Lecture Notes on Computer Memory, Storage, and Processor

Fig 1. Computer Hardware System Top Level view

1. Computer Memory

Definition: Memory is the component of a computer where data and instructions are temporarily
or permanently stored.

Types of Computer Memory:

1. Primary Memory (Volatile):

o RAM (Random Access Memory):
 Temporary storage.
 Faster but loses data when power is off.
 Types:
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Needs refreshing, used in most PCs.
 SRAM (Static RAM): Faster, used in cache memory.
o Cache Memory:
 Located close to the CPU.
 Stores frequently accessed data.
o Registers:
 Extremely fast, located inside the CPU.
 Holds data/instructions being processed.
Primary Memory ((Read-Only Memory) (ROM))

Definition

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory that is used to store data that does
not change and is permanently written during manufacturing or programming. Unlike RAM, data
in ROM is retained even when the computer is powered off.

Characteristics of ROM

1. Non-Volatile:
o Retains data even when the power is turned off.
2. Read-Only:
o Typically, data stored in ROM cannot be modified or deleted by normal means.
3. Permanently Stored Data:
o Pre-programmed instructions or firmware, essential for basic system operations.

Types of ROM

1. Mask ROM:
o Programmed during manufacturing.
o Cannot be altered after production.
o Used in devices with fixed functions.
2. PROM (Programmable ROM):
o Blank memory that can be programmed once by the user.
o Programming is done using special equipment (e.g., a PROM burner).
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times.
o Data is erased by exposing it to ultraviolet (UV) light.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):
o Can be erased and rewritten electronically.
o Slower than RAM but more flexible than other types of ROM.
o Used in devices like BIOS chips.
5. Flash Memory:
o A type of EEPROM.
o Faster erasure and reprogramming compared to traditional EEPROM.
o Used in USB drives, SSDs, and memory cards.
Functions of ROM

1. Stores Firmware:
o Contains the fundamental code (e.g., BIOS/UEFI) required for initializing
hardware during the boot process.
2. Hardware Control:
o Holds instructions for the operation of embedded systems (e.g., washing
machines, calculators).
3. Preloads Software:
o Used in gaming consoles, smartphones, and other devices to store system
software.

Advantages of ROM

 Non-volatile, ensuring data persistence.

 Reliable for storing critical instructions.
 Immune to accidental erasure or modification in standard usage.

Limitations of ROM

 Data cannot (or is difficult to) be modified.

 Slower access speeds compared to RAM.
 Limited flexibility compared to rewritable memory types.

Applications of ROM

 BIOS/UEFI: Initiates system boot processes and hardware checks.

 Embedded Systems: Controls basic operations in devices like appliances and
automobiles.
 Gaming Consoles: Stores system software and games.
 Microcontrollers: Implements fixed program instructions.

Summary: ROM is a crucial memory type for storing permanent and essential data used in
computers and various devices. Its non-volatile nature ensures reliability, making it ideal for
firmware and hardware control.
 
2. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile):
o Persistent storage.
o Includes:
 HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Magnetic storage, slower, high capacity.
 SSD (Solid State Drive): Faster, no moving parts, more expensive.
 Flash Memory: Used in USB drives and memory cards.
3. Tertiary and Offline Storage:
o Optical Discs: CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray.
o Tape Drives: Used for backups and archiving.
o Cloud Storage: Internet-based storage.

2. Computer Storage

Definition: Storage refers to the physical devices that retain data for long-term use.

Hierarchy of Storage:

 Primary Storage:
o Directly accessible by the CPU.
o Examples: RAM, cache.
 Secondary Storage:
o Slower but persistent.
o Examples: HDDs, SSDs.
 Tertiary Storage:
o Removable or remote.
o Examples: Optical media, cloud.

Key Characteristics:

 Volatility:
o Volatile (e.g., RAM) vs. Non-Volatile (e.g., SSD, HDD).
 Access Time:
o Measured in milliseconds for HDDs, microseconds for SSDs.
 Capacity:
o HDDs typically have higher capacity than SSDs.
 Durability:
o SSDs are more durable as they lack moving parts.

3. Processor (CPU)
Definition: The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer, executing
instructions and managing tasks.

Components of a CPU:

1. Control Unit (CU):

o Directs operations of the processor.
o Decodes instructions.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
o Performs arithmetic and logical operations.
3. Registers:
o Temporary storage for immediate tasks.
4. Cache:
o Reduces access time to frequently used data.

Performance Metrics:

 Clock Speed:
o Measured in GHz, indicates cycles per second.
 Cores:
o Multiple cores allow parallel processing (e.g., dual-core, quad-core).
 Threads:
o Virtual cores enabling multitasking.
 Instruction Set:
o Determines the type of tasks a CPU can execute (e.g., x86, ARM).

Types of Processors:

 General-Purpose Processors:
o Found in PCs, laptops.
 Specialized Processors:
o GPUs: Graphics Processing Units for rendering graphics.
o TPUs: Tensor Processing Units for AI and machine learning.

Key Concepts and Relationships

1. Memory vs. Storage:

o Memory is faster but temporary (RAM).
o Storage is slower but permanent (HDD, SSD).
2. Processor's Role:
o The CPU retrieves data from memory/storage and executes it.
3. Performance Factors:
o Faster processors require faster memory.
o SSDs reduce bottlenecks in data retrieval compared to HDDs.
Summary

 Memory: Temporary, fast storage for running tasks (RAM, cache).

 Storage: Persistent data storage (HDD, SSD).
 Processor: Executes instructions and coordinates memory/storage interaction