Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)

Objectives:
The learners shall be able to:
1. describe the general types of intermolecular forces;
2. give the type of intermolecular forces in the properties of substances;
3. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances 4. explain how
the uses of the following materials depend on their properties; medical implants, prostheses;
sports equipment; electronic devices; construction supplies for the buildings, and furniture;
5. explain how the properties of the above material are determined by their structure.

Introduction

Have you ever wondered why water forms beads

rather than spread out on a leaf surface as shown in Figure
1? The bead formation is due to the molecules of water
being more attracted to each other rather than to
molecules comprising the leaf. Water often forms small
Figure 1: Bead formation of water on a leaf
domes or beads that contain 1 x 1023 or more
molecules clinging to each other.

Such properties of matter, along with density, hardness, solubility, and physical state, among
others, are referred to as physical properties of matter. Physical properties are characteristics of
matter that are observed without changing its chemical composition. They are attributed to the
forces of attraction that exist between the molecules that comprise matter. These forces are
termed intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA).

The strength of a substance’s intermolecular attractive force determines many of its physical
properties, including its melting and boiling points. Substances like bromine molecule (Br) that boils
very easily have extremely weak intermolecular attractive forces. Conversely, substances with
higher boiling points, such as water, possess more substantial and stronger intermolecular forces of
attraction.
Compared to the chemical bonds that hold ions in ionic compounds or atoms in molecular
compounds, intermolecular forces are weaker. Take a look at the examples shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Chemical Bonds, Compounds, and Their Corresponding Boiling Points

Types of Types of Example Molar Mass Boiling Point

Chemical Bond Compounds (g/mol) (°C)

Ionic Ionic NaCl 58.44 1 413

MgCl2 95.21 1 412

Polar Covalent Molecular H2O 18.01 100

ICl 162.4 97

Nonpolar Molecular I2 78.11 184

Covalent C6H6 253.8 80
Br2 159.8 59

Ionic compounds have higher boiling points than molecular compounds. Higher boiling points
indicate greater intermolecular forces of attraction between particles of a sample liquid.

One of the most important effects of a molecule’s polarity is on its intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMFA). Broadly defined, these are electrostatic forces that are experienced between
two molecules, causing them to be attracted to each other.

Intermolecular forces also affect solubility. A polar substance is only soluble (or only miscible
when dealing with liquid solute and solvent) in another polar substance, and a nonpolar substance is
only soluble in another nonpolar substance. Easily put, “like dissolves like” pertains to the polarity
of the solute or the solvent. For example, oil, a nonpolar substance, is not soluble (or immiscible) in
water, a polar substance. Sucrose (sugar), a polar substance, is soluble in water. Sodium chloride
(table salt) will also dissolve in water because of its polar ionic nature.

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

There are several types of intermolecular forces of attraction discussed in this section.
Common in all is the fact that they arise from attractions between partial positive and partial
negative electrical changes. These attractions are collectively referred to as van der Waals forces,
named after Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals.
London Dispersion Forces. In 1930, German-American physicist Fritz Wolfgang London
suggested that intermolecular forces exist between all atoms and molecules. These forces result
from the constant movement of electrons in molecules, which consequently creates instantaneous
dipoles. He called those forces the London dispersion forces (LDF).

Figure 2: London dispersion forces between nonpolar molecules

London dispersion forces are the weakest type of intermolecular force of attraction and only
exist when atoms are in a very close range. These are the only forces existing among atoms in noble
gases and nonpolar molecular compounds. Because of this, noble gases and nonpolar substances
have low boiling points. LDF increase with increasing molar mass. For example, between the
nonpolar
molecules of Br2 (159.8 g/mol) and I2 (253.8 g/mol), I2 has a higher boiling point than Br2.

Dipole-Dipole Forces. The intermolecular forces of attraction acting on polar molecules are
called dipole-dipole forces. These are short-range forces that exist between molecules that are
very near to each other. As shown in Figure 3, the partially negative atom of one polar molecule
attracts the partially positive atom of another molecule.

Figure 3: Dipole-dipole force between polar molecules

A polar molecule can induce a temporary dipole in a nonpolar molecule by temporarily

attracting its electrons. Termed dipole-induced dipole, this attractive force is sort-ranged and
considered weaker than dipole-dipole interaction.
To compare the strength of London dispersion and dipole-dipole forces, consider Br2 (nonpolar) and
 ICl (polar), which have relatively comparable molar masses of 159.8 g/mol and 162.4 g/mol,
respectively. Notice from Table 2 below that the boiling point of ICl (97°C) is higher than that of Br2
(59°C). This supports that dipole-dipole forces are indeed stronger than London dispersion forces.

