UNIT-III POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES
ON

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Prepared
By

RAM BABU DARA

Senior Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Aditya Nagar, ADB Road, Surampalem, East Godavari Dist,

Andhra Pradesh-533437

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UNIT-III POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Syllabus:

UNIT– III:
HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT: Water power – hydrological cycle / flow
measurement – drainage area characteristics – hydrographs – storage and pondage –
classification of dams and spill ways.
HYDRO PROJECTS AND PLANT: Classification – typical layouts – plant auxiliaries –
plant operation pumped storage plants.
NUCLEAR POWER STATION: Nuclear fuel – breeding and fertile materials – nuclear
reactor – reactor operation.
TYPES OF REACTORS: Pressurized water reactor, boiling water reactor, sodium-graphite
reactor, fast breeder reactor, homogeneous reactor, gas cooled reactor, radiation hazards and
shielding – radioactive waste disposal.

HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

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HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE (Also called as global water cycle or the H2O cycle)

The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere
system. At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water from the ground to the
atmosphere and back again. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most
important are:
• evaporation
• transpiration
• Sublimation
• condensation
• precipitation
• runoff
• Infiltration and percolation
• Ground-water flow
Evaporation:
• Surface water get energized by the solar radiations
• Sufficiently energized break free from the forces binding them together and they
evaporate as water vapor.
• largest amount of water comes from oceanic evaporation

(a)

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(b)
Figure 3.1: Hydrological cycle
Transpiration:
• Process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such
as leaves, stems and flowers.
• Evaporation along with transpiration is known as evapotranspiration
Sublimation:
• Movement of water directly from a solid to a gaseous state without ever entering the
liquid state.
• This allows water in snow or glaciers to enter the atmosphere directly.
Condensation:
• Water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
• When water vapor rises, it cools slightly and condenses
• the water condenses on dust particles in the air and becomes liquid
Precipitation:
• Water falls from the sky in numerous different forms of precipitation including rain,
snow, and hail.
• precipitation comes from clouds, which move around the world by air currents
Run-off:
• Runoff is that portion of precipitation which makes its way toward stream, channels,
lakes or oceans as surface or sub-surface flow.
• runoff will occur only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water
may infiltrate into the soil

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Infiltration:
• Process in which water is absorbed by soil of any area by the downward movement of
water during a rainfall.
• The porosity and pore-size distribution affect the infiltration rate.
• The infiltrated water slowly becomes a part of groundwater
Groundwater Discharge
• Groundwater is water that is held in cracks and pore spaces below ground.
• This water can be tapped by water supply wells or continue moving below the ground
until it eventually returns to the surface
• The process by which groundwater exits the ground is known as groundwater
discharge.
Hydrological Cycle Procedure:
• Process of hydrological cycle starts with oceans. Water in oceans, gets evaporated due
to heat energy provided by solar radiation and forms water vapor.
• This water vapor moves upwards to higher altitudes forming clouds. Most of the
clouds condense and precipitate in any form like rain, hail, snow, sleet.
• A part of clouds is driven to land by winds. Precipitation, while falling to the ground,
some part of it evaporates back to atmosphere.
• Portion of water that reaches the ground, enters the earth’s surface infiltrating various
strata of soil and enhancing the moisture content as well as water table.
• Vegetation sends a portion of water from earth’s surface back to atmosphere through
the process of transpiration.
• Once water percolates and infiltrates the earth’s surface, runoff is formed over the
land, flowing through the contours of land heading towards river and lakes and finally
joins into oceans after many years.
• Some amount of water is retained as depression storage.
• Further again the process of this hydrological cycle continues by blowing of cool air
over ocean, carrying water molecules, forming into water vapor then clouds getting
condensed and precipitates as rainfall.
• Similarly, then water gets percolated into soil, increasing water table then formation
of runoff waters heading towards water bodies. Thus the cyclic process continues.

The hydrological equation is: Precipitation= run off + evaporation.

