Fluid mechanics

Chapter 1 : fluid properties

1.1. fluid definition

A fluid is a substance that flows and has no fixed shape. In other words, a fluid is a substance that
can change its shape to fit the container it's in.
There are two main types of fluids:
 Liquids: Liquids are fluids that have a fixed volume but can change their shape to fit their
container. Examples of liquids include water, juice, and oil.
 Gases: Gases are fluids that have neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape. They can
expand or contract to fill their container. Examples of gases include air, helium, and
oxygen.
The defining characteristics of a fluid are:
 No fixed shape: Fluids can change their shape to fit their container.
 No fixed volume: Fluids can change their volume by compressing or expanding.
 Flowability: Fluids can flow or move under the influence of forces such as gravity or
pressure.
Fluid mechanics offers the possibility of studying the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion.
Fluids are very deformable under the action of weak forces; they can be in a liquid or gaseous
state. They flow more or less easily.
 Liquids have a defined volume and an indefinite shape.
 Gases have an indefinite volume and shape.
Compressibility
In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility (also known as the coefficient of
compressibility or isothermal compressibility when temperature remains constant)
describes how the volume of a fluid or solid changes in response to pressure variations (or
mean stress). The equation for compressibility is as follows:

where V is the volume and p is the pressure. This formulation is designed so that
compressibility remains positive in common cases when an increase in pressure causes a
decrease in volume.
 Fluids can be classified by compressibility into compressible or incompressible fluids or
by viscosity into: ideal fluids and real fluids
Ideal Fluid:
An ideal fluid is an idealized fluid that is characterized by certain simplified
assumptions about its behavior.
In the context of fluid dynamics, an ideal fluid is considered to be inviscid (having zero
viscosity) and non-heat conducting.
Ideal fluids are used in theoretical models to simplify complex fluid flow problems and
make calculations more manageable.
Real Fluid:
A real fluid is a fluid that behaves according to the laws of fluid dynamics in the real
world, taking into account factors like viscosity, compressibility, and heat conduction.
Real fluids have viscosity, which is the resistance of a fluid to flow, and can exhibit
other non-ideal behaviors like thermal conductivity and compressibility.
Examples of real fluids include water, air, oil, and any other fluid that behaves
according to the laws of fluid mechanics in the real world.
Real fluids are used in more practical applications of fluid dynamics, such as in
engineering, chemistry, biology, and environmental sciences.

1.2. physical properties of fluids

All fluids possess characteristics that enable the description of their physical conditions in a given
state. Among these characteristics, which are referred to as fluid properties, we have:
1.2.1 Density

Density is the fluid's mass concentration defined as the mass per unit volume of a fluid.
The density of a substance varies as per the volume of a substance. The SI unit of density
is kg.m-3

Table 1: Densities of common materials

Material Density (g/cm3) State of Matter

hydrogen (at STP) 0.00009 Gas
helium (at STP) 0.000178 Gas
 carbon monoxide (at 0.00125 Gas
STP)
nitrogen (at STP) 0.001251 Gas
air (at STP) 0.001293 Gas
carbon dioxide (at 0.001977 Gas
STP)
lithium 0.534 Solid
ethanol (grain alcohol) 0.81 Liquid

Benzene 0.9 Liquid

Ice 0.92 Solid
water at 20°C 0.998 Liquid
water at 4°C 1 Liquid
Seawater 1.03 Liquid
Milk 1.03 Liquid
Coal 1.1-1.4 Solid
Blood 1.6 Liquid
Magnesium 1.7 Solid
Granite 2.6-2.7 Solid
Aluminum 2.7 Solid
Steel 7.8 Solid
Iron 7.8 Solid
Copper 8.3-9.0 Solid
Lead 11.3 Solid
Mercury 13.6 Liquid
Uranium 18.7 Solid
Gold 19.3 Solid
Platinum 21.4 Solid
Osmium 22.6 Solid
Iridium 22.6 Solid
white dwarf star 107 Solid

 For a fluid: the density exhibits a weak dependence on pressure (P).