Hydrogen Bonds. Hydrogen bonding is a

special
type of dipole-dipole interaction. It results when a
hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative
atom
like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine is attracted to an
unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative
atom of
another molecule. Compared to other polar
molecules,
such as HCl, the boiling points of hydrogen-bonded
molecules are higher due to the special stability provided
by the hydrogen bonds. Water is a good example of a
hydrogen-containing compound with high boiling points.
to which it is attracted.
Dashed lines are used to represent hydrogen
bonding between a hydrogen atom and the Figure 4: Hydrogen bonding in water molecules

unshared electrons of an electronegative atom

Take note that as opposed to metallic bonding, ionic bonding, and covalent bonding which
are all intramolecular forces of attraction, hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular force of
attraction.

Table 2: Summary of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

IMFA Types of Substances that Exhibit Attraction

London dispersion forces Present in all substances

Dipole-dipole Molecules that have permanent dipoles

Hydrogen Bonding Molecules with N-H, O-H, and H-F bonds

Applications of IMFA

Physical properties, partly influenced by the intermolecular forces of attraction, are

important considerations when designing different materials or equipment for various uses. These
properties should match the product’s intended environment and should not interfere with its
functions. Among these products are medical devices, construction materials, sports equipment,
and electrical devices.

Medical Devices

Medical implants and prosthetics, which are devices with tissues placed inside or on
the surface of the body, should be carefully designed such that they will not cause infection,
trigger allergic reactions, or fail to do their function. Some implants require the material to
have high melting points so that it will not be damaged during sterilization procedures prior
to its introduction into the body. The solubility and reactivity properties of an implant
depend on its application as well.

Implants are usually designed to be insoluble and unreactive to the cell components
and body fluids, particularly those that surround them. Some metal implants are produced as
alloys (mixed with other materials) to provide strength and better compatibility with the
biological system. Other materials used for medical implants, such as silicone, have soft
rubber-like or jelly properties. The material used in these implants may be held together by
van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, or covalent bonds. Some are from permanent covalent
networks, while others are only weakly held to make them more adaptive to certain
temperatures.

Construction Materials

In construction, the correct combination of materials provides the strength and

stability of a structure. Physical properties help architects and builders decide which
materials will best suit the purpose of the final structure. For example, building frameworks
are made of pure metals or metal alloys to provide a strong foundation. Metals generally
have a high tensile strength and a very high melting point because of the strong metallic
bonding between their atoms. Alloys such as bronze, brass, and steel are normally used in
construction.
 Another material used in construction is concrete, which is a hardened mixture of
rocks, gravel, cement, and water. The strength of the cement paste (cement and water)
results from the van der Waals force between cement particles. Hardened cement paste is
easy to apply
and smoothen, but it can also easily crack when excessive water is added to the mixture.
Adding rocks and gravel, collectively called aggregates, provides additional weight and
strength to the concrete. The cement paste coats and holds the aggregates in the concrete.

Sports Equipment

Aside from the structural design of sports equipment, it is equally important to choose
the correct materials to use for each part of the equipment to achieve its optimum
performance. The design gives provisions for the unwanted dissolution, melting, or breakage
of any part of the equipment when used. For example, materials used for tennis rackets and
bicycle frames are lightweight to allow for easy movement of the user, but at the same time
durable enough for a longer time of usage, especially since great force is applied when using
them. For these purposes, composites are normally used, these are materials that have two
or more constituents joined together by different bonding forces and have properties that are
distinct from those of the constituent materials. Examples are carbon fiber composites,
whose durability results from their webbed fibers, providing additional strength and
structural stability. Composites of titanium or tungsten with graphene or carbon are used in
tennis rackets. Other equipment that uses composites is pole vault, which requires high
resistance to strain. For gym equipment, which requires high strength, pure metals or alloys
(metals mixed with another metal or a nonmetal to reinforce its strength) are specifically
used.

Electronic Devices

Material characteristics are important in designing electronic devices and household

gadgets. Many of the latest devices are created from solid-state materials, in which electrons
flow through the solid semiconductor crystals. The synthesis of solid-state materials requires
knowledge of the physical properties, particularly conductivity, of the starting materials. In
addition, lightness and durability are sought-after features of gadgets. Electronic devices
 require electrically conductive parts to allow electricity to flow, but they may also require
coverings that allow easy release of heat to reduce overheating of the device. Metal alloys
are used for electrical conduction, while light plastics are used for coverings. These plastics
are normally covalently bound hydrocarbons called polymers. Some polymers may be hard
and tough, while others may be more flexible depending on the predominant interactions in
the polymer materials.
Intermolecular Forces and Properties of Substances

The intermolecular forces influence the physical properties of the three basic phases of
matter: gas, liquid, and solid.