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Flow Measurement:
• The quantity of water flowing in a river would be varying and may not be constant
for a period of time; therefore the flow measurement is very important.
• Using a channel of fixed cross section and measuring the water velocity using
current meters at maximum points of the cross section at different water levels at
regular intervals the flow volume may be measured.
• By integrating the velocities over the cross section total flow can be calculated.

Run-off Measurement Methods:

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Hydrograph
• A hydrograph is a “rate of flow (discharge) vs. time” past a specific point in a river, or
channel carrying flow
• It shows the variation of river flow with time.
• It may be plotted based on data, of weeks, months and even years.
• Discharge on y-axis and time on x-axis.

Figure 3.2: Hydrograph

Importance of Hydrograph
• Hydrograph gives discharge available at different time ( day, week, month or year ).

Figure 3.3 Strom run-off and normal flow

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• Maximum and minimum runoff can also be studied.

• It gives mean run off.
• It helps in studying the effects of storage on flow.
• The area under the hydrograph gives total volume of water for given durations.

Drainage Area Characteristics

• In drainage area characteristics generally used to study the hydro-graphs: flow
duration curve, mass curve for estimation of storage capacity of a reservoir.
• There are three types of streams based on nature of flow.
1) Steady flow rivers. 2) Flashy flow rivers.
3) Perennial flow.

(a) Drainage system

(b) Drainage basin

Figure 3.4 Drainage system characteristics

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Phases of Hydrologic Cycle

• Hydrologic data generally consist of a sequence of observations of some phase of the
hydrologic cycle made at a particular site.
• The data may be a record of the discharge of a stream at a particular place, or it may
be a record of the amount of rainfall caught in a particular rain gauge.
• Although for most hydrologic purposes a long record is preferred to a short one, the
user should recognize that the longer the record the greater the chance that there has
been a change in the physical conditions of the basin.

Figure 3.5 Phases of hydrological cycle

Flow Duration Curve

Figure 3.6 Flow duration curve

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• Flow duration curve is a plot of discharge versus percentage of time for which the
discharge is available. It is obtained from hydrograph data.
• The flow or discharge can be expressed as cubic meters per second, per week or other
unit of time.
• This flow duration curve is also known as power duration curve.

Mass curve

• It is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from a stream flow versus
time in days, weeks or months.

• It shows a mass curve, Maximum intercept between line AB and mass curve is known
as reservoir capacity

• Slope of the mass curve at a point gives the rate of inflow at that instant.

Figure 3.7 Mass curve

Storage and Pondage
Storage:
• The collection of water in a reservoir upstream of the plant and increasing the
capacity of stream for a long period of time a called storage.
• Storage plants work as base load stations.
• Base load plants are of high capacity plants.
• Peak load plants are designed for taking care of peak loads
Pondage:
• For a short period of time the pondage increases the stream capacity behind a dam
near the plant.

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• Pond permits to store water during off peak hours and this could be used during peak
hours of the same day.
• If there is a considerable distance between plant and the reservoir, pond is needed at
the plant to regulate the flow.

(a) Storage

(b) Pondage
Figure 3.8 Storage and Pondage for reservoir

Definition of Hydro-Electric Power Plant

 A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for the
generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station.
 The power obtained from river or ocean water is called as “hydropower”
 A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for
the generation of electrical energy is known as a hydro-electric power station

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Figure 3.9 Water power or Hydro power

Potential and Kinetic Energy
 Potential Energy is the stored energy in an object or system because of its position or
configuration.
 Kinetic energy of an object is relative to other moving and stationary objects in its
immediate environment.

Figure 3.10 Potential and Kinetic Energy

Principal of Hydro-Electric Power Plant.

PE↔KE↔ME↔EE
(Potential Energy↔ Kinetic Energy ↔Mechanical Energy ↔Electrical Energy)

Selection of Site for Hydro-Electric Power Plant:

1. Quantity of Water Required:
As we know that, the hydro-electric power plant totally runs on water, so that ample quantity
of water is continuously available throughout the year.

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2. Hilly Area Required:

For storage of ample quantity of water, both side of dam hilly area or strong mountains
required for storage of water.
3. Civil Work:
It should have strong foundation or the cost of foundation should be as low as possible.
4. Large Catchment Area:
Large catchment area required, so that the water in it should never fall below the minimum
level.
5. Transportation Facility:
For Workers & Civil Material required better transportation facility.

