edges.
According to Method of Mounting the Cutters
(a) Arbor type
(b) Facing cutter
(c) Shank cutter
Arbor type cutters have a central hole and keyways for their mounting on arbor. Milling
Shank type cutters are provided with straight or tapered shanks inserted into the spindle nose
and clamped there. Facing type milling cutter are used to produce flat surfaces. These are
balled or attached to the spindle nose or the face of a short arbor.
According to Direction of Rotation of the Cutter
(a) Right hand rotational cutter
(b) Left hand rotational cutter
A right hand rotational cutter rotates in an anticlockwise direction when viewed from end of
the spindle while left hand rotational cutter rotates in a clockwise direction.
According to the Direction of Helix of the Cutter Teeth
(a) Parallel straight teeth
(b) Right hand helical
(c) Left hand helical
(d) Alternate helical teeth
Parallel or straight teeth cutter consists of teeth parallel to axis of rotation of the cutter with
zero helix angle. In case of right hand and left hand helical teeth cutters, teeth cut at an angle
to the axis of rotation of the cutter. Teeth have opposite inclination in both the cutters.
Alternate helical teeth cutter has alternate teeth of right hand and left hand helical teeth
cutters.
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Direct Indexing
It is also named as rapid indexing. In this case first of all worm and worm wheel is
disengaged. Direct indexing is accomplished by an additional index plate fastened to the
index head spindle. It offers a quick means of milling squares, hexagons, taps, etc. Direct
indexing plate usually contains three sets of hole circles or slots: 24, 30, and 36. The number
of divisions possible to be indexed is limited to numbers that are factors of 24, 30, 36.
By using 24 number index plate, any number of divisions which is a factor of 24 can be
indexed quickly. It is possible to divide the surface of work piece into any number of equal
divisions out of 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 parts.
Slots Direct indexing divisions

24 2 3 4 6 8 12 24
30 2 3 5 6 10 15 30
36 2 3 4 6 9 12 18 36
Example: Problems
If we want to cut a hexagonal bolt by direct indexing, using a 24 number index plate
24
No: of holes to be moved =4
6
After completing one pair of milling whole surface of work piece, we have to move the pin
by 4 holes before next milling operation, that is to be done for 5 number of times for making
hexagonal bolt.
*****************************************
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I.B. Answer the following questions in one or two words
1. What is the base of a milling machine made of ?
2. Name the part which holds the other end of the arbor in a milling machine.
II. Answer the following questions in one or two sentences
1. What is milling?
2. What are the types of milling machines?
3. How is the size of a milling machine specified?
4. Name the fundamental milling processes.
5. What are the types of peripheral milling?
6. Name four work holding devices in a milling machine.
7. What is indexing?
8. What is the use of indexing head?
9. What are the types of indexing head?
10. What are the methods of indexing?
III. Answer the following questions in about a page
1. What are the differences between a plain milling machine and a universal milling
machine?
2. List out various milling machine attachments.
3. Name the milling cutters.
4. What are the different milling machine operations?
IV. Answer the following questions in detail
1. Draw a neat diagram of a milling machine and explain its construction.
2. Explain - Upmilling, Down milling.
3. Explain any four cutter holding devices with diagrams.
4. Draw a neat diagram of a plain milling cutter and explain its nomenculature.
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Module 5
Grinding machines – Classification – Operations – Surface, cylindrical and center-

