Chapter 1: The field of real numbers

Dr. Meryem BELATTAR

[email protected]

University of Algiers 1- Benyoucef BENKHEDDA

Computer Science Department
Module: Analysis 1

Academic Year 2024/2025

Presentation of the subject

Semester: 01 (First year of Bachelor)

Teaching Unit: Fundamental

Title of the subject: Analysis 1

Hourly volume: Lecture: 3h Guided works: 1h30

Number of credits: 06

Subject coefficient: 04

Link:

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Content of the subject

Chapter 1: The field of real numbers

Chapter 2: The field of complex numbers

Chapter 3: Sequences of real numbers

Chapter 4: Real functions of a real variable

Chapter 5: Differentiable functions

Chapter 6: Elementary functions

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Prerequisites

Course objectives
Acquiring and understanding the basic concepts of mathematical
analysis
(1) The vocabulary of set theory,
(2) The different methods of convergence of real sequences,
(3) The analysis of functions of one real variable.
Recommended prior knowledge
• Mathematics for the 3rd year of scientific and technical
secondary education
Assessment of the course
Written exam, continuous control.

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Chapter 1: Field of real numbers

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Outline

1 Notions and some elementary results

Notations and first notions
Field of real numbers
2 Real numbers and their properties
The real numbers
Some topological properties of R
3 Topology of the real line
Neighborhood of a point
Open and closed sets in R
The union and intersection of open or closed sets
The extended real number line
4 Mathematical reasoning
The reasoning by recurrence

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Notions and some elementary results

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Notations and first notions

Definition 1 (Set)
A set is a collection of distinct objects called elements.

Classic set of numbers:

The set of real numbers R = ]−∞, +∞[ possesses the following subsets:
• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } the set of naturel numbers.
• N∗ = {1, 2, 3, . . . } the set of naturel numbers excluding 0.
• Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } the set of integer numbers.
p
• Q = {x ∈ R : x = , p ∈ Z, q ∈ N∗ } the set of rational numbers.
q
• R\Q the set of irrational numbers.
• R∗ \{0} = ]0, +∞[.
• R+ = [0, +∞[ et R− = ]−∞, 0].
• R∗+ = R+ \{0} = ]0, +∞[ and R∗− = R− \{0} = ]−∞, 0[.

Notions and some elementary results Notations and first notions 8 / 46

Notations and first notions

The set notion satisfies certain operating rules:

Membership relationship We write x ∈ A if the element x is in A.
Distinct objects We can distinguish two elements and a set cannot
contain the same object twice.
The empty set There exists a set which contains no element, it is the
empty set noted ∅.

Remark 1
Remember that we have the inclusions ∅ ⊂ N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

Notions and some elementary results Notations and first notions 9 / 46

Field of real numbers

Definition 2 (Axiomatic definition of real numbers)

The set of real numbers R is equipped with two internal compositions
operations:
Addition
” + ”: R × R → R
(x, y) 7→ x + y
Multiplication
” × ”: R×R → R
(x, y) 7→ x × y
and order relation ≤ over R, such that

∀(x, y) ∈ R2 : (x ≤ y) ∨ (y ≤ x).

Notions and some elementary results Field of real numbers 10 / 46

Axioms
The operations + and × satisfy these axioms:
(1) Commutativity of +: x + y = y + x, ∀x, y ∈ R;
(2) Associativity of +: (x + y) + z = x + (y + z), ∀x, y, z ∈ R;
(3) additive identity: There exists a neutral element 0 ∈ R, such
that: x + 0 = 0 + x = x, ∀x ∈ R;
(4) additive inverses: For every x ∈ R, there exists a symmetric
element (−x) ∈ R of x, such that: x + (−x) = (−x) + x = 0;
(5) Commutativity of ×: x × y = y × x, ∀x, y ∈ R
(6) Associativity of ×: (x × y) × z = x × (y × z), ∀x, y, z ∈ R;
(7) Multiplicative identity: There exists a neutral element 1 ∈ R,
such that: x × 1 = 1 × x = x, ∀x ∈ R;
(8) Multiplicative inverse: For every x ∈ R\{0}, there exists a
1
symmetric element x−1 or ∈ R of x, such that:
x
x × x−1 = x−1 × x = 1;
(9) Distributivity of × over +:
x × (y + z) = (x × y) + (x × z), ∀x, y, z ∈ R.
Notions and some elementary results Field of real numbers 11 / 46
Axioms

