UNIT-I UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

LECTURE NOTES
ON

UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING PROCESS

Prepared
By

RAM BABU DARA

Senior Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Aditya Nagar, ADB Road, Surampalem, East Godavari Dist, Andhra Pradesh-533437

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Syllabus:
 INTRODUCTION: Need for non-traditional machining methods-classification of
modern machining processes considerations in process selection, applications.
 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING: Abrasive Jet machining, Water jet machining and
abrasive water jet machining: Basic principles, equipment’s, process variables,
mechanics of material removal, MRR, application and limitations, process
capabilities, magnetic abrasive finishing, abrasive flow finishing.

What is Machining?
Machining is a manufacturing process that involves “shaping a piece” of material to a final
desired shape by “removing material” in a controlled manner.
Machining processes can work on a large number of materials, including metals, plastics,
wood, glass, and more.

Figure 1: Traditional Method of Machining Processes

Material removal processes are divided into two groups or types of Machining Operations.
1. Conventional or Traditional Machining Process
2. Un-Conventional or Non Traditional Machining Process

Conventional or Traditional Machining Process:

 This process mainly removes material in the form of chips by applying forces on the
work material; it is shown in Figure 1.2.
 Use sharp tools, in the shape of a wedge, it shown in Figure 1.3.
 Sufficiently harder than the work piece.
 Hold the tool and work piece rigidly
 Provide a relative motion to the tool w.r.t the work piece

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Figure 1.2: Material removing process in the form of chips

Figure 1.3: Types of cutting tools using in conventional machining

Problems associated with conventional machining operations:

• The part might be “very hard and brittle and fracture” prone: On this type of material
conventional machining not possible or might be too expensive.
• The machining of “complex geometrical” features might not be possible by
conventional means
• The work material might be “heat sensitive or too delicate”
• High tool wear, less dimensional accuracy
• Time consuming process
• If high feed given means tool may get damage.
• During the machining, the generated heat cannot discharge properly, and inner
stresses can produce some problems.

Non Traditional (Non-Conventional) Machining Process (NTM):

It is defined as a group of processes that removes excess material by various techniques
involving “mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or combinations of these
energies” but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional machining
processes.

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The NTM processes have been developed largely in response to the new and unusual
machining requirements that could not be satisfied by conventional methods.
These requirements include:
 The need to machine newly developed materials (metals, non-metals, composites
etc.). These new materials often have special properties (e.g., high strength, high
hardness, and high toughness) that make them difficult or impossible to machine by
conventional methods.
 The need for unusual or complex part geometries that cannot be easily accomplished
and in some cases is impossible to achieve by conventional machining.
Material removal process in unconventional methods of machining

Figure 1.4: Material removal process in the non-traditional machining process

Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes
The term non-traditional machining refers to the group of processes, that remove excess
material by various techniques involving;
 Mechanical energy
 Thermal energy (Electro-Thermal)
 Electrical energy (Electro-Chemical)
 Chemical energy
Mechanical Energy: “Mechanical energy” is used for removing material from workpiece. In
this process, cutting tool with sharp edge is not used but material is removed by the abrasive
action of high velocity of stream of hard, tiny abrasive particles.
Example: Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Electrical Energy: In this category of non-traditional machining “electrical energy” is used
in the form of electrochemical energy or electro-heat energy to erode the material or to melt
and vapourized it respectively.
Example: Electrochemical machining, Electroplating or Electro discharge machining.

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Thermal: According to this principle heat is generated by electrical energy. The generated
thermal energy is focused to a very small portion of workpiece. This heat is utilized in
melting and evaporating of metal.
Example: Electric discharge machining.
Chemical Energy: According to this principle of working “chemicals” are used to erode
material from the workpiece. Selection of a chemical depends upon the workpiece material.
Example: Chemical Milling (Machining).
Classification of Non Traditional Machining Processes
Mechanical Process Electrochemical Electro-Thermal Chemical Process
Process Process
Abrasive Jet Electro Chemical Electro Discharge Chemical Milling
Machining (AJM) Machining (ECM) machining (EDM) (CHM)
Water Jet Machining Electro Chemical Laser Jet Machining Photo Chemical
(WJM) Grinding (ECG) (LJM) Milling (CPHM)
Abrasive Water Jet Electro Jet machining Electro Discharge
Machining (AWJM) (EJD) grinding (EDG)
Ultrasonic Electro Chemical Electron Beam
Machining (USM) Honing (ECG) Machining (EBM)