1
less grinding
Grinding mechanisms – Grinding wheels: Specification – types of abrasives, grain
1
size
Types of bond, grade, structure – Marking system of grinding wheels – Selection of
1
grinding wheels
Glazing and loading of wheels – Dressing and Truing of grinding wheels, surface
1
roughness obtainable
Superfinishing operations: Lapping operation– Types of hand lapping – Lapping
1
machines – Types of honing –Methods of honing
Types of honing stones – Honing conditions – Cutting fluids – Types of broaches –
Force required for broaching – Surface roughness obtainable in lapping, honing and 1
broaching operations.
Semi-automatic machine tools – Turret and capstan lathes. Automatic machine tools
1
– Single and multi-spindle machines.
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GRINDING
Introduction
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of abrasive particles rigidly mounted
on a rotating wheel. Each of the abrasive particles act as a single point cutting tool and grinding
wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. The grinding operation is used to finish the work pieces
with extremely high quality of surface finish and accuracy of shape and dimension. Grinding
is one of the widely accepted finishing operations because it removes material in very small
size of (micro-chips) chips 0.25 to 0.50 mm. It provides accuracy of the order of 0.000025 mm.
Grinding of very hard material is also possible.
Advantages of grinding
1. Investment is less and design is simple
2. Surface finishing will be approximate 10 times better as compared to milling and
turning process of machining.
3. Dimensional accuracy will be quite good
4. Grinding process could be performed on hardened and unhardened work piece like
metals, alloys, carbides, ceramics, composites materials.
Applications of grinding
1. Surface finishing
2. Slitting and parting
3. De-scaling and deburring
4. Grinding of tools and cutters and re-sharpening
5. Internal hole finishing
6. Form finishing
Classification of grinding machines
According to the accuracy of the work to be done on a grinding machine, they are classified as
1. Rough grinding machines
2. Precision grinding machines
Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified
1. Surface grinding machine
2. Cylindrical grinding machine
3. Internal grinding machine
4. Tool and cutter grinding machine
Surface grinding machines
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plain or flat surfaces horizontally, vertically
or at any angle.
There are four different types of surface grinders
(a) Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table type
(b) Horizontal spindle and rotary table type
(c) Vertical spindle and reciprocating table type
(d) Vertical spindle and rotary table type
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Horizontal spindle surface grinding machine
The majority of surface grinders are of horizontal spindle type. The grinding wheel is mounted
on a horizontal spindle and the table is reciprocated to perform grinding operation. The
periphery of the wheel is used for grinding. The area of contact between the wheel and the
work is small, hence the speed is uniform over the grinding surface and the surface finish is
good.
Vertical spindle surface grinding machine

The grinding wheel is mounted on the vertical spindle of the machine which slides vertically
on the column. The table is made to reciprocate to perform grinding. The face or sides of the
wheel are used for grinding in the vertical type surface grinders. The area of contact is large
and stock can be removed quickly but quality is inferior to horizontal grinding.
Horizontal spindle rotary table Surface grinder

The table is moved to perform the grinding
operation. This machine has a limitation in
accommodation of work piece and
therefore does not have wide spread use. By
swivelling the worktable, concave or
convex or tapered surface can be produced
on individual part.
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Cylindrical grinding machine
This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. Cylindrical grinders are generally
used to grind external surfaces like cylinders, taper cylinders, faces and shoulders of work.
Broadly there are three different types of cylindrical grinding machine as follows:
1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder
2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder
3. Centre-less cylindrical surface grinder
Plain centre type cylindrical grinder/external grinding machine
The work piece is held between head stock and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding wheel
performs the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can
be carried out in this machine as shown. In this grinding wheel is moved into the work. The
desired surface is then produced by traversing the work piece across the wheel.
Plunge grinding - The basic movement is of the grinding wheel being fed radially into the
work while the later revolves on centres.
Universal cylindrical grinding machine

These grinders, in addition to the features offered by plain grinders, are provided with a
swiveling headstock and a swiveling wheel head. This permits the grinding of taper of any
angle, much greater than is possible in plain grinder.
Universal grinder has the following additional features:
 The centre of the head stock spindle can be used alive or dead.
 The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any angle.
 The headstock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane.
Centre-less cylindrical grinder
This grinding machine is a production
machine in which outside diameter of the
work piece is ground. The work piece is not
held between centres but by a work support
blade. It is rotated by means of a regulating
wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.
Centre-less grinding, the regulating wheel
revolving at a much lower surface speed
than grinding wheel controls the rotation
4
and longitudinal motion of the work piece.

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Internal grinding machine
This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface. The surface may be straight,
tapered, grooved or profiled.
Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centre-less internal grinder
Centre-less internal grinder

This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g.
cylindrical liners, various bushings etc). The work piece is rotated between supporting roll,
pressure roll and regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel
Tool and cutter grinding machines
Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen the cutting edges of various tools and
cutters. The can also do surface, cylindrical and internal grinding to finish jigs, fixtures, dies
and gauges.
Cylindrical grinding
Cylindrical grinding is performed by mounting and rotating the work between centres in a
cylindrical grinding machine. The work is fed longitudinally against the rotating grinding
wheel to perform grinding.
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External and internal cylindrical grinding