Schematic arrangement of Hydro-Electric Power Plant:

• If water source is in abundance then the water power is very cheap.

• Though initial investment is high the operating costs are quite low when compared to
other power plants.

(a)

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(b)
Figure 3.11: Schematic layout of hydro-electric power plant

Function of Different Components used in Hydro-Electric Power Plant:

1. Catchment Area:
In hydro-electric power plant collect the rain water through surrounding hilly area, the
surrounding all water collect & stored area to those place is known as catchment area.
2. Reservoir:
The function of reservoir is to store the water near dam; this water is useful to drive the water
turbines. The reservoir is useful to provide a head of stored water.
3. Track Rash:
It is used in hydro-electric power plant to filter the water before it flows towards turbine. The
unwanted impurities (e.g. fish, plastics etc.) present in the stored water are avoided to flow
towards turbine.
4. Head-Race Level:
The water surface in the reservoir up to the dam is known as head-race level.
5. Dam:
The dam is used in hydro-electric power plant to store the water. Whenever the dam stored
the water, it provides suitable head to this stored water. This stored water is useful throughout

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the year to run the hydro-electric power plant. Dam is made up of cement, concrete & sand
materials. If higher rainfall occurs then door of dams are opened to flow of water.
6. Spillway
Water after a certain level in the reservoir overflows through spillway without allowing the
increase in water level in the reservoir during rainy season
7. Pressure tunnel
It carries water from the reservoir to surge tank.
8. Penstock
Water from surge tank is taken to the turbine by means of penstocks, made up of reinforced
concrete pipes or steel.
9. Surge tank
There is sudden increase of pressure in the penstock due to sudden backflow of water, as load
on the turbine is reduced. The sudden rise of pressure in the penstock is known as water
hammer. The surge tank is introduced between the dam and the power house to keep in
reducing the sudden rise of pressure in the penstock. Otherwise, penstock will be damaged by
the water hammer.
10. Water turbine
Water through the penstock enters into the turbine through and inlet valve. Prime movers
which are in common use are Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. The
potential energy of water entering the turbine is converted into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy available at the turbine shaft is used to run the electric generator. The
water is then discharged through the draft tube.
11. Draft tube
It is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It allows the turbine to be placed over tail race
level.
12. Tail race
Tail race is a water way to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river. The water
held in the tail race is called tail race water level.
13. Step-up transformer
Its function is to raise the voltage generated at the generator terminating before transmitting
the power to consumers.
14. Power house
The power house accommodates the turbine, generator, and transformer and control room.

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Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plants

 No fuel required
 Cost effective
 Environment friendly (no smoke or fumes are produced)
 Simple in construction and requires less maintenance
 Has longer life
 Does not require long starting time like a steam power station.
 They can also help in irrigation and controlling floods
 Can easily work during high peak daily loads
 Prevents floods
Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power Plants
 High capital cost due to construction of dam
 Transmission costs can be high depending on the location of dam.
 Disrupts the aquatic ecosystems
 Disruption of surrounding areas
 Large scale human displacement
Dam:
This type of power plant requires dam to store river water in reservoir. The dam acts as water
storage and water controller. Large capacity hydropower plant commonly to be this type.
Run-of-River:
This type of power plant has no water storage facility, or a little amount of water storage
called pondage. This type of power plant can serve as peak load or base load power plant.

a) Dam b) Run-of-river
Figure 3.11: Schematic layout of hydro-electric power plant

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Classification of Dams
1. Masonry dams: Masonry dams are dams made out of masonry – mainly stone and
brick, sometimes joined with mortar
2. Fill dams: Fill or earth/rock fill dams, built up by compacting successive layers of
earth/rocks
Masonry Dams Fill Dams
Gravity Dams Earth Fill Dam
Buttress Dams Rock Fill Dam
Arch Dams

 Gravity dam, a concrete or masonry dam so proportioned that it will resist

overturning and sliding forces by its own weight.
 A buttress dam is also called as a hollow dam. It is a dam with a solid, water-tight
upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of
supports.
 An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in plan. The arch dam is
designed so that the force of the water against it, known as hydrostatic pressure,
presses against the arch.
 Earth fill dam, dam built up by compacting successive layers of earth, using the most
impervious materials to form a core and placing more permeable substances on the
upstream and downstream sides.

