Course code: G109

Cellular System
Why Should I Study Biology??

1. Flexibility: Studying biology offers students more flexibility

in their career path.

2. Diverse work: Blend with Lab work and Field work

3. Post Graduate Opportunity: Biology is resaerch focused,

and flexible to adapt to many disciplines.
Overview: Inquiring About Life
• An organism’s adaptations to its environment are the
result of evolution
• Evolution is the process of change that has transformed
life on Earth
• Biology is the scientific study of life
• Biological questions:
– How does a single cell develop into an organism?
– How does the human mind work?
– How do living things interact in communities?
 We cannot define life with a single simple sentence.
 Seven characteristics shared by living systems:

• Cellular organization
• Ordered complexity
• Sensitivity
• Growth, development, and reproduction
• Energy utilization
• Homeostasis
• Evolutionary adaptation
 Response to the environment

Evolutionary adaptation

Order
 Growth and development

Reproduction

Energy processing
Level in the Biological Hierarchy

 Life can be studied at different levels, from

molecules to the entire living planet
 The study of life can be divided into different levels of
biological organization
 The biosphere
Tissues
Ecosystems
Organs and
organ systems

Communities
Cells
Organelles

Organisms Atoms

Populations Molecules
Hierarchical organization of living systems
Living systems show hierarchical organization
1. The Cellular Level:
 At the cellular level atoms, the fundamental elements of
matter, are joined together into clusters called molecules.
 Complex biological molecules are assembled into tiny
structures called organelles within membrane-bounded units
we call cells.
 Many independent organisms are composed only of single
cells. Bacteria are single cells.
 All animals and plants, as well as most fungi and algae, are
multicellular— composed of more than one cell.
Living systems show hierarchical organization
2. The Organismal Level:
 Cells in complex multicellular organisms exhibit three
levels of organization.
 The most basic level is that of tissues, which are groups
of similar cells that act as a functional unit.
 Tissues, in turn, are grouped into organs—body
structures composed of several different tissues that act
as a structural and functional unit.
 Your brain is an organ composed of nerve cells
 Origin of Life

Big Bang
Theory: Origin Explosion from a pin sized to
of Earth a Huge Universe. Among all
Planets, Earth only contains
life.

Earth without
life High temperature, poisonous
gases, no free oxygen/ water.
Life evolved from chemical
reactions and gradual
changes.
Evolution of
life
Life begins when the cell
forms. Single to multi-cellular
organisms. Survival of the
fittest.
 The Three Domains of Life

• Organisms are divided into three domains

• Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea compose
the prokaryotes
– Archaea live in the Earth’s extreme environments
• Most prokaryotes are single-celled and
microscopic
(a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea

2 m
2 m
(c) Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia

100 m

Kingdom Plantae

Protists

Kingdom Fungi
• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic
organisms
• Domain Eukarya includes three multicellular
kingdoms
– Plants, which produce their own food by
photosynthesis
– Fungi, which absorb nutrients
– Animals, which ingest their food
• Other eukaryotic organisms were formerly
grouped into the Protist kingdom, though these
are now often grouped into many separate groups
 Unity in the Diversity of Life

• A striking unity underlies the diversity of life; for

example
– DNA is the universal genetic language common
to all organisms
– Unity is evident in many features of cell structure
The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of
Structure and Function

• The cell is the lowest level of organization that

can perform all activities required for life
• All cells
– Are enclosed by a membrane
– Use DNA as their genetic information
• A eukaryotic cell has membrane-enclosed
organelles, the largest of which is usually
the nucleus
• By comparison, a prokaryotic cell is
simpler and usually smaller, and does not
contain a nucleus or other membrane-
enclosed organelles
 Single Cell organism: Bacteria

 Single cell e.g. bacteria, or several cells e.g. animals, plants & fungi

Bacteria
 Bacteria are prokaryotes, lacking well-defined nuclei and membrane-
bound organelles, and with chromosomes composed of a single closed
DNA circle.
 Evidence shows that bacteria were in existence as long as 3.5 billion
years ago, making them one of the oldest living organisms on the Earth.