Surface grinding machines
Surface grinding machines are employed to finish plain or flat surfaces horizontally, vertically.
In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the relative motion
of the work piece is achieved either by reciprocating the work piece past the wheel or by
rotating it. The possible combinations of spindle orientations and work piece motions yield
four types of surface grinding
Centre-less grinding
Centre-less grinding is a method of grinding external cylindrical, tapered and formed surfaces
on work pieces that are not held and rotated between centres or in chucks. There are two types
of centre-less grinding and they are
1. External centre-less grinding
2. Internal centre-less grinding
External centre-less grinding
Two wheels - a grinding and a regulating wheel are used in external centre-less grinding. Both
these wheels are rotated in the same direction. The work is placed upon the work rest and
rotated between the wheels. The feed movement of the work along its axis past the grinding
wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angle from the horizontal. An
angular adjustment of 0 to 10 degrees is provided in the machine for this purpose.
Internal centre-less grinding

The principle of external centre-less grinding is applied to internal centre-less grinding also.
Grinding is done on the inner surfaces of the holes. In internal centre-less grinding, the work
is supported by three rolls - a regulating roll, a supporting roll and a pressure roll. The grinding
wheel contacts the inside surface of the work-piece directly opposite the regulating roll. The
distance between the contours of these two wheels is the wall thickness of the work.
Advantages of centre-less grinding
1. Work piece is supported the entire length, grinding is done very accurately.
2. Small, slender and fragile work pieces can be ground easily.
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3. No chucking or other holding devices are required.

4. As the process is continuous, it is best adapted for production work.
5. The size of the work can easily be controlled.
6. Low order of skill is needed in the operation of the machine.
Disadvantages of centre-less grinding
1. In hollow work, there is no certainity that the outer diameter will be concentric with
the inside diameter.
2. Works having multiple diameters are not handled easily.
Universal cylindrical grinding machine

