Dr.

Belmerabet Fatiha

Lecture One: The Age of Reason/ Enlightenment

1.1. Introduction

For centuries, European monarchs held absolute power, justifying their authority
through the belief in the divine right bestowed upon them by God. However, in 1689,
England enacted the Bill of Rights, which curtailed the monarch's authority and
reduced their power. In contrast, other European countries continued to have monarchs
who wielded supreme power without such limitations. In the mid-1700s, a movement
known as the Enlightenment emerged, introducing novel concepts about governance.
This period marked a time of questioning established practices and beliefs, although
untested alternatives were yet to be fully embraced. Furthermore, advocating for these
new ideas carried risks and uncertainties.

1.2. The Age of Enlightenment Defined

The Age of Enlightenment, also known as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason,
was a significant philosophical movement that shaped European intellectual thought
during the 18th century. It revolved around the central belief that reason should serve
as the primary basis for authority and legitimacy. This intellectual shift promoted
various ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional
government, and the separation of church and state. The Enlightenment emphasized
the scientific method and encouraged the critical examination of religious traditions.
Many of the fundamental concepts underpinning modern democracies, including civil
society, human and civil rights, and the separation of powers, originated from the
Enlightenment. Additionally, the empirical sciences and academic disciplines we
recognize today, including the social sciences and humanities, owe their roots to this
era. These developments coincided with and were influenced by European exploration,
colonization of the Americas, and the rapid expansion of European influence in Asia
and Africa. Some historians consider this period as the "European Moment in World
History," characterized by an extended phase of European dominance over other parts
of the world, often accompanied by tragic consequences.
1.3. Enlightenment Beginning

The exact commencement of the Age of Enlightenment is a topic of debate among

scholars. Two commonly proposed starting points are the early 18th century (1701) or
the mid-17th century (1650). Traditionally, historians have placed the period of
enlightenment between 1715 and 1789, spanning from the beginning of Louis XV's
reign until the French Revolution. The Enlightenment can be traced back to the mid-
17th century, marked by significant works such as Descartes' Discourse on Method,
published in 1637. In France, some attribute the beginning of the Enlightenment to
Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica, published in 1687. Descartes' philosophical
shift from relying on external authority to prioritizing internal authority is seen by
certain historians and philosophers as a crucial turning point that signifies the onset of
the Enlightenment. Regarding its conclusion, many scholars consider the last years of
the 18th century, often citing the French Revolution of 1789 or the onset of the
Napoleonic Wars (1804–15), as the endpoint of the Enlightenment.

1.4. Enlightenment Expansion

The Enlightenment had its beginnings in various European countries, each with its
own unique focus. In France, it was closely associated with radical anti-government
and anti-Church sentiments. In Germany, the Enlightenment reached the middle
classes and took on a spiritualistic and nationalistic character that did not pose a threat
to established governments or churches. The responses of governments to the
Enlightenment varied. In France, the government was hostile towards Enlightenment
thinkers, leading to struggles against state control and instances of imprisonment or
exile. Meanwhile, the British government largely disregarded the leaders of the
Enlightenment in England and Scotland.

The Scottish Enlightenment, which emphasized liberal Calvinism and Newtonian

philosophy, played a significant role in the further development of Enlightenment
ideas in the transatlantic context, particularly in the Americas. In Italy, the decline in
the Church's power created a fertile period of intellectual exploration and invention,
including scientific discoveries. In Russia, the government actively promoted the arts
and sciences in the mid-18th century, leading to the establishment of the first Russian
university, library, theater, public museum, and independent press.

Notably, several American figures, most notably Benjamin Franklin and Thomas
Jefferson, played a major role in disseminating Enlightenment ideas in the New World
and influencing thinkers in Britain and France. The cultural exchange during the Age
of Enlightenment was significant, with ideas flowing in both directions across the
Atlantic.

In terms of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge during the

Enlightenment, universal encyclopedias took precedence over technical dictionaries.
These encyclopedias aimed to compile all human knowledge into a comprehensive
reference work. The most famous among these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le
Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des
métiers, published in 1751.

