University of Algiers 2- Department of English – Master 1- Teaching English to Non-Native Speakers-

Dr. Bouchama- Sari-Ahmed

Lecture 03

Focus on Language Teaching/ Instruction: Approaches and Methods / the Post-method Pedagogy

1. Language Teaching Methods and Approaches

Throughout the history of language teaching, different methods and approaches developed
for the sake of instructing language. They are based on a given theory of language and/or a theory of
language learning. For instance, the ALM method is derived from structuralism as a theory of
language and behaviorism as a theory of language learning, CLT is built on Krashen’s theory of
second language acquisition and Dell Hymes’ communicative competence, and CBLT on
functionalism, behaviorism and interactionism.
A method such as ALM, the Situational Method, the Silent Way, and Total Physical
Response is detailed in terms of objectives, roles of teachers, roles of learners, activities, and
procedures (Richards & Rodgers, 2014 ). Teachers are required to follow its principles precisely.
Methods tend to be prescriptive, rigid, and to last for a short period of time. Hence, the looser
concept of approach was adopted.
An approach, on the other hand, is a set of beliefs and principles that can be used by
teachers as a basis for language instruction (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). Communicative language
teaching, competency-based language teaching, and task-based language teaching are some examples.
Approaches do not contain specific prescriptions and techniques. Because they are flexible and offer
teachers the possibility to interpret them differently; they live longer than methods.
In the section below, we will examine the task-based language teaching approach.
Task -Based Language Teaching
 Background
TBLT is seen as an extension of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which was
influenced by Stephen Krashen's model of second language acquisition. The latter distinguishes
between language acquisition and language learning. It considers language proficiency to develop
more effectively through exposure to comprehensible input rather than through explicit grammar
instruction.
TBLT is also influenced by Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1985) which argues that language
production (speaking or writing) is just as crucial for language learning as input. Swain suggests that
learners need to actively produce language to process and internalize it effectively. This interaction
between input and output helps learners refine their language skills, making TBLT a more
comprehensive framework for language acquisition.
 TBLT challenges traditional grammar-focused teaching arguing that tasks offer a more natural
environment for language learning. Tasks require learners to negotiate meaning and engage in
meaningful communication which is believed to activate natural cognitive learning processes.

TBLT emphasizes process (how language is used in tasks) rather than product (the final
language output). Learners are engaged in purposeful communication and interact with others in real-
world or pedagogical tasks. In this respect, tasks can be real-life tasks (e.g., giving directions, writing
emails) or pedagogical tasks (designed specifically for classroom learning). They are sequenced
according to difficulty.

The use of tasks in education has a long history. It initially emerged in vocational training and
was later applied to language teaching. Task analysis was first used in the military and vocational
settings to design training programs. The focus was first on manual tasks, and it later expanded to
team-based tasks involving communication.

TBLT shares similarities with vocational training in terms of analyzing real-world tasks and
designing instructional tasks for language learning. It involves:

 Analyzing real-world task-use situations.

 Translating these into teaching tasks.
 Designing instructional tasks.
 Sequencing tasks in the curriculum.

 TBLT Objectives

TBLT aims to develop language skills based on the specific real-world needs of learners. Tasks
are selected through a careful needs analysis that identifies situations where learners will need to use
the language. For example, Malaysia's English Language Syllabus (1975) was developed using a task-
based approach by identifying broad goals for English communication in vocational and social
contexts for secondary school leavers.

 Task-Based Syllabus

Unlike conventional syllabi which focus on language structures, topics, and skills, a TBLT
syllabus centers on specific tasks to be completed by learners.

 Types of Tasks

 Real-world tasks: practice tasks that mirror situations learners are likely to encounter, such as
using a telephone or booking travel.
 Pedagogical tasks: tasks based on psycholinguistic principles that may not directly reflect
real-world activities but help with language acquisition.
 Tasks can be further categorized into types like problem-solving, information-gap, opinion
exchange, and decision-making.
 A pre-task phase typically begins a task sequence. During this phase, a teacher can introduce
the students to the language they will need to complete the task. The tasks must be meaningful and
relevant so that the students see the reason for doing the task and can see how the task relates to
possible situations in their lives outside the classroom. Students must be actively engaged with the
task, with the teacher monitoring their performance and intervening when necessary. The task needs
to have clear outcomes so that both students and teachers can tell if the task has been successfully
completed. A post-task phase takes place to reinforce students’ learning or to address any problems
that may have arisen.

