Electronics

COURSE TEACHER: NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI.

LECTURER
DEPT. OF EEE, SUST

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 1

Recommended Books
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith
Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 2

 Marks Distribution
Mid – 20 (Average of 2 exams)
Attendance – 10
Evaluation – 10 (Class Perfomance)
Final – 60 - (Proper order, proper English)

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Electronics
Electronics?
•A scientific and engineering discipline
• Study that applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that
manipulate electrons and other electrically charged particles.
•Focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and
amplify the flow of electric current
•To convert it from one form to another, such as from alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or
from analog to digital.
• Electronics also encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics,
and quantum electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at
microscopic, nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales.
-Wikipedia

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Material Types
Conductor: Supports a generous flow of charge
◦ Copper, Aluminium etc.

Insulator: Very low level of conductivity

◦ Mica, rubber, glass etc.

Semiconductor: Conductivity level some-where between the conductor and insulator.

◦ Silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide etc.

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Conductivity and Resistivity
Conductivity: Support to the flow of charge.
Resistivity: Inversely related to the conductivity which is the resistance to the flow of charge.

Ω-cm

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Atomic structure of Intrinsic Semiconductor
Single-crystal semiconductors: germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si)
 Compound semiconductors : Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS),etc
(constructed of two or more semiconductor materials of
different atomic structures.)
Ge, Si, and GaAs are most frequently used in the construction
of electronic devices.
Intrinsic carriers: Free carriers due to the natural causes only.

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ENERGY LEVELS
The farther an electron is from
the nucleus, the higher is the
energy state, and any electron
that has left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than any
electron in the atomic structure.

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 Atomic structure of Intrinsic
Semiconductor
• During the intrinsic state the Si is still a poor conductor.

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Extrinsic Semiconductor Materials
Doping: The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor materials.
Extrinsic semiconductor material: Intrinsic + Doping process.
n-Type extrinsic semiconductor materials: Impurities with 5 valence electrons such as antimony,
arsenic and phosphorus.
p-Type extrinsic semiconductor materials: Impurities with 3 valence electrons such as boron,
gallium and indium.

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n-Type and p-Type Semiconductor Materials

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n-Type and p-Type Semiconductor Materials Cont’d

Impurities with 5 valence electrons are called donor atoms.

Impurities with 3 valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
Types of Materials Majority Carriers Minority Carriers
n-Type Electrons Holes
p-Type Holes Electrons

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 12

n-Type Semiconductor Materials Cont’d

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 Majority and Minority Carriers
•In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
•In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier.

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 Semiconductor Diode
Simply joining an n -type and a p -type material
together.
A two terminal device !
Depletion region : free carriers have been absorbed.
Contact potential/ barrier potential/ space charge
potential : The electric field formed in the depletion
region acts as a barrier. External energy must be
applied to get the electrons to move across the
barrier of the electric field. The potential difference
required to move the electrons through the electric
field is called the barrier potential.

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 Semiconductor Diode

Bias : The term bias refers to the application of an

external voltage across the two terminals of the
device to extract a response.
No bias (VD=0)
◦ Net flow in either direction is zero.

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 Semiconductor Diode Cont’d

Reverse bias (VD <0)

◦ Widening of the depletion region
◦ No majority carriers flow.
◦ Minority carriers flow same as before to generate
the reverse saturation current, Is.
◦ Minority carriers flow increase with temperature .
oThe reverse saturation current is seldom more than a
few microamperes and typically in nA, except for high-
power devices.
oit reaches its maximum level quickly and does not
change significantly with increases in the reverse-bias
potential

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 Semiconductor Diode Cont’d

Forward bias (VD >0)

◦ Depletion region width
reduces.
◦ Minority carrier flow is same
as before.
◦ Majority carrier flow
increases until an
exponential rise in current is
achieved.

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Shockley’s equation

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Ideal Semiconductor Diode

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Actual Semiconductor
Diode

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 Breakdown Region
The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is
called the breakdown potential and is given the label VBV .
• As the voltage across the diode increases in the RV region, the velocity of the
minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Is will increase.
• kinetic energy will be sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions
with otherwise stable atomic structures.
• ionization process will result (whereby valence electrons absorb sufficient energy
to leave the parent atom. )
• These additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the point where a
high avalanche current is established and the avalanche breakdown region
determined.
• The avalanche region ( VBV ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by
increasing the doping levels.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 22

• The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as
the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted the PRV rating).

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 23

 Do yourself

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RESISTANCE LEVELS (DC or Static Resistance AND AC or Dynamic
Resistance)

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 LED(light-emitting diode)
Not seen in Si, Ge
GaAs emit infrared light .
forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the
n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type
material
these free electrons are in the conduction band and at a
higher energy than the holes in the valence band.
 The difference in energy between the electrons and the
holes corresponds to the energy of visible light.
When recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of photons.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 26

Check!
• Diode Bias
• Diode contact potential

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Repeat with the
diode reversed.