 At a temperature of 20°C and atmospheric pressure, the density of water is approximately
998 kg/m3.
 When the pressure is increased to 107 Pa, the density of water changes minimally to 1003
kg/m3.
The following figure illustrates the variation of the density of water as a function of temperature
and at atmospheric pressure

Figure 1: variation water density as a function of temperature

For ideal gases, the density can be calculated from its state equation:

With:

P is the absolute pressure [Pa]

ρ is the density [kg/m3]
T is the temperature in [°K]
R is the constant of the ideal gas; it can be estimated by 8.314/Molar mass

 Example: For air at T = 20°C and P = atmospheric pressure, the density (ρ) is 1.202
kg/m3. For other values of T, the density of air changes.

 The inverse of the density per unit mass is called the specific volume.

1.2.2 Specific volume

Specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters occupied by one kilogram of
matter. It is the ratio of a material's volume to its mass, which is the same as the reciprocal of its
density.

Specific volume may be calculated or measured for any state of matter, but it is most often used
in calculations involving gases.

The standard unit for specific volume is cubic meters per kilogram (m3/kg), although it may be
expressed in terms of milliliters per gram (mL/g) or cubic feet per pound (ft3/lb).

1.2.3 Specific weight

 The specific weight represents the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of a fluid. It is
usually denoted by the Greek letter γ (gamma) and has dimensions of force per unit
volume.3

1.2.4. Specific gravity (SG) (unitless)

The specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of a
reference fluid, usually water. It is a dimensionless quantity that is used to compare the density
of different fluids.

 The specific gravity of a fluid can be calculated using the following formula:

Specific Gravity (SG) = Density of fluid / Density of water

Where:

 Density of fluid is the mass per unit volume of the fluid (usually measured in kg/m3 or
g/cm3)
 Density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m3 or 1 g/cm3 at standard temperature and
pressure (STP)

For example, if the density of a fluid is 1200 kg/m3, its specific gravity would be:

SG = 1200 kg/m3 / 1000 kg/m3 = 1.20

 The specific gravity of water is 1.00 and that of mercury is 13.6.

 The specific gravity of liquids tells us about the buoyancy of the substance.
 If the specific gravity is greater than 1, the substance will sink in water (Case of
Mercury).
 If the specific gravity is less than 1, the substance will partially float on water (Case of
table oil).

Similarly for gases:

  If the specific gravity is greater than 1, the substance will descend to the ground (Case of
Oxygen)
 If the specific gravity is less than 1, the substance will rise into the atmosphere (Case of
Hydrogen)

1.2.5. Viscosity

1.2.5.1. Dynamic viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is the molecular property indicating the presence of internal resistance
forces within the fluid to motion.

To further explain the concept of viscosity, we consider two large parallel plates separated by a
fluid of thickness ( e ), as shown in the following figure. The fluid in contact with the upper plate
will adhere to it and move at velocity ( V ), while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will
have a velocity of zero.

The Couette experiment demonstrates that the frictional force (resistance) ( F ) is proportional to
the area ( S ) of the plate, to the velocity ( V ), and inversely proportional to the distance ( y ).

The Couette experiment demonstrated that there exists a coefficient ((mu )) that depends on the fluid, such
that the relationship for the frictional force becomes:

In fluid dynamics, Couette flow is the flow of a viscous fluid in the space between two surfaces, one
of which is moving tangentially relative to the other.

To explain the phenomenon occurring within the fluid, we consider two adjacent fluid layers
separated by a distance ( dy ). The frictional force ( F ) acting at the interface between these two
layers opposes the sliding motion of one layer over the other. This force is proportional to the
velocity difference between the layers, denoted as ( dV ), and inversely proportional to the
distance ( dy ) as follows:

For a small distance ( ) and the velocity difference ( ), the formula for the shear
stress becomes:

: Dynamic Viscosity in the International System of Units (IS), the unit is the poiseuille (Pa·s) or Newton-
second per square meter (N·s/m²).

In the centimeter-gram-second (C.G.S.) system, the unit is the poise (P), defined as follows: 1poise= 0.1
N.S/m².

At a temperature of 20 °C, the dynamic viscosity of water is ( = 10-3 N·s/m². Refer to the following table
for dynamic viscosity at other temperatures:

Dynamic Viscosity
Temperature (°C)
(N·s/m²)
0 1.79 × 10⁻³
5 1.52 × 10⁻³
10 1.31 × 10⁻³
15 1.14 × 10⁻³
20 1.00 × 10⁻³
25 0.89 × 10⁻³
30 0.80 × 10⁻³
35 0.72 × 10⁻³
40 0.65 × 10⁻³
50 0.55 × 10⁻³

Note: The dynamic viscosity of liquids decreases as temperature increases. In contrast to liquids, the
viscosity of gases increases with temperature.