1.5. Ideals of Enlightenment

In the mid-18th century, Europe experienced a significant surge in philosophical and

scientific movements that challenged established doctrines and beliefs. Leading the
philosophical movement were influential figures such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, who advocated for a society based on reason rather than faith and Catholic
doctrine. They called for a new civil order founded on natural law and promoted
scientific inquiry based on experimentation and observation. The political philosopher
Montesquieu introduced the concept of a separation of powers in government, an idea
that greatly influenced the authors of the United States Constitution.

Two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought emerged during this period. The radical
Enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, championed democracy,
individual liberty, freedom of expression, and the rejection of religious authority. On
the other hand, a more moderate variety, supported by thinkers like René Descartes,
John Locke, Christian Wolff, and Isaac Newton, sought a balance between proposed
reforms and existing systems of power and faith.
Science played a pivotal role in Enlightenment ideals, with many writers and thinkers
of the time having scientific backgrounds. They believed that scientific progress would
pave the way for the demise of religious and traditional authority, fostering free speech
and independent thought. Enlightenment science emphasized empiricism, rationality,
and the pursuit of progress, aligning with the overarching principles of the
Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment is widely regarded as the foundation of modern Western political

and intellectual culture. It brought about political modernization by emphasizing
democratic values, the establishment of liberal democracies, and the development of
fundamental concepts. Enlightenment thinkers shaped European liberal thought,
including the recognition of individual rights, the natural equality of all people, the
separation of powers, the artificial nature of political order (resulting in the distinction
between civil society and the state), the belief in representative political power based
on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of the law that allows
individuals to do anything not explicitly prohibited.

In the realm of religion, Enlightenment-era interpretations emerged as a response to

the religious conflicts that had plagued Europe in the preceding century.
Enlightenment thinkers sought to limit the political power of organized religion,
aiming to prevent another era of intolerant religious warfare. New ideas such as deism
(belief in a Creator God without reference to religious texts) and atheism gained
prominence, although the latter had fewer followers. Many, like Voltaire, argued that
without a belief in a punishing God, the moral order of society could be destabilized.

Universal encyclopedias, rather than technical dictionaries, served as prime examples

of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge during the Age of
Enlightenment. The goal of these encyclopedias was to encompass the entirety of
human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most famous of these
works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire
raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers.
1.6. Historical Phases of Enlightenment

1.6.1. The Early Enlightenment: 1685-1730

The Enlightenment drew upon important intellectual precursors in the 17th century,
including Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes from England, René Descartes from
France, as well as key figures of the Scientific Revolution such as Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The roots of the Enlightenment are
commonly traced back to 1680s England, a period marked by the publication of Isaac
Newton's "Principia Mathematica" (1686) and John Locke's "Essay Concerning
Human Understanding" (1689). These works provided the scientific, mathematical,
and philosophical foundation for the significant advancements of the Enlightenment.

Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, encapsulated the spirit of the era in his essay
"What Is Enlightenment?" (1784), with the motto "Dare to know! Have courage to use
your own reason!" This sentiment encouraged individuals to challenge established
beliefs and rely on their own rationality.

Locke argued that human nature was changeable and that knowledge was acquired
through accumulated experiences rather than accessing an external absolute truth.
Newton's theories in calculus and optics became influential metaphors in the
Enlightenment, representing precise measurement and illumination.

The Enlightenment was not a homogeneous movement but rather had distinct regional
variations such as the French Enlightenment, the Scottish Enlightenment, and the
English, German, Swiss, or American Enlightenment. Individual Enlightenment
thinkers often had different approaches and perspectives. For instance, Locke differed
from David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau had contrasting views with Voltaire, and
Thomas Jefferson's ideas diverged from those of Frederick the Great. However, these
differences and disagreements emerged within the shared Enlightenment themes of
rational inquiry and the belief in progress through dialogue.
1.6.2. The High Enlightenment: 1730-1780
During the High Enlightenment, the focus was on the dialogues and writings of French
intellectuals known as philosophes, including Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu,
Buffon, and Denis Diderot. This period can be characterized as a "chaos of clear
ideas," as described by one historian summarizing Voltaire's "Philosophical
Dictionary." The central belief was that everything in the universe could be understood
and explained through rational analysis. A significant publication of this time was
Diderot's Encyclopédie (1751-1777), a monumental compilation of human knowledge
authored by leading thinkers of the era.