Order relation ≤ satisfies these axioms:

(i) Reflexivity: x ≤ x, ∀x ∈ R;
(ii) Transitivity: (x ≤ y ∧ y ≤ z) =⇒ x ≤ z;
(iii) Antisymmetry: x ≤ y ∧ y ≤ x) =⇒ x = y;
(iv) Total order: ∀x, y ∈ R, we have either x ≤ y or y ≤ x.
∀x, y, z ∈ R, we have the following properties:
• x ≤ y =⇒ x + z ≤ y + z, ∀z ∈ R;
• x ≤ y ∧ z ≥ 0 =⇒ x × z ≤ y × z;
• Continuity axiom: If X, Y ⊂ R such that ∀x ∈ X, y ∈ Y, x ≤ Y,
then ∃c ∈ R : x ≤ c ≤ y.

Proposition 1
(R, +, ×) is a commutative ordred Archimedean field.

Notions and some elementary results Field of real numbers 12 / 46

 Real numbers and their properties

Real numbers and their properties 13 / 46

The absolute value (modulus) of a real number

Definition 3
(
x if x ≥ 0,
We define the absolute value of x ∈ R by: |x| =
−x if x < 0.
In other words: ∀x ∈ R, |x| = max{x, −x}.

Properties
• ∀x ∈ R, |−x| = |x|;
• ∀x ∈ R, |x| ≥ 0;
• ∀x ∈ R, −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x|;
• ∀x ∈ R, n ∈ N, |xn | = |x|n ;
• ∀x ∈ R, |x|2 = x2 ;
• ∀x ∈ R, |x| = 0 ⇔ x = 0;
√
• ∀x ∈ R, x2 = |x|;

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 14 / 46

The absolute value of a real number
• ∀a ≥ 0, |x| = a ⇔ x = a ∨ x = −a;
• ∀a ≥ 0, |x| ≤ a ⇔ −a ≤ x ≤ a;

x ≤ −a,


• ∀a ≥ 0, |x| ≥ a ⇔ ∨

x ≥ a.


• ∀x, y ∈ R, |x × y| = |x| × |y|;

x |x|
• ∀(x, y) ∈ R × R∗ , = ;
y |y|
• ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y| (First Triangle Inequality);
• ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 , ||x| − |y|| ≤ |x − y| (Second Triangle Inequality).

Proposition 2
Let x be a real.
∀ε ∈ R∗+ , |x| ≤ ε =⇒ x = 0.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 15 / 46

Interval of R

Definition 4
A part I of R is an interval of R if only if it satisfies the following
property:

∀a, b ∈ I, a < b then ∀x ∈ R : (a < x < b =⇒ x ∈ I).

Examples:
(i) R (real line), R+ , R− , R∗+ , R∗− and ∅ are intervals.
(ii) R∗ and N are not intervals.
Remarks:
(i) For the notations, let a, b ∈ R, we have the intervals in R:
• bounded: opens ]a, b[, closed [a, b] or semi-opens [a, b[ , ]a, b].
• not bounded: opens ]−∞, b[ , ]a, +∞[ or closed
[a, +∞[ , ]−∞, b].
• If a = b, then [a, a] = {a}, ]a, b[ = [a, b[ = ]a, b] = ∅.
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 16 / 46
Interval of R

Remarks:
(1) The intersection of two intervals is always an interval.
(2) The reunion of two intevals having a non-empty intersection is an
interval.

Definition 5
Let a, b ∈ R. The set denoted by [a, b], called a segment, is defined as

[a, b] = {x ∈ R, a ≤ x ≤ b}.

If a > b, then [a, b] = ∅.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 17 / 46

Upper and lower bounds of R
Definition 6
Let A ⊂ R (with A ̸= ∅). We say that A is
1) bounded above if there exists a real number M , called an upper
bound of A, such that

∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M.