Gases

Gases have negligible intermolecular force existing between their molecules. The
predominant intermolecular forces in nonpolar gases (N2, O2, CO2, and H2), and the noble gases are
dispersion forces. The weak intermolecular forces explain why gases diffuse easily and have no
definite shape and volume.

Liquids

The type of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules in the liquid state depends
on the nature of substances. The interplay of its motions of molecules and the presence of weak
intermolecular forces explains the characteristic properties of liquids

Fluidity and Viscosity. Like gases, liquids are referred to as fluids that can flow and
take the shape of their containers. Weak attractive forces hold the liquid molecules together
yet allow them to move and slide past one another. This explains why liquids have no definite
shape.

Liquids also exhibit viscosity, which is defined as the resistance of the liquid to flow.
Syrup and oil flow more slowly than water and are thus described as more viscous. The
viscosity of the liquid depends on its intermolecular attractions. The stronger the
intermolecular force, the higher the liquid’s viscosity.

Diffusion. The weak intermolecular forces in liquids allow the molecules to move
around each other. This explains the diffusion in liquids. If you drop a small amount of dye in
a glass of water, you will see the dye’s color slowly spreading in the water after a few
seconds.

Definite Volume. The forces of attraction between molecules of a liquid hold them
together to occupy a fixed space; that is, assume a definite volume.

Surface Tension. Water striders can walk on water. This is possible because of surface
tension. What is water tension and what causes it?

Figure 5: A molecule in bulk liquid water experiences attractive forces

on all sides. A molecule at the surface experiences forces on
the sides and bottom only.

Each molecule in the interior of the liquid is attracted by its neighboring molecules on
all sides. Hence, the net force acting on A is equal to zero. On the other hand, each molecule
at the surface (shown as B) has a neighboring molecule at the side and below it. As a result,
the surface molecules experience a downward net attraction and are pulled toward the
interior. Consequently, the liquid tends to minimize the number of its molecules at the
surface, which results in surface tension. The surface behaves like a “taut skin” covering the
interior. Surface tension is defined as the force on the surface of the liquid that makes the
surface area as small as possible.

Surface tension allows needles and paper clips to float in water if placed carefully on
the surface It also explains why drops of water are spherical in shape.

Capillary Action. if you place a capillary tube (a narrow tube) into a beaker with
water, you will notice that the liquid flows up through the tube against gravity. This
phenomenon is referred to as capillary action.

Capillary action results from the competition between cohesive forces (intermolecular
forces within the liquid) and adhesive forces (between different substances). The relative
 strengths of the adhesive forces and adhesive forces explain why a meniscus curves upward
(e.g., in water) or curves downward (e.g., in mercury). A meniscus is the convex or concave
surface of a column of liquid. Capillary action also explains the absorbing property of paper
towels and cotton.

Figure 6: Water forms a concave meniscus in glass, while mercury forms a convex meniscus.

Solids

The particles of a solid are held together by strong forces of attraction and are thus closely
packed. Solids are nearly incompressible because of the strong attractive forces that hold the
particles together making the structure rigid and compact.

Unlike liquid particles, solid particles only vibrate at fixed positions. They do not slip and
slide with one another to fill the container, hence they do not flow.

Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

Crystalline solids have a well-defined shape. Their particles (atoms. Molecules, or

ions) exist in a highly ordered arrangement. Solid whose particles are organized in random
patterns are referred to as amorphous solids. Examples of amorphous solids are charcoal,
rubber, and glass.
 Types of Crystalline Solids

• Atomic, Molecular, Ionic, Network Covalent, and Metallic

Table 3: Properties of Crystalline Solids

Type Particles Properties Examples

Atomic Atoms Soft, low melting point, a poor Noble gases such as
conductor of heat and helium (He) and neon
electricity (Ne)

Molecular Molecule Fairly soft, low to moderate Oxygen (O2)

melting point, poor thermal Dry ice (solid CO2)
and electrical conductors Ice (solid H2O)
Glucose (C6H12O6)

Ionic Cations and Hard and brittle, high melting Sodium chloride
Anions point, nonconductors as solid (NaCl) Magnesium
but conductors as an aqueous Oxide (MgO)
solution

Network Atoms Very hard, very high melting Carbon (diamond

Covalent point, poor thermal and and graphite)
electrical conductors (except Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
graphite)

Metallic Positive Soft to hard, low to high melting Sodium (Na)

core and point, good thermal and Iron (Fe)
delocalized electrical conductors, Copper (Cu)
electron malleable and ductile Zinc (Zn)