(a) Gravity Dam

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(b) Butters Dam

(c) Arch Dam

(d) Earth fill Dam

Figure 3.12: Types of Dams

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Spillways
• The part of the dam which discharges the flood flow to the down-stream side is called
as spillway.
• Spillways act as a safety valve for a dam.
• They are provided on dams to avoid damage to dams.
• They keep the reservoir level below the predetermined maximum level.
• The down-stream must always be provided a safe passage.
Types of spill ways
1. Overflow spillways.
2. Chute spillways.
3. Shaft spillways.
4. Side channel spillways.
5. Siphon spillways.

1. Overflow spillways.
• This is the simplest, low in cost and suitable for concrete dams.
• When dam reaches full reservoir level stream overflows from the top.
• There may be gate control at the top of the dam
• Counter weight is provided to lift the gate.
• This is widely used on gravity arch and buttress dams.
2. Chute spillways.
• This spillway is a channel made of reinforced concrete slap.
• The water is discharged into steep sloped open channel called chute.
• These types of spillways are adapted to earth or rock fill dams.
• This is simple in design and suitable for all foundations.
3. Shaft spillways
• In this spillways water drops through vertical shaft and passes through a conduit
horizontally and sends the water down stream.
• When there is very limited space for spillways this type is adopted
• Main drawback is the hazard of clogging with debris.
• So we need to prevent debris from entering into shaft spillway.
4. Side channel spillways
• These are employed at narrow gorges or canyons.
• When scope for overflow on chute spillways is very less this type is employed.
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5. Siphon spillways.
• The stream is discharged by siphonic action.
• When all the air is removed in siphon the space gets filled with water, siphon action
starts and water starts flowing over the crest.
• This will continue until the reservoir level becomes down below the inlet or mouth
level.

(A) Overflow Spillway

(b) Chute spillways (c) Shaft spillways

(e) Side channel spillways (f) Siphonic spillway

Figure 3.13: Types of Spillways

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NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

• Atoms consist of nucleus and electrons.
• The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons.
• Protons are positively charged whereas neutrons are electrically neutral.
• Atoms with nuclei having same number of protons but difference in their masses are
called isotopes.

Figure 3.14: Details of atom structure

Atomic Number: the total number of protons in an atom
Mass Number: the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons in an atom.
Isotope: elements can exist with the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
Examples:

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Nuclear Reactions
• Nuclear reactions deal with interactions between the nuclei of atoms including of
nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
• Both fission and fusion processes deal with matter and energy
• Fission is the process of splitting of a nucleus into two "daughter" nuclei leading to
energy being released
• Fusion is the process of two "parent" nuclei fuse into one daughter nucleus leading to
energy being released
Nuclear Fission:
• Nuclear Fission is the splitting of a heavy, unstable nucleus such as U233, U235, PU2 39
into two lighter nuclei.

Nuclear Fusion:
• Fusion is the process where two lighter nuclei combine together
• In both process, vast amounts of energy will be released

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Nuclear/Atomic Power Plant

• A nuclear power plant works in a similar way as a thermal power plant (TPP). The
difference between the two is: a fuel will be used to heat the feed water in TPP. But in
case of nuclear power plant, thermal energy is released by nuclear fission in the core
of the reactor.
• 1 kg of Uranium U235 can produce as much energy as the burning of 4500 tonnes of
high grade variety of coal or 2000 tonnes of oil.
The main components of a nuclear power plant are:

1. Nuclear reactor 2. Heat exchanger (steam generator)

3. Steam turbine 4. Condenser

5. Feed pump 6. Electric generator.

(a)

(b)
Figure 3.15: Schematic of Nuclear Power Plants

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OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

• The working of a nuclear power plant is exactly similar to that of steam power plant,
except steam is generated in nuclear reactor instead of boiler. The heat energy is
produced by nuclear fission
• Fission of atom takes place. This process liberates large amount of heat. This heat is
taken up by the coolant circulating through the reactor core.
• Hot coolant leaves the reactor at the top and then flows through the tubes of steam
generator and passes on it heat to the feed water.
• The steam so produced expands in the steam turbine, producing work and thereafter is
condensed in the condenser.
• The steam turbine in turn runs an electric generator thereby producing electrical
energy.