Bacterial Cell Structure

Capsule - Some species of bacteria have a third protective covering, a
capsule made up of polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Capsules
play a number of roles, but the most important are to keep the bacterium
from drying out and to protect it from phagocytosis (engulfing) by larger
microorganisms

Cell Wall - Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall composed of

peptidoglycan, a protein-sugar (polysaccharide) molecule. The wall gives
the cell its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it
from the environment.
Flagella - Flagella are hair like structures that provide a means of
locomotion for those bacteria that have them. They can be found at either
or both ends of a bacterium or all over its surface. The flagella beat in a
propeller-like motion to help the bacterium move toward nutrients; away
from toxic chemicals; or, in the case of the photosynthetic cyanobacteria;
toward the light.

Pili - Many species of bacteria have pili (singular, pilus), small hairlike
projections emerging from the outside cell surface. These outgrowths assist
the bacteria in attaching to other cells and surfaces, such as teeth,
intestines, and rocks. Without pili, many disease-causing bacteria lose their
ability to infect because they're unable to attach to host tissue.
Eukaryotic Cell: Animal cell

Animal cell
Animal Cell Structure
Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining
characteristic is its irregular shape. This is due to the absence of a cell
wall. But animal cells share other cellular organelles with plant cells as
both have evolved from eukaryotic cells.

A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the
cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it
controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into
the cell.

Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as
nucleolus, nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other
genetic materials.
Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre
with radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are
produced.

Lysosome (Cell Vesicles)

They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising
digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal
process.

Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within
the cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained
by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus
and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the
particles throughout the cell.
Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane.
They are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in
releasing energy.

Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules,
and they are the sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of
membranous sacs originating from the nucleus.
Animal Cell Types
There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to
serve specific functions. The most common types of animal
cells are:

Skin Cells
Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells

Muscle Cells
Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells

Blood Cells
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelet

Nerve Cells
Schwann cell, glial cells etc.

Fat Cells
Adipocytes
Eukaryotic Cell: Plant cell

Plant cell
Plant Cell Structure
 Plant cells are thought to have evolved from the green algae
 Plants have been around since the early Paleozoic era, more than 500
million years ago.
 The earliest fossil evidence of land plants dates to the Ordovician
Period (505 to 438 million years ago).

Cell Wall - Like their prokaryotic ancestors, plant cells have a rigid wall surrounding
the plasma membrane. It is a far more complex structure, however, and serves a
variety of functions, from protecting the cell to regulating the life cycle of the plant
organism.

Chloroplasts - The most important characteristic of plants is their ability to

photosynthesize, in effect, to make their own food by converting light energy into
chemical energy. This process is carried out in specialized organelles called
chloroplasts.

Plasmodesmata - Plasmodesmata are small tubes that connect plant cells to each
other, providing living bridges between cells.

Vacuole - Each plant cell has a large, single vacuole that stores compounds, helps
in plant growth, and plays an important structural role for the plant.
 Importance of Biology:
From 17th century
•When human had knowledge, skill & equipments
•Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
•Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

 Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in England in

1665, using one of the first microscopes, one that
magnified 30 times.

 Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek used

microscopes capable of magnifying 300 times and
discovered an amazing world of single-celled life in a
drop of pond water
Group of Organisms Being Studied :
Modern biology:
Examples of some of the main fields of biology formed using this
method of subdivision are

Botany The study of plants.

Zoology The study of animals.
Microbiology The study of microscopic organisms.
Bacteriology The study of bacteria.
Virology The study of viruses.
Mycology The study of fungi.
Entomology The study of insects.
Ornithology The study of birds.
Scopes of Biology:
Scopes of Biology: (Cont…)
Scopes of Biology: (Cont.)
Biomedical Engineering: It is the blending of engineering
principles and design concepts with medicine and biology for
healthcare purposes.

Veterinary medicine: A branch of medicine that deals with the

prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases of animals.

Forensic Science: The field of Forensic science involves

investigating of a crime with the help of applying scientific
principles.

Bioinformatics: an interdisciplinary field that develops methods

and software tools for understanding biological data. As an
interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer
science, statistics, mathematics and engineering to study and
process biological data.
End of Lecture