2) bounded below if there exists a real number m, called a lower

bound of A, such that

∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m.

3) bounded if it is bounded above and below.

∀x ∈ A, m ≤ x ≤ M.

Note If A has an upper bound (resp. lower bound), it is not

necessarily unique.
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 18 / 46
Upper and lower bounds of R
Note
- The sets of the upper bounds is denoted by

U pp(A) = {M ∈ R, ∀x ∈ A : x ≤ M }.

- The set of the lower bounds is denoted by

Low(A) = {m ∈ R, ∀x ∈ A : x ≥ m}.

Examples:
1) Every element of R is an upper bound for the empty set.
2) {s ∈ R, −4 ≤ s < 3}: the numbers 3, 11, 1037 are upper bounds;
2, 999999 is not an upper bound. The set of lower bounds is
(−∞, −4].
3) {1}: any b > 1 is an upper bound and any b ≤ 1 is a lower bound.
4) N is bounded below.
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 19 / 46
Supremum and infimum
Definition 7 (Supremum)
Let A ⊂ R (A ̸= ∅) and U pp(A) ⊂ R the set of the upper bounds of A.
We say that α ∈ R is the supremum of A, written sup A, if
i) α is an upper bound of A: ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ α,
ii) α is the least (smallest) upper bound of A:

∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M =⇒ α ≤ M for all upper bounds M of A.

Definition 8 (Infimum)
Let A ⊂ R (A ̸= ∅) and Low(A) ⊂ R the set of the lower bounds of A.
We say that α ∈ R is the infimum of A, written inf A, if
i) α is an lower bound of A: ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ α,
ii) α is the greatest (largest) lower bound of A:

∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m =⇒ α ≥ m for all lower bounds m of A.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 20 / 46
Supremum and infimum

Theorem 9
i) The supremum and infimum of a subset of R, if they exist, are
unique.
ii) Every non-empty, bounded above (resp. below) subset of R has a
supremum (resp. an infimum).

Remarks:
(1) When the supremum (resp. infimum) exists, it is unique.
(2) Property ii) of Theorem 9, known as the supremum property,
is not true in the set of rational numbers Q.
(3) The supremum sup A (resp. the infimum inf A) does not
necessarily belong to the set A.
(4) The supremum (resp. the infimum) of a bounded above (resp.
below) set A always exists but may not belong to A.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 21 / 46

Supremum and infimum

Proposition 3
(1) Let A, B be non-empty subsets of R, bounded of R, with A ⊆ B.
Then
inf B ≤ inf A ≤ sup A ≤ sup B.
(2) Let T ⊆ R be non-empty and bounded below. Let A = {−t, t ∈ T }.
Then A is non-empty and bounded above. Furthermore, inf T
exists, and inf T = − sup A.

Proposition 4
Let A be a non-empty subset of R. The following two statements are
equivalent:
(i) ∃α > 0, ∀x ∈ A : |x| ≤ α.
(ii) ∃m, M ∈ R, ∀x ∈ A : m ≤ x ≤ M.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 22 / 46

Characterization of the supremum and infimum
Given a non-empty, bounded subset A of R, and m, M ∈ R, the
following characterizations hold:
Theorem 10
i) If A is bounded above in R, then:
(
M is an upper bound of A,
M = sup A ⇔
∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ A : M − ε < x.

ii) If A is bounded below in R, then:

(
m is a lower bound of A,
m = inf A ⇔
∀ε > 0, ∃x ∈ A : x < m + ε.

Remarks: Let A be a non-empty subset of R, then:

• A = {x, x ∈ A} and −A = {−x, x ∈ A}
• sup(−A) = −inf A, inf(−A) = − sup A
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 23 / 46
Maximum and minimum
Definition 11 (Maximum)
Let A ⊆ R. Take M ∈ R. We say that M is the maximum of A,
written max A, if
(i) M ∈ A (M is an element of A)
(ii) ∀x ∈ A, x ≤ M (M is an upper bound for A).

Definition 12 (Minimum)
Let A ⊆ R. Take m ∈ R. We say that m is the minimum of A,
written min A, if
(i) m ∈ A (m is an element of A)
(ii) ∀x ∈ A, x ≥ m (m is a lower bound for A).