Figure 3.15: Schematic of Nuclear Power Plant

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

1. Nuclear reactor:
• Reactor is the heart of the nuclear plant. In nuclear reactor, nuclear fission of
radioactive material takes place. This liberates large amount of heat energy.
• This heat is taken up by the coolant circulating through the reactor core. After
absorbing the heat, the coolant becomes hot.
2. Heat exchanger or Steam generator:
• The hot coolant coming from nuclear reactor flows through the tubes of heat
exchanger (or steam generator). In the heat exchanger, hot coolant gives up the heat to
feed water, so that it can be converted in to steam.
3. Steam turbine:

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• The steam produced in the heat exchanger is sent to steam turbine. The steam
undergoes expansion in steam turbine and produces useful work in the steam turbine.
4. Steam condenser:
• In condenser, the steam is cooled and condensed with the help of cooling water
coming from cooling tower. Exhaust steam is converted to water, which can be used
as feed after cooling and condensation.
5. Cooling tower:
• After absorbing the heat from exhaust steam, temperature of cooling heat from
exhaust steam, temperature of cooling water increases, making it warm or hot water.
This hot water is sent to cooling tower, where it is cooled.
6. Alternator or Generator:
• Output shaft of steam turbine is coupled to generator which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.

ADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

• A nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to other conventional power
plants of same capacity.
• Nuclear fuel is charged to a power plant infrequently, because it has a relatively long
life (usually measured in months and years).
• The weight of nuclear fuel required is negligible in comparison to the coal required
for thermal power plant of same capacity. This totally eliminates the cost and problem
of transportation and storage of fuel.
• Nuclear power plant produces valuable isotopes, which are used for different purposes
• Nuclear power plants are not affected by adverse weather conditions.
• The operation of a nuclear power plant is more reliable.
• The use of nuclear fuel does not require combustion air, thus minimizing thermal
stack losses and other related problems.
DISADVANTAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
• The capital cost of a nuclear power station is always high.
• The burnt fuel is highly radioactive. Therefore, it requires remote handling and special
processing before disposal as waste to the atmosphere.
• The danger of radioactivity always persists in the nuclear stations. Therefore,
specially designed systems are required to prevent radioactivity release during normal
operation

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• These plants cannot be operated at varying load efficiently.

• The maintenance cost is always high.
• The disposal of fission products is a big problem.

Comparison between steam and Nuclear Power plants:

Comparative point Steam Power Nuclear Power plant
Plant
Site Located near Location depends upon availability Site of water &
load center. away from load center and populated area.
Capital cost Low. Very high
Operating Cost More Less
Maintenance cost Moderate Higher
Supervisory staff More Less
required
Space required More Less
Fuel consumption Huge Less
Reliability of plant Low High
operation
Qty water required Huge Comparatively Less

Nuclear Reactor:
• A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which nuclear fission is produced in the form of
a controlled self-sustaining chain reaction.
• In other words, it is a controlled chain-reacting system supplying nuclear energy.
• It may be looked upon as a sort of nuclear furnace which burns fuels like U285, U283
and, in turn, produces many useful products like heat, neutrons and radioisotopes.
• Nuclear Reactors are classified according to the chain reacting system, coolants, fuel
material etc.
Principal Components
1. Reactor core 2. Reflector
3. Control mechanism 4. Moderator
5. Coolants 6. Measuring instruments
7. Shielding

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Figure 3.16: Schematic Layout of Nuclear Reactor