The High Enlightenment was marked by enlightened despots such as Frederick the
Great, who sought to unify, rationalize, and modernize Prussia amidst prolonged
conflicts with Austria. It was also a time of enlightened revolutionaries, including
Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, who drew inspiration from Locke's essays and
framed the American Revolution through the lens of Enlightenment ideals in the
"Declaration of Independence" (1776).

Religious innovation and reformation were prominent during this period. Christians
attempted to reconcile their faith with reason, while deists and materialists argued that
the universe operated independently without divine intervention. Locke and the French
philosopher Pierre Bayle advocated for the separation of Church and State. Secret
societies like the Freemasons, the Bavarian Illuminati, and the Rosicrucians gained
popularity, offering individuals new avenues for fellowship, esoteric rituals, and
mutual assistance. Coffeehouses, newspapers, and literary salons emerged as vibrant
spaces for the circulation of ideas.

1.6.3. The Late Enlightenment and Beyond: 1780-1815

The French Revolution of 1789 represented the culmination of the High
Enlightenment's aspiration to dismantle traditional authorities and reconstruct society
based on rational principles. However, the revolution ultimately descended into a
period of violent terror, revealing the limitations of its own ideals. This turbulent phase
paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte a decade later. Despite its
shortcomings, the revolution's goal of egalitarianism garnered admiration from early
feminists such as Mary Wollstonecraft, who was the mother of Mary Shelley, the
author of "Frankenstein." Furthermore, the revolution served as a source of inspiration
for the Haitian war of independence and influenced Paraguay's first post-independence
government with its radical inclusivism regarding race.

While the Enlightenment's rationality gave way to the fervor of Romanticism in the
19th century, the influence of Enlightenment thinkers on subsequent intellectual
movements remained significant. 19th-century Liberalism and Classicism, as well as
20th-century Modernism, owe a substantial debt to the ideas and philosophies that
emerged during the Enlightenment. The legacy of the Enlightenment continued to
shape and inform subsequent intellectual, artistic, and political developments
throughout history.

1.7. Impact

The Enlightenment had a far-reaching impact, resulting in a multitude of books,

essays, inventions, scientific discoveries, laws, wars, and revolutions. The American
and French Revolutions, in particular, were directly influenced by Enlightenment
ideals, with the former representing the height of Enlightenment influence and the
latter marking the beginning of its decline. Subsequently, the Enlightenment gave way
to the rise of 19th-century Romanticism.

Some European monarchs expressed interest in the political ideas put forth by
Enlightenment thinkers and became known as enlightened despots. These rulers,
including Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of
Russia, sought to use their absolute power in a just and enlightened manner. They
implemented reforms aligned with Enlightenment ideals.

While Enlightenment philosophers advocated for the equality of men, many held
traditional views about women. Rousseau, for instance, claimed that women were
created to please men. However, there were women who pursued Enlightenment ideas
without challenging traditional gender roles, and there were others who actively
advocated for women's rights. In France, wealthy and talented women hosted social
gatherings called salons, where the era's leading thinkers and artists participated in
discussions and idea exchanges on an equal basis. Salons provided women with
educational opportunities that were otherwise unavailable to them. Marie Thérèse
Rodet Geoffrin was one of the most admired salon hostesses, attracting guests such as
Voltaire, Montesquieu, painters, musicians, playwrights, and scientists. These salons
served as platforms for discussions on women's rights and social issues, calling for
education and advocating for equal rights. Early women reformers demanded that the
fundamental human rights espoused by Enlightenment thinkers be extended to women
as well. In 1791, French writer Olympe De Gouges declared, "Woman is born free and
lives equal to man in her rights." Since the Enlightenment, women have been striving
for equal political, economic, and social rights, continuing the fight for equality.

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