Limitations of NTM:
 More Expensive
 MRR is Low
 AJM, EBM are nor commercially economical process
Advantages of NTM:
 Increase productivity
 Reduces number of rejected components
 Close tolerance is possible
 Tool material need not to be harder than the work material
 Harder materials can be machined easily.
 Minimal environmental impact with reduced waste
 No burrs or mechanical stresses on work pieces
 Capable of micro-machining and small-hole drilling
Scope or Applications of Non Traditional Machining processes:
 Non-traditional machining processes have emerged as vital players in various sectors
where precision, intricate shapes and difficult-to-machine materials are prevalent.

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 Aerospace: Manufacture of turbine blades, components that must withstand extreme

temperatures and stresses
 Medical: Implants, prosthetics, and surgical instruments.
 Electronics: Printed circuit boards, Semi-conductors and Microelectronic devices
 Automotive: Lightweight, high-strength components
 Energy: components for power generation such as Solar panels and Fuel cell
components, Microstructures in high-performance batteries
 Glasses and Ceramics industries
Comparison of Conventional and Non- Conventional Machining Processes
CONVENTIONAL NON-CONVENTIONAL
Generally macroscopic chip formation by Chips are of generally microscopic size
shear deformation
There may be a physical tool present There may not be a physical tool present
Energy domain can be classified as Most NTM processes do not use mechanical
mechanical energy to provide material removal
Conventional machining involves the Non-conventional machining does not require
direct contact of tool and workpiece the direct contact of tool and workpiece
Lower accuracy and surface finish Higher accuracy and surface finish
Higher waste of material due to high wear Lower waste of material due to low or no wear.
Noisy operation mostly cause sound Quieter operation mostly no sound pollutions
pollutions are produced
Lower capital cost Higher capital cost
Skilled or un-skilled operator may required Skilled operator required

Process Selection
In order to make use of the non-traditional machining processes efficiently, it is necessary
that the exact nature of the machining problem must be known. The points which should be
looked into before the selection of these processes are:
 Physical parameters
 Properties of the work material and the shape to be machined
 Process capability or machining characteristics
 Economic considerations

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Table 1.1: Physical parameters in non-conventional machining methods

The different non-conventional machining methods have some special shape producing capability as
follows:
o Standard hole drilling : EDM and USM
o Fine hole drilling and contour machining : ECM
o Clean, rapid cuts and profiles : PAM
o Micro-machining and drilling : LBM and EBM

Table 1.2: shapes to be machined

For producing micro holes LBM is best suited

For producing small holes EBM is well suited

For deep holes (L/D>20) and contour machining ECM is well suited

For shallow holes USM and EDM is well suited

For precision through cavities in work piece USM and EDM is well suited

For honing ECM is well suited

For etching small portions ECM and EDM is well suited

For grinding AJM and EDM is well suited

For deburring USM and AJM is well suited

For threading EDM is well suited

For clean, rapid and profiles PAM is well suited

For shallow pocketing AJM is well suited

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 Out of all the non-conventional machining methods, EDM has the lowest specific power
requirement and it can achieve sufficient accuracy whereas ECM has the highest MRR (Metal
Removal Rate).
 USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with tool wear whereas LBM and EBM have
high penetration rates with low MRR.
Table 1.3: Process economy

The process economy of various non-conventional machining methods is given in the following Table
1.4.
Table 1.4: Process economy

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ABRASIVE JET MACHINING:

In abrasive jet machining (AJM), a focused stream of abrasive grains of Al2O3 or SiC carried
by high pressure gas or air at high velocity is made to impinge on the work surface through a
nozzle of 0.3–0.5 mm diameter. AJM has smaller diameter abrasives and a more finely
controlled delivery system than sand blasting. The workpiece material is removed by the
abrasion action (A) of the high-velocity abrasive particles.

Figure 1.1: AJM system.