1. Reactor Core: This is the main part of reactor which contain the fissionable material
called reactor fuel. Fission energy is liberated in the form of heat for operating power
conversion equipment. The fuel elements are made of plate of rods of uranium.
 Reactor Core  Where the nuclear fission process takes place.
2. Reactor reflector: The region surrounding the reactor core is known as reflector. Its
function is to reflect back some of the neutron that leak out from the surface of core.
3. Control rods: The rate of reaction in a nuclear reactor is controlled by control rods. Since
the neutrons are responsible for the progress of chain reaction, suitable neutron absorbers are
required to control the rate of reaction.
• For starting the reactor
• To keep the production at a steady state
• For shutting down the reactor under normal or emergency conditions
• Cadmium and Boron are used as control rods.
4. Moderator: The function of a moderator is to slow down the fast moving neutron. The
moderator should have
• High slowing down power
• Non corrosiveness
• High melting point for solids and low melting point for liquids.
• Chemical and radiation stability.
• High thermal conductivity
• Abundance in pure form.
The commonly used moderators are:
• Ordinary water

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• Heavy water
• Graphite.
5. Coolant: The material used to carry the intense heat generated by fission as fast as
liberated is known as reactor coolant. The coolant generally pumped through the reactor in
the form of liquid or gas. It is circulated throughout the reactor so as to maintain a uniform
temperature.
6. Measuring Instruments: Main instrument required is for the purpose of measuring
thermal neutron flux which determines the power developed by the reactor.
7. Shielding: The large steel recipient containing the core, the control rods and the heat-
transfer fluid.
All the components of the reactor are container in a solid concrete structure that guarantees
further isolation from external environment. This structure is made of concrete that is one-
metre thick, covered by steel.

Classification of Reactors-High level:

Boiler Water Reactor (BWR):

 Coolant used: Ordinary water
 Moderator used: Ordinary water
 Fuel used: Enriched Uranium
 E.g. Tarapur power station.

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Figure 3.17: Schematic Layout of Boiler Water Reactor

• In a boiling water reactor, light water (H2O) plays the role of moderator and coolant,
as well.
• Part of the water boils away in the reactor pressure vessel, thus a mixture of water and
steam leaves the reactor core.
• The so generated steam directly goes to the turbine, therefore steam and moisture
must be separated (water drops in steam can damage the turbine blades).
• Steam leaving the turbine is condensed in the condenser and then fed back to the
reactor after preheating.
• Water that has not evaporated in the reactor vessel accumulates at the bottom of the
vessel and mixes with the pumped back feed water.
• The BWR uses demineralized water (light water) as a coolant and neutron moderator.
• Heat is produced by nuclear fission in the reactor core, and this causes the cooling
water to boil, producing steam.
• The steam is directly used to drive a turbine, after which it is cooled in a condenser
and converted back to liquid water.
• This water is then returned to the reactor core, completing the loop. The cooling water
is maintained at about 75 atm (7.6 MPa, 1000-1100 psi) so that it boils in the core at
about 285°C
Advantages of BWR
1. As heat exchanger circuit is eliminated and the steam is directly generated in the
reactor, the thermal efficiency of this plant is higher than PWR.

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2. The capital cost is lower as the reactor vessel is designed to take low stresses, as the
pressure in the vessel is lower than PWR. 3. The number of equipment's required is
less.
3. There is use of low-pressure vessels for the reactor, which further reduces capital cost.
Disadvantages of BWR
1. It is not possible to meet the sudden increase in demand.
2. Shielding of turbine and other components is necessary, because radioactive steam
enters into the turbine.
3. The power density is 50% of PWR.
4. The possibility of "burn out" of fuel is more than PWR.

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR (PWR)

• Coolant used: Ordinary water
• Moderator used : Ordinary water
• Fuel used: Enriched Uranium

Figure 3.18: Schematic Layout of Pressurized Water Reactor

• The pressurized water reactor belongs to the light water type: the moderator and
coolant are both light water (H2O). It can be seen in the figure that the cooling water
circulates in two loops, which are fully separated from one another.
• The primary circuit water (dark blue) is continuously kept at a very high pressure
and therefore it does not boil even at the high operating temperature. (Hence the name
of the type.)