Remarks:
• If A is empty or A is not bounded above (resp. below) then A
does not have a maximum (resp. minimum).
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 24 / 46
Remarks and examples

• A has a maximum (respectively, minimum) if and only if

sup A ∈ A (respectively, inf A ∈ A).
• If A has a maximum (respectively, minimum) then max A = sup A
(respectively, min A = inf A).
Examples:
▷ Let A = ]1, 2], A is a bounded part of R:
The set of upper bounds of A is U pp(A) = [2, +∞[. Then
sup A = 2. Note that sup A ∈ A so sup A = max A = 2.
The set of lower bounds of A is Low(A) =] − ∞, 1[, so inf A = 1,
min A does not exist.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 25 / 46

Remarks and examples

▷ A = [2, +∞[ is bounded below, thus inf A = 2 = min A.

n+2
▷ Let the set A = { /n ∈ N, n ≥ 3}.
n−2
The set A is bounded, since we have ∀n ≥ 3:
n+2
n ≥ 3 =⇒ 1 ≤ n − 2 ≤ n + 2 =⇒ 1 ≤ ,
n−2
where A is bounded below. On the other hand, we have ∀n ≥ 3:

4n ≥ 12 ⇔ 5n − 10 ≥ n + 2,
⇔ 5(n − 2) ≥ n + 2,
n+2
⇔ ≤ 5,
n−2
where A is bounded above. Consequently A is bounded.
Note that sup A = 5 ∈ A for n = 3 so max A = sup A = 5.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 26 / 46

Remarks and examples
To prove that inf A = 1, we have to find an x ∈ A close to 1.
Let ε > 0, such that x < 1 + ε. In other words, we have to find
n ∈ N (such that n ≥ 3) that satisfies:
n+2
<1+ε
n−2
=⇒ (n + 2) < (1 + ε)(n − 2)
4
=⇒ n > + 2.
ε
4
 
So it is sufficient to take n =+ 2 + 1. Observe that the
ε
minimum of A does not exist. Indeed we have
n+2
∃n ∈ N, n ≥ 3, = 1 ⇔ 2 = −2, (absurd).
n−2
So min A does not exist.
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 27 / 46
The Archimedes’ principle and its consequences
The set of real numbers R satisfies the Archimedes’ principle, which is
stated as follows.
∀x ∈ R+ , ∃n ∈ N : n > x,
which means that N is not bounded above.
This property can also be written as follows:

∀h ∈ R∗+ , ∀x ∈ R∗+ , ∃n ∈ N∗ : nh > x.

Definition 13 (The integer part)

The integer part (the floor) of a real number x is the greatest
integer that is less than or equal to x. In other word, the integer part
of x is the unique integer n ∈ Z such that n ≤ x < n + 1. n is denoted
by E(x) or [x].
Thus, any real number x can be uniquely expressed in the form

x = [x] + α, where α ∈ [0, 1[.

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 28 / 46
The integer part
Example:
E(5, 70911) = 5, E(−5, 70911) = −6.
Properties
1. E(x) ∈ Z, ∀x ∈ R, E(E(x)) = E(x)
2. E(x) = m ⇔ m ≤ x ≤ m + 1.
3. x − 1 < E(x) ≤ x, ∀x ∈ R.
4. E(x) = x ⇔ x ∈ Z.
5. E(x) ≤ x ≤ E(x) + 1, ∀x ∈ R.
6. E(x + m) = E(x) + m, ∀x ∈ R, ∀m ∈ Z.
7. E(x) + E(y) ≤ E(x + y) ≤ E(x) + E(y) + 1, ∀x, y ∈ R.
8. x ≤ y =⇒ E(x) ≤ E(y), ∀x, y ∈ R.
(
0 if x ∈ Z,
9. E(x) + E(−x) =
−1 if x ∈
/ Z.
Remark:
The integer part is an increasing function but not strictly increasing.
Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 29 / 46
Computational properties of R