These grinders, in addition to the features offered by plain grinders, are provided with a
swiveling headstock and a swiveling wheel head. This permits the grinding of taper of any
angle, much greater than is possible in plain grinder.
Universal grinder has the following additional features:
 The centre of the head stock spindle can be used alive or dead.
 The wheel head can be swiveled in a horizontal plane in any angle.
 The headstock can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane.
Grinding machine operations
Grinding processes are generally classified based on the type of surface produced.
1. Cylindrical grinding process.
2. Surface grinding process.
3. Centre less grinding process.
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Other grinding process
Taper grinding
Taper grinding on long work pieces can be done by swiveling the upper table. If the work piece
is short, the wheel head may be swiveled to the taper angle.
Gear grinding
The teeth of gears are ground accurately on gear grinding machines for their shape. Gear
grinding is done by the generating process or by using a form grinding wheel.
Thread grinding
Thread grinding machines are used to grind threads accurately. The grinding wheel itself is
shaped to the thread profile. These formed grinding wheels have one or multi threads on them
Wet grinding
The method of spreading a good quantity of coolant over the work surface and wheel faces
during grinding is known as ‘wet grinding’. Soda water is used as a coolant. The process of
grinding generates high amount of heat generally about 2000°C. Various properties of the work
material change due to the heat. In order to reduce the heat generated during grinding, coolant
is used. Wet grinding promotes long wheel life and better look of the ground surface. Coolant
is pumped from the tank through pipelines.
Dry grinding
Dry grinding is the method of doing grinding operation without applying coolant. Dry grinding
produces undesirable effects on work surfaces. It leads to burring & discoloration of work
surfaces. The cutting edges of the grinding wheel lose their cutting capacity. So, dry grinding
should better be avoided.
Grinding mechanisms
Material removal is taking place due to the abrasive or rubbing action between the abrasive
particles and work piece. The work is fed against the rotating abrasive wheel.
It is a material cutting process which engages an abrasive tool whose cutting elements are
grains of abrasive material known as grit. These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points,
high hot hardness, chemical stability and wear resistance. The grits are held together by a
suitable bonding material to give shape of an abrasive tool. Each of the abrasive particles act
as a single point cutting tool and grinding wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. 8
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Grinding wheel
Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which perform the cutting or
material removal, held in the weak bonding matrix. Each of the abrasive particles act as a single
point cutting tool and grinding wheel acts as a multipoint cutting tool. When grinding is
performed with conventional grinding wheels (other than metal-bonded), the worn out grits are
removed automatically by the grinding force and the grits beneath come into contact with the
work piece.
A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the abrasive material used. The
conventional wheels include aluminium oxide and silicon carbide wheels while diamond and
CBN (cubic boron nitride) wheels fall in the category of super abrasive wheel.
According to construction, grinding wheels are classified under three categories.
1. Solid grinding wheels
2. Segmented grinding wheels
3. Mounted grinding wheels
Specification of grinding wheel
A grinding wheel requires two types of specification
a) Geometrical specification
b) Compositional specification
Geometrical specification
This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the grinding operation to be performed in
the work piece. This specification mainly includes
a) wheel diameter,
b) width and depth of rim
c) the bore diameter.
Compositional specifications
Specification of a grinding wheel ordinarily means compositional specification.
a) the type of grit material
b) the grit size
c) the bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
d) the structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of inter grit spacing
e) the type of bond material
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Types of abrasives (Abrasives may be classified into two types)
Natural abrasives
 Emery (50 - 60 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide),
 Sandstone or Solid Quartz, Corundum (75 - 90 % crystalline Al2O3 + Iron Oxide)
 Diamond.
Artificial abrasives
 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3),
 Silicon Carbide (SiC),
 Artificial diamond,
 Boron Carbide and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN).
The abrasives that are generally used are Aluminium oxide, Silicon Carbide, Diamond and
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN).
Aluminium oxide may have variation in properties arising out of differences in chemical
composition and structure associated with the manufacturing process. Pure Al2O3 grit has sharp
free cutting action with low strength and is good for fine tool grinding operation on hard ferrous
materials.
 Regular or brown aluminium oxide (doped with TiO2) possesses lower hardness and
higher toughness is recommended heavy duty grinding to semi finishing.
 Al2O3 alloyed with zirconia extremely tough grit suitable for high pressure, high
material removal grinding on ferrous material and are not used for precision grinding.
Silicon carbide (SiC)
 Silicon carbide is harder than alumina but less tough. Silicon carbide is also inferior to
Al2O3 because of its chemical reactivity with iron and steel.
 Black silicon carbide is less hard but tougher than green SiC and is efficient for grinding
soft nonferrous materials. Green silicon carbide contains at least 97% SiC. It is harder
than black variety and is used for grinding cemented carbide.
Diamond
 Diamond grit is best suited for grinding cemented carbides, glass, stone, granite,
marble, concrete, ceramics, fiber reinforced plastics, ferrite, graphite.
 Natural diamond grit is having very sharp cutting edge and free cutting action and is
exclusively used in metallic, electroplated and brazed bond.
 Mono-crystalline diamond grits are known for their strength. Polycrystalline diamond
grits are most suitable for grinding of cemented carbide with low pressure. These grits
are used in resin bond.
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Diamond though hardest is not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of its reactivity.
In contrast, CBN the second hardest material, because of its chemical stability is the abrasive
material of choice for efficient grinding of HSS, alloy steels. Medium strength crystals used in
resin bond for those applications where grinding force is not so high. High strength crystals are
used with vitrified or brazed bond where large grinding force is expected. Microcrystalline
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CBN is known for its highest toughness and auto sharpening character. It can be used in all
types of bond.
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Grain size
It refers to the actual size of the abrasive particles. The grain size is denoted by the number.
The abrasive grains are classified in a screen mesh procedure.
 Large grit: Big grinding capacity, rough work piece surface.
 Fine grit: Small grinding capacity, smooth work piece surface
Grain sizes used in grinding wheels typically range between 6 and 600. Grit size 6 is very
coarse and size 600 is very fine. Finer grit sizes up to 1000 are used in some finishing operations
Grain size is denoted by a number indicating the number of meshes per linear inch of the screen
through which the grains pass when they are graded. There are four different groups of the
grain size namely coarse, medium, fine and very fine.
Grade
Grade or hardness indicates the strength with which the bonding material holds the abrasive
grains in the grinding wheel. This means the amount of force required to pull out a single
bonded abrasive grit by bond fracture. It does not refer to the hardness of the abrasive grain.
The worn out grit must pull out from the bond and make room for fresh sharp grit in order to
avoid excessive rise of grinding force and temperature.
Structure
The wheel structure indicates spacing of the abrasive grains in the wheel. It is measured on a
scale that ranges from open to dense. Open structure means more pores and fewer grains per
unit wheel volume, and vice versa. Open structure is recommended for work materials that tend
to produce continuous chips, while denser structure is used for better surface finish and
dimensional precision
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Types of bond
A bond is an adhesive substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains together in the form
of grinding wheels. Different grinding wheels are manufactured by mixing hard abrasives with
suitable bonds.
Bonds are classified into two types:

1. Organic - Resinoid, Rubber, Shellac & Oxychloride
2. Non - Organic - Metallic, Vitrified & Silicate
Common bonds
1. Vitrified bond (V)
2. Rubber bond (R)
3. Silicate bond (S)
4. Metal bond (M)
5. Shellac bond (E)
6. Oxychloride bond (O)
7. Resinoid bond (B)
8. Electroplated bond
9. Brazed bond
Vitrified bond (V)
It can also be safely used in wet grinding. It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal
variations are like to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding
because of possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
 The raw materials of bonds are clay, feldspar, and glass.
 Fired at a temperature about 1200℃.
 Strong abrasives holding strength and high rigidity.
 Applicable to a wide variety of work materials such as carbon steels and alloy steels.
 Very suitable for precision grinding.
 Vitrified wheels hold form extremely well and produce a high rate stock removal
Rubber bond (R)
It's made with rubber as a bond, and the rubber wheel is used as the regulating wheels for
center-less grinding. Its principal use is in thin wheels for wet cut-off operation. Rubber bond
was once popular for finish grinding on bearings and cutting tools.
Silicate bond (S)
Silicate wheels are made by mixing abrasive grains with silicate of soda. The mixture is
moulded in a mould and dried for several hours. Silicate bonded wheels are light grey in colour.
These wheels are having a fairly high tensile strength.
Metal bond (M)
Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness of metal
bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form accuracy as well
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as large stock removal is desired. Metal bonds include various different bronze alloys. Metal
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bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels.

Benefits of Metal Bond:
• Long wheel life
• Superior form holding
• Excellent for interrupted cuts
• Retain shape and size during extreme grinding
• accuracy as well as large stock removal
Shellac bond (E)
Shellac bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. At present use of shellac
bond is limited to grinding wheels engaged in fine finish of rolls. Thin wheels that are strong
but possess some elasticity have shellac bond. They can produce high polish and are used in
grinding such parts as camshaft and mill rolls.
Shellac is a resin. Shellac bonded grinding wheels are relatively strong but not rigid. Shellac
bond wheels are made by mixing the abrasive grains with shellac in mixer. After the mixture
has been rolled or pressed into desired wheel shapes they are then hardened by baking for
several hours at about 160 deg.
Oxy-chloride bond (O)
Oxy chloride Bond: This bond is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride
of magnesium. It is less common type bond, but still can be used in disc grinding operation. It
is used under dry condition. It is produced by mixing abrasive grains with oxide and chloride
of magnesium.
Resinoid bond (B)
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding because
of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its vibration absorbing
characteristics and finds its use with diamond and CBN in grinding of cemented carbide and
steel respectively. Fiberglass reinforced resin bond is used with cut off wheels which requires
added strength under high speed operation.
 The raw materials of bonds are synthetic resin like phenolic resin.
 Resin bonded products provide soft cutting action in precision grinding,
 Due to its strength and impact resistance, resin bonded products are used for rough
grinding applications 13
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Electroplated bond
The individual diamond grits are bonded through an electroplated nickel layer. Presently it is
the only bond for making wheels for abrasive milling and ultra-high speed grinding. This bond
allows large crystal exposure above the bond without need of any truing or dressing. This bond
is specially used for making small diameter wheel, form wheel and thin super abrasive wheels.
There are several advantages to electroplated technology:
 The ability to manufacture tight-tolerance forms.
 Lower initial cost, compared to vitrified, resin and metal bonded super abrasive wheels.
 Free cutting, resulting in higher material removal rates, less power required
 Elimination of time associated with dressing.
 The ability to strip and re-plate the core.
Brazed bond
This is relatively a recent development, allows crystal exposure as high 60-80%. In addition,
grit spacing can be precisely controlled. This bond is suitable for very high material removal
either with diamond or CBN wheel. The bond strength is much greater than provided by
electroplated bond. This bond is expected to replace electroplated bond in many applications.
Marking system of grinding wheels
The standard marking system for conventional abrasive wheel can be as follows:
W A 60 K 5 V 05
where
 The number ‘W’ is manufacturer’s identification number indicating exact kind of
abrasive used.
 The letter ‘A’ denotes that the type of abrasive is Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3). In case of
Silicon Carbide (SiC) the letter ‘C’ is used.
 The number ‘60’ specifies the average grit size in inch mesh. For a very large size grit
this number may be as small as 6 where as for a very fine grit the number can be 600.
 The letter ‘K’ denotes the hardness of the wheel. The letter symbol can range between
‘A’ and ‘Z’, ‘A’ denoting the softest grade and ‘Z’ denoting the hardest one.
 The number ‘5’ denotes the structure or porosity of the wheel. This number can be any
value between 1 to 20, ‘1’ indicating high porosity and ‘20’ means low porosity.
 The letter code ‘V’ means that the bond material used is vitrified.
 The number ‘05’ is a wheel manufacturer’s symbol identifier.
Selection of grinding wheels
Selection of grinding wheel depends upon the following factors:
1. Physical and chemical characteristics of the work material
2. Grinding conditions (Work speed, Wheel speed, cooling)
3. Type of grinding (stock removal grinding or form finish grinding)
4. Types of grinding machine.
The process parameters of grinding are defined by the kinematic and geometric parameters.
Kinematic parameters are: cutting speed (vs) and work piece speed(vw) and feed(s) if there is
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movement. The geometrical parameters are: wheels diameter Ds, work piece diameter (Dw),
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depth of cut (a), the length of contact (l) and chip thickness (h).