1.2.5.2. Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is expressed as the ratio of fluid dynamic viscosity to its density.
= (m²/S)

In the C.G.S. system, the unit of measurement is the stoke, where (1stokes= 1 0-4 m²/s). The following
figure illustrates a simple experiment demonstrating the effect of kinematic viscosity on fluid flow.
Some values of ( ) à 20°C

1.2.6. Surface tension

Surface tension is the force per unit length acting on any line element that is part of the interface
between two immiscible fluid mediums. Surface tension arises from the differences in
interactions between the molecules of the liquid located beneath the interface and those among
the molecules within the bulk of the liquid. It is defined as energy per unit area or as force per
unit length.
The phenomenon causes surface tension, which acts perpendicular to the interface. Surface
tension (σ) is defined as the force per unit length acting along any line element of the interface.

∂ = F / l (N/m)

In this formula, (F ) is the elastic force perpendicular to any element ( l ) of the surface, as shown
in the previous figure.

Surface tension or surface energy is the most important characteristic property of liquids origin
at the surfaces. In chemistry or physics, surface tension simply defines the amount of energy that
causes to increase in the unit area of the water or any other liquid (wetting or non-wetting). It is
measured by the units dyne cm−1 or Newton meter−1.
Application

A needle with a length of 35 mm is placed on the surface of water at 20 °C. What additional
force, relative to its weight, must be applied to remove it from the water? Given that the surface
tension of water is ( = 0,0728 N/m)
The force of tension is:

1.2.7. Capillarity

Capillary action can be defined as the ascension of liquids through slim tube, cylinder or
permeable substance due to adhesive and cohesive forces interacting between the liquid and the
surface. When intermolecular bonding of a liquid itself is substantially inferior to a substances’
surface it is interacting, capillarity occurs. Also, the diameter of the container as well as the
gravitational forces will determine amount of liquid raised. While, water possesses this unique
property, a liquid like mercury will not display the same attributes due to the fact that it has
higher cohesive force than adhesive force.

Capillarity is significant when using tubes with a diameter less than 10 mm. It becomes
negligible for tubes with a diameter greater than 10 mm.

The height of capillary rise ( h ) can be approximately expressed as:

in (m)

with:
Avec : (gamma): Surface tension (N/m)

: Contact angle or wetting angle (°)

R : Radius of the tube (m)

: Specific volume of the fluid (N /m3)

Application
A glass tube with a diameter of 0.2 mm contains a volume of water at a temperature of 32 °C,
which is able to rise along the internal wall due to the phenomenon of surface tension. The angle
() between the water surface and the wall is 0°. What is the water capillary rise ( h )? Given that
the surface tension of water at T=32 °C is ( = 0,0709 N/m) and its density is 995 kg/m3
1) Tube radius

2) Capillarity

1.2.7. Vapor pressure

The vapor pressure is the pressure applied by the interface when rate of vaporization is equal to
rate of condensation. It is a property of the liquid because liquid starts boiling if the pressure falls
below the vapor pressure.

 Vapor pressure is the force exerted by vapor in a confined space.

 The saturation vapor pressure increases with temperature and becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure at the boiling point.
 The atmosphere surrounding us exerts a pressure on the order of 105 pascals (Pa). This
pressure can be measured using a simple device. A tube filled with mercury is submerged
in a reservoir, as illustrated in the following figure. After some time, equilibrium is
reached within the tube. At this point, a vacuum begins to appear at a height of 760 mm
above the free surface. The remaining column of mercury in the tube balances the
atmospheric pressure applied to the free surface. The subsequent figure illustrates the
relationship between the height of the mercury column and atmospheric pressure, which
varies with altitude.

1.2. Newtonian fluids

Newtonian fluids are a class of fluids that exhibit a constant viscosity regardless of the
applied shear rate (v/e= dv/dy). This means that their flow behavior is linear, characterized
by a direct proportionality between the shear stress ( = F/S) and the shear rate.