Introduction to Proof

Deductive reasoning in mathematical proof is the process of using logical reasoning to draw
conclusions from given premises or assumptions. It involves starting with a general statement or
principle and using logical steps to arrive at a specific conclusion. In other words, it is the
process of showing that a statement or theorem is true based on a set of axioms, definitions, and
previously proven theorems. This type of reasoning is essential in mathematical proofs to ensure
the validity and soundness of the arguments presented.

Observation, measurement and experimentation are not proofs

-Observation cannot serve as proof. Eyesight may be defective and appearances may be
misleading

-Measurement cannot serve as proof. Measurements are not exact but approximate, depending
on the precision of the measuring instrument and the care of the observer. In measurement
allowance should be made possible error equal to half the smallest unit of measurement used

-Experiment cannot serve as proof. Conclusions of experiments are only probable ones. The
degree of probability depends on the particular situations or instances examined in the process.

Terminologies
1. Theorem is a statement that can be proved on the basis of explicitly stated or previously
agreed assumptions
Examples:
 Pythagorean Theorem: In a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of
the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic: Every integer greater than 1 can be
factored uniquely into a product of prime numbers.
 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: It connects the concept of the derivative
of a function with the concept of the function's integral.
 Fermat's Last Theorem: States that no three positive integers a, b, and c can
satisfy the equation an + bn = cn for any integer value of n greater than 2.
2. Lemma is a proven proposition which is used a stepping stone to prove a larger result
rather than independent in itself
Examples:
Euclid’s division lemma – a=bq+r, 0≤r<b, used to prove the Chinese remainder theorem
(Zorn’s lemma, Urysohn’s lemma, Burnside’s lemma, Sperner’s lemma).

3. Corollary is a mathematical statement which follows easily (with no or little proof) from a
previously proven statement, typically a theorem

Examples

“Each exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum of two remote interior angles” is a
corollary to the theorem “The sum of angles in a triangle is 180°”.
In calculus, a corollary of the mean value theorem is that if a function is differentiable on
an interval, then it is also continuous on that interval.
In graph theory, a corollary of Euler's formula is that for any connected planar graph with
V vertices, E edges, and F faces, V - E + F = 2.
4. Conjecture-a statement that is unproved, but is believed to be true (unsolved problems in
mathematics)

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 Example: Goldbach conjecture - states that every even integer greater than 2 can be
expressed as the sum of two prime numbers. For example, 4 = 2 + 2, 6 = 3 + 3, 8 = 3 + 5, and so
on. Despite being around for over 250 years, the conjecture has not been proven or disproven for
all even numbers, making it one of the most well-known unsolved problems in mathematics.

Proof
A mathematical proof is a logical argument that demonstrates the truth of a mathematical
statement. It typically consists of a series of steps, starting from known facts or previously
proven theorems, and using logical reasoning to arrive at a conclusion. The goal of a
mathematical proof is to show that a particular statement is true for all possible cases, using
rigorous and systematic reasoning. Mathematical proofs are essential in establishing the validity
of mathematical results.
-should be written in grammatically correct English

-complete sentences should be used, with full punctuation

Methods of proof
1. Direct Proof: p→q

Assume p, and then use the rules of inference, axioms, definitions, and logical
equivalences to prove q
Example 1.1 For all integers m and n, if m and n are odd integers, then m + n is an even
integer.

Proof. Assume m and n are arbitrary odd integers.

Then m and n can be written in the form m = 2a + 1 and n = 2b + 1, where a and b are
also integers.

Then m + n = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) (substitution)

= 2a + 2b + 2 (associative and commutative laws of addition)

= 2(a + b + 1) (distributive law)

Since m+n is twice another integer, namely, a+b+1, m+n is an even integer. □
Example 1.2 For any integer n, n is odd if and only if n2 is odd.

2. Indirect Proof / Proof by Contradiction- Something that leads to a contradiction can not
be true, and if so, the opposite must be true.
Assume p and derive a contradiction -q
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 Example: Let x and y be real numbers. If 5x + 25y = 1723, then x or y is not an integer.

Proof:
Assume x and y are real numbers such that 5x+25y = 1723, and assume that both x and y
are integers.
By the distributive law, 5(x + 5y) = 1723.
Since x and y are integers, this implies 1723 is divisible by 5.
The integer 1723, however, is clearly not divisible by 5. This contradiction establishes the
result.
3. Indirect proof / Proof by contrapositive - is based on the fact that an implication is
equivalent to its contrapositive. Therefore, instead of proving p⇒q, we may prove its
contrapositive –q ⇒-p. Since it is an implication, we could follow then a direct proof:
Assume -q is true (hence, assume q is false) and arrive that –p is true

Example: Prove the statement, for all integers m and n, if the product of m and n is even,
then m is even or n is even.
We prove the contrapositive of the statement: If m and n are both odd integers, then mn is
odd.
Suppose that m and n are arbitrary odd integers.
Then m = 2a + 1 and n = 2b + 1, where a and b are integers.
Then mn = (2a + 1)(2b + 1) (substitution)
= 4ab + 2a + 2b + 1 (associative, commutative, and distributive laws)
= 2(2ab + a + b) + 1 (distributive law)
Since mn is twice an integer (namely, 2ab + a + b) plus 1, mn is odd.

4. Proof by cases / exhaustion/complete induction is a method of mathematical proof in

which the statement to be proved is split into a finite number of cases or sets of
equivalent cases, and where each type of case is checked to see if the proposition in
question holds.
Example

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 5. Existence Proofs. An existence proof is a proof of a statement of the form ∃xP(x).
Existence proofs generally fall into one of the following two types:
Constructive Proof: Establish P(c) for some c in the universe of discourse.
Nonconstructive Proof: Assume no c exists that makes P(c) true and derive a
contradiction. In other words, use a proof by contradiction

Example: There exists a triple (a, b, c) of positive integers such that a 2 + b 2 = c 2 .

Proof. Choose a = 3, b = 4 and c = 5.

6. Disproof by counterexample. A way of showing that a given statement cannot possibly be

correct by showing an instance that contradicts a universal statement. When proving by
counterexample, it is not enough to state the counterexample. One must also explain why
it is a counterexample.
Example: If n is prime, the 2n-1 is prime
The case n=11 is a counterexample because 211-1= 2047 is not prime

= 23 ● 89

Exercises by group:
Direct proof

1. If n is even, so is n2
2. The sum of two odd numbers is even.
Existence proof

3. there is a prime number p such that p+2 and p+6 are also prime numbers

Contrapositive

4.
Counterexample

5. for every integer x, if 6x is even, then x is even

6.

7.