Glazing and loading of grinding wheels
Glazing
It is the condition of the grinding wheel in which the cutting edges or the face of the wheel
takes a glass-like appearance. Glazing takes place if the wheel is rotated at very high speeds
and is made with harder bonds. Rotating the wheel at lesser speeds and using soft bonds are
the remedies. The glazed wheels are dressed to have fresh, sharp cutting edges.
Loading
The wheel is loaded if the particles of the metal being ground adhere to the wheel. The openings
or pores of the wheel face are filled up with the metal. It is caused by grinding a softer material
or by using a very hard bonded wheels and running it very slowly. It may also take place if
very deep cuts are taken by not using the right type of coolant.
Chattering
The wavy pattern of criss-cross lines is visible on the ground surface some times. This
condition is known as chattering. It takes place when the spindle bearings are not fitted
correctly and because of the imbalance of the grinding wheel.
Dressing of grinding wheel
Dressing is the process of breaking away the glazed surface so that sharp particles are again
presented to the work. Dressing means bringing back its cutting edges by removing the
deposited metal chips.
In grinding operations, small chips of work piece material can become lodged in the cutting
surface of the grinding wheel. In addition, if the wheel bonding hardness is excessive, dulled
abrasive grains can remain in the grinding wheel. Both of these conditions will impair the
cutting efficiency, and these particles must be removed as needed to maintain proper cutting
action. This process, termed dressing is important in obtaining good results in grinding.
The common types of wheel dressers known as “Star” dressers or diamond tool dressers are
used for this purpose. A star dresser consists of a number of hardened steel wheels on its
periphery. The dresser is held against the face of the revolving wheel and moved across the
face to dress the wheel surface
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Truing of grinding wheels
Establishes concentricity. Truing a wheel will bring every point on its cutting surface
concentric with the machine spindle. This concentricity is important for achieving smooth and
accurate grinding conditions. The cutting surface of a new wheel will run out slightly due to
the clearance between the wheel bore and machine spindle Truing is also required on a new
conventional wheel to ensure concentricity with specific mounting system. When a new wheel
is installed on the grinder, it must be trued before use.
Diamond tool dressers are set on the wheels at 15° and moved across with a feed rate of less
than 0.02mm. A good amount of coolant is applied during truing. Rotary powered truing
devices are the most widely recommended truing tool in long run mass production and are not
ideally suited for those wheels with large diameters.
Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for conventional abrasive
grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate operations for super abrasive wheel
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Super-finishing operations
To ensure reliable performance and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its
components require to be manufactured not only with high dimensional and geometrical
accuracy but also with high surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in influencing
functional characteristics like wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and power
loss due to friction. Unfortunately, normal machining methods like turning, milling or even
classical grinding cannot meet this severe requirement.
1. Lapping
2. Honing
3. Polishing
4. Buffing
5. Electroplating
Lapping operation
Lapping is a machining process in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an abrasive
compound between them, by hand movement or using a machine. Lapping is a surface finishing
process used on flat or cylindrical surfaces. The fluid with abrasive particles very small free
abrasive grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with grit sizes between 300 and 600) is
referred as lapping compound. It appears as a chalky paste. Normally the fluid used in lapping
compound is oil or kerosene.
Lapping is used to produce optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gauges, and other parts
requiring very good finishes and extreme accuracy.
Another method of lapping is the abrading of a surface by means of a lap (which is made of a
material softer than the material to be lapped), which has been charged with the fine abrasive
particles. The abrasive embeds within the softer material, which holds it and permits it to score
across and cut the harder material.
Advantages
 Less distortion to the work as no clamping is required for the work
 Low heat generation
 Geometrically true surface.
 Extreme accuracy of dimension.
 Refinement of the surface finish
 Close fit between mating surfaces (High tolerance and dimensional accuracy)
Disadvantages
 Skill is required for the process
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 MRR is low
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 Cleaning of lapping compound is required