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• The primary circuit water transferred its heat to the secondary circuit water in the
small tubes of the steam generator; it cools down and returns to the reactor vessel at a
lower temperature.
• Since the secondary circuit pressure is much lower than that of the primary circuit,
the secondary circuit water in the steam generator starts to boil (red).
• The steam goes from here to the turbine, which has high and low pressure stages.
When steam leaves the turbine, it becomes liquid again in the condenser, from where
it is pumped back to the steam generator after pre-heating
• Normally, primary and secondary circuit waters can’t mix.
• In this way it can be achieved that any potentially radioactive material that gets into
the primary water should stay in the primary loop and cannot get into the turbine and
condenser.
• This is a barrier to prevent radioactive contamination from getting out.
• In pressurized water reactors the fuel is usually low (3 to 4 percent) enriched uranium
oxide, sometimes uranium and plutonium oxide mixture.
Advantages of PWR
1. The ordinary water is used as a coolant and moderator, which is considerably cheap
and easily available,
2. The reactor is compact and its power density is 65 kW/litre.
3. This reactor reduces fuel cost by extracting more energy per unit weight of fuel
4. Less number of control rods is required.
5. Steam is not contaminated by radioactivity.
6. Fission products remain contained in the reactor, i.e. they are not circulated
Disadvantages of PWR
1. The capital cost of reactor is high, as it requires strong pressure vessel
2. The running cost of reactor is high, as it uses enriched Uranium.
3. Thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is low.
4. The erosion and corrosion problems are more severe.
Heavy Water Cooled (or) Moderated (or) CANDU Type Reactor (or) Canadian
Deutorium Uranium Reactor
• Coolant used: Heavy water
• Moderator used : Heavy water
• Fuel used: Natural Uranium

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Figure 3.19: Schematic Layout of CANDU Reactor

 The CANDU reactor is a Canadian-invented, pressurized heavy water reactor
developed initially in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between Atomic
Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), Canadian General Electric (now known as GE
Canada), as well as several private industry participants.
 "CANDU", stands for "CANada Deuterium Uranium".
 This is a reference to its deuterium-oxide (heavy water) moderator and its use of
uranium fuel (originally, natural uranium).
 All current power reactors in Canada are of the CANDU type.
 The reactors are used in nuclear power plants to produce nuclear power from nuclear
fuel
Advantages of CANDU Reactor
1. Natural uranium can be used as fuel.
2. Only fuel tubes are designed to withstand high pressure and reactor vessel can be
made of light material.
3. Easy to control and Fuel consumption is low.
4. Period required for construction is shorter than for PWR and BWR.
5. The moderator can be kept at low temperature, which increases the effectiveness in
slowing down neutrons.
Disadvantages of CANDU Reactor
1. The cost of heavy water is very high.
2. Leakage of heavy water is one of the major problems in construction of reactor.

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3. Reactor requires high standards in the areas of design, manufacturing and

maintenance.
4. The power density is low. Therefore, the reactor size is considerably large as
compared to DWP and BWR

Breeder Reactor (or) Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor (or) Sodium-graphite Reactor
(SGR)
• Coolant used: Liquid metal of sodium
• Moderator used : Not required
• Fuel used: Natural Uranium
• Sodium boils at 880deg C, sodium is first melted by electric heating system and be
pressurized to 7 bars. The liquid sodium is then circulated by the pump.

Figure 3.20: Schematic Layout of Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor

o The primary circuit has liquid sodium which circulates through the fuel core and gets
heated by the fissioning of the fuel. This liquid sodium gets cooled in the intermediate
heat exchanger and goes back to the reactor vessel.
o The secondary circuit has an alloy of sodium and potassium in liquid form. This
coolant takes heat from the intermediate heat exchanger which gets heat from liquid
sodium of primary circuit. The liquid sodium-potassium then passes through a boiler
which is once through type having tubes only.
The steam generated from this boiler will be superheated. Feed water from the condenser
enters the boiler; the heated sodium-potassium passing through the tubes gives it heat to the
water thus converting it into steam. The sodium-potassium liquid in the second circuit is then
pumped back to the intermediate heat exchanger thus making it a closed circuit.