Integer exponents
• ∀x ∈ R∗ and m < 0, so xm = (x−m )−1 .
• The map x 7→ x m
 is even (resp. odd) if m is even (resp. odd).
increased strictly

 if m > 0,
∗
Over R+ , it is decreased strictly if m < 0,


 Constant if m = 0.
• For all a, b ∈ R∗ and n, p ∈ Z, we have:

1) (ab)n = an bn 1 a an
4) = a−1 6) ( )n = n
2) an ap = an+p ann b b
a
3) (an )p = anp 5) p = an−p
a

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 30 / 46

Computational properties of R

Rational exponents

Proposition 5 (n − th root of a positive real number)

For a ∈ R∗+ and n ∈ N∗ , there exists a unique positive real b, such that
√ 1
bn = a. The real n a or a n is called n − th root of a.

Properties
1
• The equation bn = a has a unique solution b = a n in R.
1
• The function a 7→ a n is defined on R.
p 1
• Let((p, q) ∈ Z × N∗ , we set a q = (a q )p . The domain of definition
R if q is odd and p ≥ 0; R∗ if q is odd and p < 0,
is:
R+ if q is even and p ≥ 0; R∗+ if q is even and p < 0,

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 31 / 46

Computational properties of R

Proposition 6 (Newton’s binomial formula)

n
!
∗ n
X n
∀x, y ∈ R, n ∈ N : (x + y) = xk y n−k ,
k
k=0
!
n n!
with = Cnk = k!(n−k)! .
k

Proposition 7
For all x, y ∈ R and n ∈ N∗ , we have:
n
X
n n
x − y = (x − y) xn−1−k y k
k=0
= (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 ).

Real numbers and their properties The real numbers 32 / 46

Some topological properties of R
1. R is a complete metric space:

Definition 14 (A metric space)

The usual distance on R is defined as the function:
d : R × R → R+
(x, y) 7→ d(x, y) = |x − y|

Given two real numbers x and y, the real number d(x, y) is called the
distance between x and y.

Proposition 8
The usual distance on R has the following properties:
i) Separation: ∀x, y ∈ R, d(x, y) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = y.
ii) Symmetry: ∀x, y ∈ R, d(x, y) = d(y, x).
iii) Triangle inequality: ∀x, y, z ∈ R, d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z),

Real numbers and their properties Some topological properties of R 33 / 46

Some topological properties of
Continuation of proposition 8
then, d is called a metric (or a distance).

Definition 15 (A complete space)

We say that R is a complete space if any Cauchy sequence in R
converges to an element of R.

2. The density of Q (or R\Q) in R:

Definition 16
We say that a subset A of R is dense in R if

∀(x, y)R2 (x < y =⇒ ∃a ∈ A, x < a < y).

Or, for any real x there exists a sequence (an )n∈N of elements from A
that converges to x.

Real numbers and their properties Some topological properties of R 34 / 46

Some topological properties of R

Proposition 9 (density of R)
The set Q (resp. R\Q) of rational (resp. irrational) numbers is dense
in the set R of real numbers, and we denote Q = R (resp. R\Q = R).

3. R is a separable space
4. R is a connected space
5. Compactness of closed bounded intervals:
Definition 17
A subset of R is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded.

Real numbers and their properties Some topological properties of R 35 / 46

Some topological properties of R

Example:
The closed and the bounded interval [a, b] is compact, where
• It includes its endpoints a and b (closed).
• The values of x within the interval are limited to between a and b
(bounded).
6. The supremum property.
7. R is a one-dimensional space (the real line): This means that
any point in R can be described using a single real number.

Real numbers and their properties Some topological properties of R 36 / 46

 Topology of the real line

Topology of the real line Neighborhood of a point 37 / 46

Neighborhood

Definition 18
We say that the subset V of R is a neighborhood of the real x0 if V
contains an open interval ]a, b[ in R of center x0 , in other words, if
1
∃(a, b) ∈ R2 , (a < b) and x0 = (a + b) and ]a, b[ ⊂ V.
2
We say that the subset V of R is a neighborhood of +∞ (resp.
−∞) if V contains an open interval ]α, +∞[ (resp. ]−∞, α[ ), α ∈ R.

a b V
x0

Figure: The neighborhood of x0 .