Flat lapping is most often used to process parts that require tight control of thickness and
parallelism. It can correct surface irregularities and remove subsurface damage caused by
sawing or grinding, producing dimensionally accurate flat parts to high tolerances.
Types or Lapping methods
1. Hand lapping for flat work.
2. Machine lapping.
Hand lapping
Hand lapping of flat surface is carried out by rubbing the
component over accurately finished flat surface of master lap
usually made of cast iron block. Abrading action is
accomplished by very fine abrasive powder slurry. Manual
lapping requires high personal skill because the lapping
pressure and speed have to be controlled manually. Lapping
machines accomplish the process with greater consistency
and efficiency.
Lapping machines
These machines are fairly simple pieces of equipment consisting of a rotating table, called a
lapping plate, pressure plate and conditioning ring. During lapping the abrasive compound is
applied to the rolls rotating in the same direction while the work piece is fed across the rolls.
Machine lapping can also employ abrasive paper or abrasive cloth as the lapping medium. In
lapping process, cast iron plate with loose abrasive carried in a vehicle can be used. or bonded
abrasive plates may also be used.
Types of lapping machines

Lapping machine can be also classifying as single side and double side lapping machines.
1. Vertical axis lapping machine: laps flat or round surfaces between two opposed laps on
vertical spindle
2. Centre-less roll lapping machine using bonded abrasive wheel designed for continuous
production of round parts such as piston rings, bearing races, valve tappets and shaft
etc. (similar to centre-less grinding)
3. Flat lapping machine using circular lap plate
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Honing
It is an abrasive process used for finishing previously machined surface. It is generally used for
finishing drilled or bored holes. The tool used in this process is called as hone. Hone is a bonded
abrasive stone made in the form of a stick. This process is used primarily to remove the grinding
or the tool marks left on the surface by previous operations and finishing the holes. However,
it can be used for external cylindrical surfaces as well as flat surfaces. Typical applications are
the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines, bearing spindles and gears. Honing
can be done on materials like plastic, silver, brass, aluminium, cast iron and steel
The advantages of honing are:
 Correction of geometrical accuracy.
 Dimensional accuracy.
 Surface texture improvement
 Cross hatched finish to retain lubrication
 straightness and finish.
In addition to the surface finish of about 0.1 µm, honing produces a characteristic cross hatched
surface that tends to retain lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to
its function and service life. With conventional abrasive honing stick, several strokes are
necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece. However, with introduction of high
performance diamond and CBN grits it is now possible to perform the honing operation in just
one complete stroke.
Types of honing
1. Manual honing process
2. Machine honing
Manual honing process
On this process a suitable quantity of coolant is used along with the honing stone hence this
process is called as wet process. In this process the hone is continuously rotated and the work
piece is moved front and back with the help of hand.
Machine honing
The process of honing can be done on any type of machines such as lathes and drilling
machines. These small machines will fail to yield accurate results in mass production. So a
regular honing machine is to be used in order to obtain a good result. A honing machine is
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relatively accurate and perfect