 Learner Roles

In TBLT, learners take on various roles such as group participants, monitors (reflecting on
language use), and risk-takers/innovators (creating and interpreting language). These roles require
learners to engage in communication, reflect on language forms, and experiment with language
despite potential gaps in knowledge.

 Teacher Roles

The teacher’s role is to choose tasks, based on an analysis of students’ needs, that are appropriate
to the level of the students. They are also required to create pre-task and task follow-up phases that
are in line with the abilities and needs of the students.

The teacher is the input provider during the initial phase of the lesson. He sets the task for students
to perform and pays attention during the task making note of language that should be focused on. He
provides feedback such as recasts. Students often work closely together to help each other accomplish
the task.

 Instructional Materials

Pedagogical materials in TBLT include tasks and activities designed to meet learners' needs.
These materials might range from traditional textbooks to multimedia resources or task cards. The
use of realia (authentic materials) is encouraged to make tasks more relevant and grounded in real-
life language use such as newspapers, TV, and the internet.

 Examples of Tasks

Using a newspaper to plan a weekend or create a job ad.

Television tasks, like analyzing weather reports or infomercials.
Internet-based tasks like comparing book prices or engaging in online chat rooms.

TBLT focuses on providing learners with real, meaningful language tasks that enhance
communication, problem-solving, and critical thinking. Teachers play a central role in guiding and
facilitating this process.
 1. Post-method pedagogy

In the 1990s, methods and approaches came under criticism for several reasons. The role of
the teacher was often marginalized, leaving little room for the teacher’s own personal initiative and
teaching style. Additionally, learner-centeredness and teacher creativity were frequently overlooked.
It became also apparent that it was difficult for teachers to apply the underlying principles of methods
and approaches across diverse classrooms, as teachers held different conceptions of teaching and
learners experienced learning in unique ways. Learners possess different learning styles and aptitudes,
making it challenging to apply one fixed method universally.

By the end of the 20th century, methods and approaches were no longer regarded as central to
language teaching. It became clear that there is no universal ‘best’ method that works in every
teaching context (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Nunan, 2015). Each method has its own
advantages and drawbacks, making it more suitable for some situations while less effective in others.
Classroom experience has demonstrated that relying solely on one method can actually be detrimental
to the learning process.

This realization led to the development of eclecticism, where educators blend different
approaches and techniques based on the needs of their specific teaching context. It is important to
emphasize, however, that eclecticism should not be a haphazard or unplanned mix of various methods.
As learners are diverse in terms of their age, learning styles, aptitudes, and strategies, and teachers
themselves have different teaching styles, a method that works in one context may not yield the same
results in another, as cultural and educational settings vary widely. For example, a method that is
successful in Britain may not be as effective in countries like India or Algeria, where educational
traditions and cultural norms differ (Johnson, 2018). Therefore, the selection of a method should be
made locally, with input from teachers being essential.

Contemporary scholars argue that effective teaching must be tailored to the specific
characteristics of learners, teachers, and the learning environment (Johnson, 2018). As a result, many
applied linguists, such as Kumaravadivelu (2006), advocate for the post-method pedagogy. This
approach moves away from the reliance on a fixed method or approach and instead emphasizes the
importance of equipping teachers with the knowledge and skills to make informed decisions about
how to design effective lessons. This prevents the problems associated with methodless teaching.

In this context, knowledge of various teaching methods is seen as a valuable resource, offering
teachers a range of strategies that can be adapted to the specific needs of their classroom. As Bell
(2007) argues, understanding different methods is vital for teachers’ professional growth because it
allows them to choose the most appropriate approach for their particular situation.

Thus, it is crucial that language teacher education includes the study of various teaching
methods. The issue is not the methods themselves, but how they are applied in practice. Teachers
should be exposed to a variety of methods so they can develop their own teaching philosophy and
decide which principles are best suited to their teaching context. By understanding the strengths and
limitations of different approaches, teachers can build a more flexible and informed teaching style,
strengthening their confidence and enabling them to challenge educational policies that may not be in
the best interest of their students.
References
Bell, D. (2007). The practice of language teaching (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.
Johnson, K. (2018). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding language teaching: From method to postmethod. Lawrence
ErlbaumAssociates.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.).
Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (2015). Teaching English to speakers of other languages: An introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some applications to language teaching. Applied
Linguistics, 6(1), 1-18