AJM machining is best suited for machining holes in super hard materials. It is typically used
to cut, clean, peen, deburr, and etch glass, ceramics, or hard metals. As shown in Figure 1.1, a
gas (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or air) is supplied under pressure of 2–8 kg/cm2. Oxygen
should never be used because it causes a violent chemical reaction with the workpiece chips
or the abrasives. After filtration and regulation, the gas is passed through a mixing chamber
that contains abrasive particles and vibrates at 50 Hz. From the mixing chamber, the gas
along with the entrained abrasive particles (10–40 μm) passes through a 0.45 mm diameter
tungsten carbide nozzle at a speed of 150–300 m/s (Figure 1.2). Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and
SiC powders are used for heavy cleaning, cutting, and deburring. Magnesium carbonate is
recommended for light cleaning and etching. Sodium bicarbonate is used for fine cleaning
and cutting of soft materials. Commercial grade powders are not suitable because their sizes
are not well classified and may contain silica dust, which can be a health hazard.

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Figure 1.1: AJM terminology.

It is not practical to reuse the abrasive powder because contaminations and worn grit cause a
decline in the machining rate. The abrasive powder feed rate is controlled by the amplitude of
vibrations of the mixing chamber. The nozzle standoff distance is kept at 0.81 mm. The
relative motion between the workpiece and the nozzle is manually or automatically controlled
using cam drives, pantographs, tracer mechanisms, or computer control according to the cut
geometry required. Masks of copper, glass, or rubber may be used to concentrate the jet
stream of the abrasive particles to a confined location on the workpiece. Intricate and precise
shapes are produced by using masks with corresponding contours. Dust removal equipment is
incorporated to protect the environment.

MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE:

In AJM, the abrasive particles from the nozzle follow parallel paths for a short distance and
then the abrasive jet flares outward like a narrow cone. When the abrasive particles of Al2O3
or SiC, having sharp edges, hit a brittle and fragile material at high speed, they dislodge a
small particle from it by a tiny brittle fracture. The lodged-out particle is carried away by the
air or gas.
The material removal rate (MRR) in mm3/s, is given by

[ ]

Where
KJ is a constant
Na is the number of abrasive particles impacting/unit area
da is the mean diameter of abrasive particles in mm

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ρa is the density of abrasive particles in g/cm3

Hr is the hardness of the work material in N/mm2
ν is the speed of abrasive particles in mm/s
Material removal rate, workpiece accuracy, surface roughness, and nozzle wear are
influenced by the size and distance of the nozzle, composition, strength, size and shape of
abrasives, flow rate, and composition, pressure, and velocity of the carrier gas. The material
removal rate is mainly dependent on the flow rate and the size of abrasives. Larger grain size
produces greater removal rates.
The typical material removal rate is 16.4 mm3/min when cutting glass, and for metals, it
varies from 1.6 to 4.1 mm3/min. For harder ceramics, cutting rates are about 50% higher than
those for glass. The minimum width of cut is 0.13 mm.
Tolerances are typically ±0.13 mm with ±0.05 mm possible using good fixation and motion
control. The produced surface has a random/matte texture. Surface roughness of 0.2–1.5 μm
using 10 and 50 μm particles, respectively, can be attained. Taper is present in deep cuts.
High nozzle pressure results in greater removal rate, but the nozzle life is decreased. Table
10.3 summarizes the overall process characteristics.

Figure 1.3: Variation of material removal rate Figure 1.4: Variation of material removal rate
with the abrasive flow rate. with the velocity of particles
Abrasive flow rate: At a particular pressure, the volumetric removal rate increases with
abrasive flow rate up to an optimum value then decreases with further increase in the flow
rate. This is mainly due to the fact that mass flow rate of the gas decreases with the increase
of the abrasive flow rate. The mixing ratio increases, causing a decrease in removal rate
because of the decreasing flow velocity and the kinetic energy available for material removal
(Figures 1.3 and 1.4).

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Nozzle standoff distance (NTD): The effect of nozzle standoff distance is shown in Figure
1.5. The removal rate attains a maximum value at a nozzle distance between 0.75 and 10 mm.
The decrease of nozzle distance improves the process accuracy by decreasing the width of
kerf. It also reduces the taper of the machined grooves. Large nozzle standoff distances
(12.5–75 mm) are suitable for cleaning of surfaces.

Figure 1.5: Effect of nozzle standoff distance on removal rate.

Gas pressure: The increase of gas pressure increases the kinetic energy and, therefore, the
removal rate by AJM process (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1.6: Effect of gas pressure on removal rate.