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Advantages of Breeder Reactors

1. Breeder reactor does not require moderator.
2. Breeder reactor gives high power density.
3. The sodium as a coolant need not to be pressurized.
4. Breeder reactor gives superheated steam.
5. Size of reactor is small.
Disadvantages of Breeder Reactors
1. Breeder reactor requires highly enriched fuel, so the initial cost of fuel is very high.
2. Difficult to control.
3. The handling of the coolant sodium is very difficult.
4. Thermal stresses create problem.
5. Heat exchangers must be leak proof.
6. The leakage of sodium is very dangerous as compared with other coolants.

GAS COOLED REACTORS

• Coolant used: Helium or Carbon Dioxide
• Moderator used : Graphite
• Fuel used: Natural Uranium
• The GCR was able to use natural uranium as fuel.
• Two main types of GCR:-
1. Magnox reactors developed by United Kingdom.
2. UNGG (Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz) reactors developed by France.
• The main difference between these two types is in the fuel cladding (shielding)
material.
• Both types used fuel cladding materials that were unsuitable for medium term storage
under water, making reprocessing an essential part of the nuclear fuel cycle.

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Figure 3.21: Schematic Layout of Gas Cooled Reactor

Advantages of Gas Cooled Reactors
1. Processing of fuel is simpler.
2. No corrosion problem.
3. Use of carbon dioxide as coolant completely eliminates the possibility of explosion in
the reactor, which is always present in case of water-cooled reactors.
4. Graphite remains stable, even at high temperatures.
Disadvantages of Gas Cooled Reactors
1. Loading of fuel is more elaborate and costly.
2. As the critical mass required is more, therefore initially large amount of fuel.
3. If helium is used instead of carbon dioxide as coolant, the leakage of gas is a major
problem.
4. Coolant circulation requires more power.

Selection of Moderator
To absorb the kinetic energy of neutrons. The neutrons collide directly with moderator and
thus, get slowed down the neutrons from high velocities (high energy level) to low velocities
(low energy)
Desirable Properties of Moderator
1. High slowing down power.
2. Non-corrosiveness.
3. Good machinability.
4. High melting point for solids and low melting point for liquids.
5. Chemical and radiation stability.

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6. High thermal conductivity.

7. Availability in pure form in abundant quantity.

Factors to Be Considered For Selection of Site for Nuclear Power Plant:

1. Proximity to Load Center.
2. Population distribution.
3. Meteorology.
4. Geology.
5. Cost of Land.
6. Availability of Water or Hydrology.
7. Availability of Labor.
8. Future Extensions.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS/MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

• Plant should be constructed away from human habitation. An exclusion zone of 106
km radius around the plant should be provided, where no public habits.
• The materials to be used for the construction of a nuclear power plant are standards.
• Waste water from plant should be purified.
• The plant must be provided with such a safety system which is shutdown the plant as
and when necessity arises.
• There must be periodic checks to ensure that; radioactivity does not exceed the
permissible.
• While disposing off the waste from the nuclear plants, there is no pollution of water of
river or sea.
NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Solid waste:
• It consists of discarded control rods, fuel cans, scrap material etc. Out of these, the
combustible matter is burnt
• and the resulting gases are disposed to atmosphere, after dilution.
• The remaining material is mixed with concrete in the form of shielded vaults and
buried deep in sea or ground.
2. Liquid waste:
• Liquid waste coming from treatment plant is diluted by adding water to it. Then it is
released to ground (deep pits or dry wells), if the activity level is low.
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• In this method, there is a danger of contaminating ground water, if dilution is not

adequate.
• Another method is to fill the concentrated liquid in steel tanks and buried in ground.
The leakage from these tanks is more dangerous for human and plant life. So, care
should be taken to have leak proof tanks.
3. Gaseous Waste:
• They do not require any treatment except filtration.
• The gases are treated in a cleanup plant to remove radioactive iodine, which is more
hazardous for human health.
• The gaseous wastes are commonly diluted with air and after passing through, filter
they are released to atmosphere through a high stack (chimney).

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