Article

Three-Dimensional Printing of Bioinspired Hierarchical

Structures for Enhanced Fog Collection Efficiency in 3D Space
via Vat Photopolymerization
Daleanna Charoensook 1 , Shah Md Ashiquzzaman Nipu 2 , Ana Girish 2 , Qingqing He 1 , Shan Cheng 3 ,
Kevin Chapman 4 , Nathan Xie 4 , Cindy Xiangjia Li 2, * and Yang Yang 1, *

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA;
[email protected] (D.C.); [email protected] (Q.H.)
2 School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA;
[email protected] (S.M.A.N.); [email protected] (A.G.)
3 Canyon Crest Academy, San Diego, CA 92130, USA; [email protected]
4 Westview High School, San Diego, CA 92130, USA; [email protected] (K.C.);
[email protected] (N.X.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (C.X.L.); [email protected] (Y.Y.)

Abstract: Collecting fog water is crucial for dry areas since natural moisture and fog are significant
sources of freshwater. Sustainable and energy-efficient water collection systems can take a page out of
the cactus’s playbook by mimicking its native fog gathering process. Inspired by the unique geometric
structure of the cactus spine, we fabricated a bioinspired artificial fog collector consisting of cactus
spines featuring barbs of different sizes and angles on the surfaces for water collection and a series of
microcavities within microchannels inspired by Nepenthes Alata on the bottom to facilitate water
flowing to the reservoir. However, replicating the actual shape of the cactus spine using conventional
manufacturing techniques is challenging, and research in this area has faced a limitation in enhancing
water-collecting efficiency. Here, we turned to 3D printing technology (vat photopolymerization) to
create bio-mimetic fog collectors with a variety of geometric shapes that would allow for the most
Citation: Charoensook, D.; Nipu,
S.M.A.; Girish, A.; He, Q.; Cheng, S.; effective conveyance and gathering of water. Various barb sizes, angles between each barb in a single
Chapman, K.; Xie, N.; Li, C.X.; Yang, Y. array, spine and barb arrangements, and quantity of barbs were tested experimentally and numeric
Three-Dimensional Printing of analysis was carried out to measure the volume of water collected and optimize the mass rate. The
Bioinspired Hierarchical Structures result shows that optimal fog collection is with a mass flow rate of 0.7433 g/min, with Li = 900 µm,
for Enhanced Fog Collection θ = 45◦ , ϕ = 90◦ , Nb = 2, and Ns = 5. This study presents a sustainable and ecologically sound method
Efficiency in 3D Space via Vat for efficiently collecting humid air, which is expected to be advantageous for the advancement of
Photopolymerization. Biomimetics future-oriented fog-collection, water-transportation, and separation technologies.
2024, 9, 734. https://doi.org/
10.3390/biomimetics9120734
Keywords: fog collection; biomimetics; hierarchical structures; 3D printing; vat photopolymerization
Academic Editor: Peng Liu

Received: 22 October 2024

Revised: 27 November 2024
1. Introduction
Accepted: 29 November 2024
Published: 3 December 2024 Water is an essential resource that plays a crucial role in human growth, as well as in
promoting good health and overall well-being. However, currently, there is a prevalent
scarcity of fresh water in arid and semi-arid regions. According to a 2017 assessment by the
World Health Organization (WHO), at least two billion people lack access to safe drinking
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. water and half of the world’s population may be residing in water-stressed regions by
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 2025 [1]. The water crisis results from global climate change, population increase, river sil-
This article is an open access article
tation, larger water consumption, and the inadequacy of water collection and preservation
distributed under the terms and
in those regions [2–4]. Seawater desalination technology has become increasingly prevalent
conditions of the Creative Commons
in the collection of freshwater in dry regions. Nevertheless, the exorbitant expenses and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
geographical constraints prevent its widespread promotion [5–7]. Fog is a form of atmo-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
spheric water vapor that constitutes approximately 10% of the collective capacity of all
4.0/).

Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9120734 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomimetics

Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 2 of 14

freshwater lakes on Earth, which has made it an attractive alternative to traditional water
sources [8]. Moreover, a number of studies have demonstrated the critical importance of
water fog collecting in semi-arid and dry environments, and it is theoretically feasible to
collect substantial quantities of fog water with zero energy investment [9–11]. Over the
course of billions of years, natural organisms have developed specialized surfaces that
grant them unique capabilities, enabling them to thrive in challenging environments. Lotus
flowers [12], water skippers [13], butterflies [14], desert cacti [15], spider silk [16], and
desert beetles are just a few examples of the species whose surfaces exhibit wettability
characteristics that aid in water collection. The Namib Desert beetle can effectively collect
fog droplets from damp wind due to the presence of hydrophobic/hydrophilic patterned
patches on its back [17]. Another example is Cotula fallax, a plant native to South Africa,
which features tufts and leaves that are arranged in a hierarchical, three-dimensional
pattern. Additionally, these leaves display hydrophobic properties that enable the plant
to effectively gather water from fog towards its stem [18]. Also, several species of the
Cactaceae family are capable of thriving in extremely dry desert environments by utilizing
spines that gather fog from several directions [19–21]. Numerous conical spines with an
apex angle of 2α cover the cactus’ surface. Also, conical barbs with an apex angle of 2β
are located at the tip of each conical spine. These phenomena are primarily driven by the
gradients of surface-free energy and Laplace pressure [22–24]. Insights from biological
surface characteristics have sparked a new and exciting area of study: the creation of smart
functional materials.
The interactions at the nano-scale, characterized by their structural simplicity and
functional complexity, confer desirable and highly adjustable qualities to skills [25,26].
Several theoretical models concerning surface wettability have been formulated, such as
Young’s contact equation [27], the Wenzel model [28], and the Cassie model [28]. The
researchers elucidated the impact of surface roughness on the wetting behavior of water
droplets on solid substrates. Certain fog collectors rely on gravitational or other external
forces to convey or eliminate the accumulated water. However, the substantial dimensions
necessary for water droplets to be propelled across a solid surface by the force of gravity
obstruct the revival of the fog collection process [29]. Building upon the properties of
spider silk and cacti, several researchers have employed gradient surfaces to tackle this
issue [30–32]. For instance, to improve the effectiveness of water collection by condensation
and fog harvesting, Gurera and Bhushan developed conical surfaces and triangular patterns
to generate a pressure gradient and speed up the transit of water droplets. They went over
how the surface area is the most important factor in how efficiently water is collected [33].
These surfaces enable efficient and uninterrupted fog collecting by utilizing the Laplace
pressure gradient that is generated by the form and wettability gradient [34,35].
Various methods have been used to create microtips that resemble cactus spines, in-
cluding chemical or electrochemical erosion of metal wire [36], deep X-ray etching [37], and
replica molding [38,39]. However, the fabrication of complex 3D structures using traditional
techniques remains difficult due to the limited ability of this approach to generate 2D sur-
faces with significant surface roughness and the larger production time. Three-dimensional
printing is a highly effective method for creating customized parts with complex designs
with a wide range of applications in various industries, academic settings, and everyday
life [40]. It also opens up exciting possibilities for creating intricate structures inspired by
nature [41–43]. Park et al. developed a textured hybrid surface by the application of a 3D
copper oxide pattern over a flexible hydrophobic rough PDMS backdrop [44]. They found
that the 3D bumpy hybrid surface exhibited a higher rate of water collection in comparison
to the 2D flat hybrid surface. In addition, Koyun et al. employed a hybrid approach com-
bining 3D printing and electrospraying to fabricate 3D surfaces with an exceptionally large
surface area and a conical shape for collecting water from the atmosphere [45]. However,
while successful in producing well-defined conical microtips and their arrays, there is
still limited research on the directional transportation of collected water into reservoirs,
which is crucial for practical applications. The bionic structure served as a significant
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 3 of 14

source of inspiration within the laboratory. For example, Li et al. utilized submerged
surface accumulation 3D printing to create the multibranched spines inspired by cacti [21].
Nevertheless, the printed spines exhibit noticeable stair steps because of the inherent char-
acteristics of the layered additive manufacturing process. While the stair-stepping effect
is advantageous for the condensation of fog, it would impede the downward dispersion
of water droplets. To overcome this, Liu et al. employed expedited 3D printing to create
hybrid structures for efficiently collecting fog water using a specialized printing technique.
The results indicate that the printed spines with four longitudinal ridges exhibit the rate
of fog collection [46]. However, the proportion rate of collected water is still a challenge.
Furthermore, constructing multi-barbs arrays with a controlled configuration, like those
seen in nature, is a difficult task. Achieving adjustable 3D geometric shapes in branched
spine arrays, which can significantly enhance fog collecting efficiency, is challenging using
these techniques [47].
To address the constraints of prior research, we introduced an artificial fog collector
structure that imitates the structural characteristics of cactus spines by utilizing 3D printing
technology to ensure a surface that effectively condense fog and collect water. To transport
the collected water over the vertebral surface, a network of microchannels including
microcavities, inspired by the pitcher plant Nepenthes Alata, was also developed. Moreover,
the volume of water collected, and the mass flow rate were measured and optimized by
testing different barb sizes, angles between each barb in a single array, spine and barb
configurations, and quantity of barbs. Fog harvesting in areas with water scarcity could be
achieved by the design and fabrication of a large-scale artificial continuous fog collector
using this optimum technique.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials and Fabrication
The biomimetic micro-trichomes mimicking those found in cactus spines were fab-
ricated using Digital Light Projection (DLP) 3D printing technology. Compared to other
fabrication methods, 3D printing offers the structural versatility necessary for replicating
the complex geometry of trichomes. Given that cactus spines consist of multiple barbs
with varying sizes and angles, an additive manufacturing approach is ideal over con-
ventional techniques, which may lack the precision and adaptability required for such
intricate structures.
The Standard Triangle Language (STL) models of the cactus spines were uploaded
into KUDO3D (v3.1), a slicing software, where they were processed into 2D pattern layers
for the DLP printing process. The models were printed using a Kudo3D Micro printer with
UHR resin from Kudo3D Inc. (Dublin, CA, USA). The DLP process cured the resin with a
high resolution of 15 µm in the x–y plane and 10 µm in the z direction, ensuring fine detail
and accuracy in the final printed structures.