The mixing ratio Vx is defined as

The increase of Vx increases the removal rate, but a large value of Vx decreases the jet
velocity and sometimes blocks the nozzle. Thus, an optimum value of mixing ratio has been
observed that gives the maximum removal rate (Figure 1.7).
The mass ratio Mx is determined by

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Figure 1.7: Effect of mixing ratio on removal rate.

Applications:
 Drilling holes, cutting slots, cleaning hard surfaces, deburring, polishing, and
radiusing
 Deburring of cross holes, slots, and threads in small precision parts that require a burr-
free finish, such as hydraulic valves, aircraft fuel systems, and medical appliances
 Machining intricate shapes or holes in sensitive, brittle, and thin or difficult- to-
machine materials
 Insulation stripping and wire cleaning without affecting the conductor
 Microdeburring of hypodermic needles
 Frosting glass and trimming of circuit boards, hybrid circuit resistors, capacitors,
silicon, and gallium
 Removal of films and delicate cleaning of irregular surfaces because the abrasive
stream is able to follow contours
Advantages:
 Best suited for machining brittle and heat-sensitive materials like glass, quartz,
sapphire, and ceramics
 Machining superalloys, ceramics, glass, and refractory materials
 Not reactive with any workpiece material
 No tool changes are required
 Intricate parts of sharp corners can be machined
 Workpiece material does not experience hardening
 No initial hole is required for starting of operation as that required by wire EDM

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 Material utilization is high

 It can machine thin materials
Limitations:
 Slow removal rate
 Stray cutting cannot be avoided (low accuracy 0.1 mm)
 Tapering effect may occur, especially when drilling in metals
 Abrasive may get impeded in the work surface
 Suitable dust collecting systems should be provided
 Soft materials cannot be machined by the process
 Silica dust may be a health hazard
 Ordinary shop air should be filtered to remove moisture and oil

WATER JET MACHINING:

Water jet machining is one of the modern machining processes which is used to machine
different types of workpieces ranging from plastics to metals. As the name suggests in water
jet machining, the force created by a water jet is used to remove material from the workpiece
or sometimes cut the workpiece into two parts.
For machining softer materials such as plastics and fibers, simple mechanism is used. But
when it comes to harder materials such as metals, water alone cannot provide satisfactory
results. Hence Abrasive particles are mixed with the water jet to perform the cutting action.
This process is known as Abrasive water jet machining.

Working:
 Water Jet Machining, also known as Water Jet Cutting, is an “environmentally
friendly” non-traditional machining process used to cut, shape, and machine various
materials with high precision.
 It harnesses the “force of a high-velocity jet of water”, often combined with abrasive
particles, to “erode and remove material” from the workpiece.
 The water jet, propelled at extreme velocities, creates a focused and powerful stream
capable of cutting through metals, ceramics, composites, stone, glass, and even food
products.
 Water Jet Machining is favoured for its ability to produce “intricate shapes, sharp
corners, and smooth edges” without introducing heat-affected zones or
inducing thermal stresses in the material.

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 The key element in water jet machining (WJM) is a water jet, which travels at
velocities as high as 900 m/s (approximately Mach 3).
 Nowadays modern water jets are pressurized to about 5000 bars with a stream of
0.051mm thin.

Main Parts of Water Jet Machining:

Water Jet Machining comprises several essential parts that work together to facilitate the
machining process. The schematic diagram of water jet machining is shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: WJM system.

Hydraulic Pump: A 50 to 100 HP electric motor is used. This component circulates

water from the storage tank during machining. Operating at low pressure (about 5 bar), it
supplies water to the intensifier. A booster raises the initial water pressure to 11 bar
before reaching the intensifier.
Hydraulic Intensifier: Responsible for boosting water pressure to extremely high levels.
The hydraulic intensifier receives water from the pump at 11 bar and elevates it to a range
of 3000 to 5000 bar.
Accumulator: The accumulator temporarily stores the highly pressurised water,
delivering it when substantial pressure energy is required. Several control valves are
connected to the accumulator. By keeping the flow of high-pressure water continuous, it
eliminates pressure fluctuations.
Control Valve: The control valve manages the pressure and direction of the water jet,
enabling precise control over the machining process.
Flow Regulator or Valve: The flow regulator regulates the water flow, allowing
adjustments as needed during the machining operation.