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 Do Yourself

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Practice Yourself Example – 2.10(Boyelstad)

SINUSOIDAL INPUTS; HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

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For Silicon diodes

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Center-Tapped Transformer

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CLIPPERS

• Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of

an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform.
• There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.
• The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in
series with the load, whereas
• the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 47

SERIES CLIPPERS

• the dc supply can aid or work against the source voltage!

• determine the applied voltage (transition voltage)

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 48

PARALLEL CLIPPERS

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 49

Positive half cycle –
Diode is
• FB at voltage < 4 V
• revered biased for voltage > 4V
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 Practice similar problems

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 51

 CLAMPERS

• A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a

resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without changing the appearance of
the applied signal.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 52

Step 3: Assume that during the period when the diode is in
the “off” state the capacitor holds on to its established
voltage level.
Step 4: Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual
awareness of the location and defined polarity for v o to
ensure that the proper levels are obtained.
• The chosen resistor and capacitor of the network must be
chosen such that the time constant determined by τ= RC
is sufficiently large to ensure that the voltage across the
capacitor does not discharge significantly during the
interval the diode is nonconducting. Throughout
the analysis we assume that for all practical purposes the
capacitor fully charges or discharges in five time constants.

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Practice Yourself Example 2.23
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Zener Voltage, Zener Breakdown and Zener
Region
Instead of a straight line representing
the cathode, the zener diode has a bent
line that reminds you of the letter Z (for
zener).

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 56

Zener Voltage, Zener Breakdown and Zener
Region
use breakdown region characteristics of the p-n junction diode.(operate in reverse
breakdown)
A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage.
Thinner depletion region .
The slight slope to the curve in the Zener region reveals that there is a level of
resistance to be associated with the Zener diode in the conduction mode.
The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping levels.
The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is
the key feature of the zener diode.
A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 57

Zener Voltage, Zener Breakdown and Zener
Region

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Data sheet (a portion)

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Zener Regulation with a Variable Load

Do yourself

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Izm

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
(BJTs)

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• The BJT is constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two pn
Junctions
• The three regions are called emitter, base,
and collector.
• Why bipolar ?
• Why Transistor = transfer resistor ?
• The base region is lightly doped and very
thin compared to the heavily doped emitter
and the moderately doped collector regions.

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Biasing
Mode EBJ ECJ

Cutoff Reverse Reverse

Active Forward Reverse

Saturation Forward Forward

Active mode(common emitter )

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Operation

• Large number of majority carriers

will diffuse across the forward
biased p–n junction into the n -type
material.
• Since the sandwiched n -type
material is very thin and has a low
conductivity, a very small number
of these carriers will take this path
of high resistance to the base
terminal.
• The magnitude of the base current
is typically on the order of
microamperes, as compared to
milliamperes for the emitter and
collector currents.

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• The larger number of these majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into
the p -type material connected to the collector terminal.
• The injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n -type material.
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the transistor

The minority-current component is called the leakage current and is

given the symbol ICO ( IC current with emitter terminal open).

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COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
The common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration. In addition, the base is usually the terminal closest
to, or at, ground potential.

VBE VCB

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Input or driving characteristic
Levels of 𝑉 is making very small changes to 𝑉 .
So 𝑉 can be approximated to 0.7 once the
transistor is “ON”.

PREPARED BY NAIMA SULTANA ALAM SUPTI, LECTURER, DEPT. OF EEE, SUST 75

Output or collector characteristics
Three regions have been identified-
Active region
◦ Employed for the linear (undistorted
amplifiers)
◦ 𝐼 ≅𝐼

Cut-off region
◦ 𝐼 =0

Saturation region
◦ Exponential rise in 𝐼 as 𝑉 increases
towards zero.

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once a transistor is in the “on” state, the base-to-emitter voltage will be assumed to be the following:

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Book- Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith

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 Electronic Devices and Circuits , David A.Bell

BJT Amplification

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Do yourself
 BJT switching
- Switching circuit resembles an amplifier circuit but employs a
pulse waveform input instead of a bias voltage and AC signal.
- When input voltage (Vi) is 0, IB is 0, resulting in Ic =0 and VCE
=Vcc.
- VCE = Vcc - (Ic * R2), with Ic = 0, VCE = Vcc. (OFF state )
- Positive Vi leads to a base current flow.
- IB is made large enough to produce an Ic level causing a voltage
drop across R2 to approximately equal Vcc.
- With VCE = 0V, the CB junction becomes forward-biased by
0.7V.(ON state )
- The circuit in Fig. 4-21a is a BJT switching circuit, where a small
base current controls a much larger collector current to switch
the transistor between off and on states.
Read yourself