Topology of the real line Neighborhood of a point 38 / 46

Examples:

1
 
1. The intervals ]−1, 1] and −1, are neighborhoods of 0.
2
2. The intervals ]0, 1] , [0, 1] and [2, 3] are not neighborhoods of 0.
3. The set {1} ∪ ]2, 3[ is not a neighborhoods of 1 but is a
5
neighborhood of .
2
4. The sets N, Z and Q are not neighborhoods of any of their points.

Topology of the real line Neighborhood of a point 39 / 46

Open and closed sets

Definition 19
▷ A non-empty subset O of R is called an open set if for every
element x in O, there exists an open interval centered at x that is
included in O; in other words, a subset O is open if it is a
neighborhood of each of its points.
▷ A subset F of R is called a closed set if its complement in R is
open.

Remarks:
• The complement of an open interval is a closed.
• The set Q of rational numbers is neither open nor closed in R.
• The set R is an open.

Topology of the real line Open and closed sets in R 40 / 46

Remarks and examples

• By convention, the empty set is an open set in R. Its complement,

which is R, is therefore a closed set. We have seen that R is an
open set, and its complement, which is the empty set, is thus
closed. It should be noted that both the empty set and R are
simultaneously open and closed sets.
Examples:
√
Every open interval ]a, b[ with a < b is an open set in R.
√
For every real number a, the interval ]a, +∞[ is an open set in R.
√
The interval ]−3, 3] is neither open nor closed in R.

Topology of the real line Open and closed sets in R 41 / 46

The union and intersection of open or closed sets

Definition 20
• The union of any number of open sets is an open set. The
intersection of a finite number of open sets is an open set.
• The union of any number of closed sets is a closed set. The
intersection of a finite number of closed sets is a closed set.
Examples:
1. The closed interval [a, b] in R is closed.
2. The sets N and Z are closed in R.

Topology of the real line The union and intersection of open or closed sets 42 / 46
The extended real number line

Definition 21
The extended real line, denoted by R is the set R ∪ {−∞, +∞}.

We extend to R the total order relation defined on R, by setting

∀x ∈ R, −∞ ≤ x ≤ +∞ (in fact − ∞ < x < +∞).

Operations over R: Similarly, the laws + and × of R are "extended"

(always commutatively) by posing

• ∀x ∈ R, x + (+∞) = +∞, • ∀x ∈ R, (+∞) + (+∞) = +∞,

• ∀x ∈ R, (+∞) + x = +∞, • ∀x ∈ R, (−∞) + (−∞) = −∞,
• ∀x ∈ R, x + (−∞) = −∞, • ∀x > 0, x × (+∞) = +∞,
• ∀x ∈ R, (−∞) + x = −∞, • ∀x > 0, x × (−∞) = −∞.

Topology of the real line The extended real number line 43 / 46

The extended real number line

• ∀x < 0, x × (+∞) = −∞, • (+∞) × (−∞) = −∞,

• ∀x < 0, x × (−∞) = +∞, • (−∞) × (+∞) = −∞,
• (+∞) × (+∞) = +∞, x x
• (−∞) × (−∞) = +∞, • ∀x ∈ R, = = 0.
+∞ −∞
Indeterminate forms:

(+∞) + (−∞), 0 × (+∞), 0 × (−∞), 1∞ , 00 , ∞0 .

Proposition 10
Every non-empty subset of R has an upper bound and a lower bound in
R.
Example:
Given A and B, two subsets of R, such as A = [5, +∞] and
B = [−∞, −1], then sup A = +∞, inf B = −∞.
Topology of the real line The extended real number line 44 / 46
The reasoning by recurrence

The reasoning by recurrence (induction) consists of the following:

Let p(n) be a mathematical statement depending on the integer n ∈ N.
To establish that this statement is true for all n ≥ n0 , it is sufficient to
show that:
1) p(n0 ) is true.
2) If p(n) is true for n ≥ n0 , then p(n + 1) is true.
Under these conditions, p(n) is true ∀n ≥ n0 .

Mathematical reasoning The reasoning by recurrence 45 / 46

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Mathematical reasoning The reasoning by recurrence 46 / 46