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Nozzle: This crucial device converts the pressure energy of water into kinetic energy for
the water jet. The nozzle creates a high-velocity water jet beam, typically made of ruby or
diamond, at the tip to resist erosion.
Drain and Catcher System: Post-machining, the drain and catcher system effectively
separates debris and machined particles from the water. It removes unwanted metal
particles and other contaminants, ensuring clean water returns to the reservoir for reuse in
subsequent operations.

Parameters affecting the performance of WJM:

Figure 1.9: Parameters affecting the performance of WJM

Process Parameters:
 Standoff distance - Gap between the jet nozzle (0.1–0.3 mm diameter) and the
workpiece (2.5 – 6 mm)
 For material used in printed circuit boards, it may be increased up to 25 mm
 For larger standoff distance, the depth of cut would be smaller
 The increase in machining rate and use of the small nozzle diameter may increase
the width of the damaged layer.

Jet Parameters:
 Typical pressures used are 1500 to 8000 bar to provide 8 to 80 kW of power.
 Increase in pressure allows more power to be used in the machining process,
which in turn increases the depth of the cut.
 Jet velocities range between 540 to 1400 m/s.
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 The quality of cutting improves at higher pressures by widening the diameter of

the jet and by lowering the traverse speed
 Under such conditions, materials of greater thicknesses and densities can be cut
 The fluid used must possess low viscosity to minimize the energy losses and be
noncorrosive, and nontoxic
 Water is commonly used

Workpiece:
 Brittle materials will fracture, while ductile ones will cut well
 Material thicknesses range from 0.8 to 25 mm or more

Advantages:
• Accuracy – Accuracy/Precision is quite high. A tolerance of about 0.12 mm can be
obtained using water jet machining.
• Complex structures –This gives an advantage while manufacturing complex
structures and detailed products.
• Clean process – Water jet machining is a clean process as it is dust-free and waste
materials are washed out through Drain.
• Low cost of running – The cost of running a water jet machining setup is low.
• No heat generation – Heat generation is negligible. (Coolant is not required)
• Adaptability – A water jet machining setup can be used for hard materials like metals
as well as soft materials like plastics and fibers.
• Eco-friendly – Water jet machining is an eco-friendly process as there are no
pollutants produced in the process.

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Disadvantages:
• Material thickness – One of the major disadvantages of water jet machining is that it
cannot cut very thick materials.
• High initial cost – The initial cost of a water jet machining setup is high
• Corrosion – It is obvious that when we machine a workpiece using water jet
machining, the metal surface may get corroded due to moisture.
• Low productivity: When compared to traditional processes, it takes much more time.

Applications:
• Water jet machining is used in various industries like mining, automotive and
aerospace
• Underwater cutting and shipbuilding industries
• Slicing and processing of frozen foods, baked foods, and meat. In such cases, alcohol,
glycerin, and cooking oils are used as alternative cutting fluids
• Commonly machined materials using water jet encompass rubber, textiles, plastics,
foam, leather, composites, tiles, stone, glass, food, metals, paper, etc.
• Apart from the machining process, high-pressure water jets are used for paint
removal, surgery, cleaning, peening to remove residual stress, and other applications.

Figure 1.10: Applications of water jet machining

ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING:

Water jet machining (WJM) is suitable for cutting plastics, foods, rubber insulation,
automotive carpeting and headliners, and most textiles. Harder materials such as glass,
ceramics, concrete, and tough composites can be cut by adding abrasives to the water jet
during abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), which was first developed in 1974 to clean
metals prior to their surface treatment. The addition of abrasives to the water jet enhanced the

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material removal rate and produced cutting speeds between 51 and 460 mm/min. Generally,
AWJM cuts ten times faster than the conventional machining methods used for composite
materials.
AWJM uses low pressure of 4.2 bar to accelerate a large volume of water (70%) and
abrasives (30%) mixture up to a velocity of 30 m/s. Silicon carbides, corundum, and glass
beads of grain size 10–150 μm are often used as abrasive materials (Figure 1.11). Using such
a method removes burrs left in steel components after grinding that are 0.35 mm in height
and 0.02 mm in width. The burrs are removed by the erosive effect of the abrasives; water
acts as an abrasive carrier that dampens the impact effect on the machined surface. The
introduction of compressed air to the water jet enhances the deburring action.
In AWJM, the water jet stream accelerates abrasive particles, not the water, to cause the
material removal. After the pure water jet is created, abrasives are added using either the
injection or suspension methods. The important parameters of the abrasives are the material
structure and hardness, the mechanical behavior, grain shape, grain size and distribution, and
the average grain size.