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Honing machine
The honing machines are of two types - Vertical & Horizontal
Horizontal honing machines
Longer jobs are machined with the help of these machines. These machines carry a horizontal
spindle on which honing tool is mounted. The work piece is held in a horizontal position and
rotated about its own axis. This type of machine is meant for very longer jobs. On some
machines the work piece is mounted on the table and it reciprocates to and fro. The hone rotates
about its own axis and also slightly oscillates.
Vertical honing machines

In this type of machining process, the tool as well as the work piece is held vertically. These
machines are available in more spindle types. The work piece is stable and the tool reciprocates.
Fixtures are present to hold the work piece in correct position. Vertical types of honing
machines are generally suitable for shorter jobs.
Methods of honing
Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool called as hone which contains a set
of three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the
periphery of the honing tool. The sticks are held against the work surface with controlled light
pressure, usually exercised by small springs. The honing tool is given a complex rotational
and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to produce a crosshatched lay pattern of very low
surface roughness. A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to
help remove the chips. A common application of honing is to finish the holes.
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from repeating
its path over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
 Rotation speed.
 Oscillation speed.
 Length and position of the stroke.
 Honing stick pressure
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Types of honing stones
The honing stone is composed of abrasive grains that are bound together with an adhesive. There
are many types of hones but all consist of one or more abrasive stones that are held
under pressure against the surface they are working on. The choice of abrasive material is usually
driven by the characteristics of the work piece material. With conventional abrasive honing stick,
several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece. From aluminum
oxide and silicon carbide to diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN) hone stone are using
with different grain size and bond types.
However, with introduction of high performance diamond and CBN grits it is now possible to
perform the honing operation in just one complete stroke. Honing stick with CBN grit can
maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent results over long duration.
Honing conditions
 Spindle speed
 Length of hone
 Diameter/bore length
 Reciprocating speed
 Cross hatch pattern
Linear speed, tangential speed, pressure of abrasive stones on the work piece and a kind of
coolant are used. On the other hand, parameters related to abrasive stones are type of
abrasive, grain size of abrasive, type of binder and density of abrasive.
Cutting fluids
The hone is usually turned in the bore while being moved in and out. Special cutting fluids are
used to give a smooth cutting action and to remove the material that has been abraded. Honing
oil is a liquid, solution or emulsion used to aid in the cutting or grinding of metal, typically by
abrasive tools or stones, and may or may not contain oil. It can also be called machining
oil, tool oil, cutting fluid, and cutting oil. There are many different kinds of "honing oils" to
suit different needs. The two most common classes of honing oil are petroleum based (typically
mineral oils), and non-petroleum (typically water or vegetable oil) based. Common additives
include chlorine, sulfur, rust inhibitors, and detergents
Special cutting fluids are used to give a smooth cutting action and to remove the material that
has been abraded.
21
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MODULE 2

2.1 Milling machines – types and specifications- Milling 1 CO3

2.2 - Milling tool nomenclature - Cutting forces in milling – 1 CO1

2.3 Different indexing methods - Differential indexing (Self 1

2.4 Grinding, honing and lapping – types of grinding machines- 3 CO1

2.5 Grinding mechanisms – Grinding wheels: Specification – 3 CO3

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c) Omniversal milling machine

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Planner milling machine

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Rotary table milling machine

8. Type of the machine

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Work holding devices

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Side and Face Cutters

different orientations. Mounted directly in

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Metal slitting saw

Angle milling cutter

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Gang milling cutter

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(External thread cutting)

 The high quality of the surfaces they produce.

 Elimination of grinding operation in some cases,

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Tangential force PT generates the torque

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5. Chip length is large Chip length is small

begins under the surface of the material.

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4. Total power available.

5. Floor space require

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Where: D = The diameter of the milling cutter in mm N = Spindle speed in rpm

Machining time for milling

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Dividing heads are three types:

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then expressed as a whole number and a fraction.

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Since 48 holes are not available

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Procedure for differential indexing

1. Selected the nearest number to the required indexing number---- ie A=200

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1. The tool has the tendency to chatter.

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Slots Direct indexing divisions

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