Figure 1.11: AWJM elements.

Process capabilities: Typical process variables include pressure, nozzle diameter, standoff
distance, abrasive type, grit number, and workpiece feed rate. Abrasive water jet cuts through
356.6 mm slabs of concrete or 76.6 mm thick tool steel plate at 38 mm/min in a single pass.
The produced surface roughness ranges between 3.8 and 6.4 μm, although tolerances of ±0.13
mm are obtainable. Repeatability of ±0.04 mm, squareness of 0.043 mm/m, and straightness
of 0.05 mm per axis are expected.

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During machining of glass, the cutting rate of 16.4 mm3/min is achieved, which is four to six
times higher than that of metals. Surface roughness depends on workpiece material, grit size,
and the type of abrasives. A material with high removal rate produces large surface
roughness. For this reason, fine grains are used for machining soft metals to obtain the same
roughness of hard ones. The decrease of surface roughness at smaller grain size is related to
the reduced depth of cut and the un-deformed chip cross section. In addition, the larger the
number of grains per unit slurry volume, the more of them that fall on a unit surface area.
A carrier liquid consisting of water with anticorrosive additives has much greater density than
air. This contributes to higher acceleration of the grains with consequent larger grain speed
and increased metal removal rate. Moreover, the carrier liquid when spreading over the
surface fills its cavities and forms a film that impedes the striking action of the abrasive
grains. Bulges and tops of the surface irregularities are the first to be affected and the surface
quality improves. A water air jet permits one to obtain, as an average, a roughness number
higher by one as compared with the effect of an air jet. In high-speed WJM of Inconel, the
roughness increases at a higher feed rate as well as at lower slurry flow rates.
Advanced AWJ machines are now available where the computer loads a computer-aided
design (CAD) drawing from another system. The computer determines the starting and end
points and the sequence of operations. The operator then enters the material type and tool
offset data. The computer determines the feed rate and performs the machining operation.

Process Characteristics
The parameters that affect AWJM are water (flow rate and pressure), abrasives (type, size,
and flow rate), water nozzle and abrasive jet nozzle design, machining parameters (feed rate
and standoff distance), and work material. Other machining parameters include angle of
cutting, traverse speed (slotting), and the number of passes.
Water jet pressure: Figure 1.12 shows the relationship between water pressure on the depth
of cut for low and high nozzle diameter. There is a minimum pressure below which no
machining occurs. That minimum pressure depends on the type of workpiece material. As
shown in Figure 1.13, the machining depth tends to stabilize beyond a certain value of water
pressure. The increase of water pressure also enhances the nozzle wear and the cost of pump
maintenance.

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Figure 1.12: Effect of water pressure and nozzle diameter on the depth of cut
Water flow rate: The percentage increase in depth of cut is lower than the percentage
increase in water flow rate. The increase in water flow beyond a certain limit may result in
insignificant gain in particle velocity, which in some cases reduces the machining depth.
Abrasive flow rate: The machined depth increases with the increase in the abrasive flow
rate. However, an increase in the abrasive flow rate beyond a certain limit reduces the depth
of cut for various workpiece materials, as shown in Figures 1.13–1.15.
Abrasive particle size and material: Common abrasive particle sizes range from 100 to 150
grit. For a particular workpiece material and machining system, there is an optimum particle
size that achieves the largest depth of cut (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1. 13: Effect of water pressure and Figure 1. 14: Effect of abrasive flow rate on
abrasive flow rate on the depth of cut. the depth of cut for different materials
Hashish (1986) recommended the use of different abrasive sizes for achieving deeper cuts.
Generally, for harder workpiece materials, harder abrasives should be used.

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Figure 1.15: Effect of abrasive flow rate and Figure 1.16: Effect of the abrasives particle
nozzle diameter on the depth of cut size on the depth of cut.

Standoff distance: An increase in the standoff distance decreases the depth of cut. As shown
in Figure 1.17, there is an upper limit for the standoff distance beyond which no machining
occurs.

Figure 1.17: Effect of standoff distance on the depth of cut.

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