2.2. Modeling of Cactus Spine and Microchannel

The design of fog collector inspired by the cactus Opuntia microdasys (Figure 1a,b)
was developed by considering five primary factors: size (Li ), the angle (θ) formed between
adjacent barbs, hierarchical arrangement (uniform vs. alternating), number of barbs (Nb ),
and spinal arrangement (Ns ). The sizes of the spines were varied, with seven distinct
barb sizes ranging from 650 to 1150 µm (Supporting Information, Table S1); however,
for laboratory testing, three specific sizes (900, 1000, and 1100 µm) were selected due to
their relevance to the desired functional outcomes. Each barb was designed with varying
angles and hierarchical configurations, including both uniform and alternating patterns.
Additionally, the barb was created to include either one or two sub-barbs to explore the
impact of these features on fluid collection performance. The spine surfaces were oriented
perpendicular to the fluid flow and aligned in the +Z direction to maximize the gravitational
force acting on the collected water. Microchannels and microcavities were designed to
enhance fluid flow and minimize blockages with a pinning angle of approximately 15◦
 of these features on fluid collection performance. The spine surfaces were oriented per-
pendicular to the fluid flow and aligned in the +Z direction to maximize the gravitational
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 force acting on the collected water. Microchannels and microcavities were designed 4 of 14 to
enhance fluid flow and minimize blockages with a pinning angle of approximately 15°
and a spacing of 0.3 mm between each cavity to facilitate water transport and retention.
and a spacing of 0.3 mm between each cavity to facilitate water transport and retention.
The microchannels featured edges angled at 45° to the platform surface, which helped
The microchannels featured edges angled at 45◦ to the platform surface, which helped
prevent water from accumulating and obstructing flow, while an array of micro-beams at
prevent water from accumulating and obstructing flow, while an array of micro-beams at
thetheend
endofofeach
each microchannel furtheroptimized
microchannel further optimized fluid
fluid dynamics.
dynamics. The The overall
overall structural
structural
arrangement
arrangementaimed
aimed to
to maximize watercapture
maximize water capture and
and retention
retention in environments
in environments simulating
simulating
natural
naturalfog
fogconditions.
conditions.

Figure 1. Biomimetic fog water collection system: (a) natural cactus structure with SEM image of
Figure 1. Biomimetic fog water collection system: (a) natural cactus structure with SEM image of
conical spine and conical barb, (b) pitcher plants (Nepenthes Alata) with SEM image of microcavity
conical spine and conical barb, (b) pitcher plants (Nepenthes Alata) with SEM image of microcavity
within microchannel, (c) CAD model of bio-inspired water collection system with spine, barb,
within microchannel, (c) CAD model of bio-inspired water collection system with spine, barb, and
and microchannel
microchannel structure;
structure; (d) (d) photopolymerization3D
photopolymerization 3D printing
printingprocess with
process SEMSEM
with image of 3D-of 3D-
image
printedobject.
printed object.

The design and modeling process utilized Autodesk Fusion 360, where each varia-
tionThe
wasdesign andpredesigned
carefully modeling process utilized
and optimized Autodesk
based Fusion 360,
on theoretical where each
performance variation
metrics
was carefully
(Figure predesigned
1c). The models were and optimized
then exported as based on theoretical
STL files performance
and fabricated metrics (Fig-
using the Kudo3D
ureMicro printer, selected for its high precision (15 µm resolution and a Z-axis steppingthe
1c). The models were then exported as STL files and fabricated using sizeKudo3D
of
10 µm).
Micro The printing
printer, selectedprocess
for itsinvolved slicing each
high precision model
(15 µm into 10 µm
resolution andlayers and printing
a Z-axis stepping size
of in
10the
µm).+ZThe
direction to ensure
printing processthe highest slicing
involved degree each
of structural fidelity
model into (Figure
10 µm 1d).
layers andThe
printing
material used for fabrication was Kudo3D 3DSR UHR resin, known for its mechanical
in the +Z direction to ensure the highest degree of structural fidelity (Figure 1d). The ma-
properties, including a tensile strength of 29.2 MPa, Young’s modulus of 1284 MPa, a
terial used for fabrication was Kudo3D 3DSR UHR resin, known for its mechanical prop-
heat deflection temperature (HDT) of 52.7 ◦ C, and a low shrinkage rate of 1.7%, which is
erties, including a tensile strength of 29.2 MPa, Young’s modulus of 1284 MPa, a heat de-
crucial for maintaining the integrity of the fine structural details. Post-processing involved
flection
cleaningtemperature
the printed (HDT)
samplesofin52.7 °C, and
isopropyl a lowwith
alcohol shrinkage
agitationrate of 1.7%,
to remove anywhich is crucial
uncured
forresin,
maintaining
followed by UV post-curing for 10 min using an Anycubic Wash & Cure station. clean-
the integrity of the fine structural details. Post-processing involved
ing the printed samples in isopropyl alcohol with agitation to remove any uncured resin,
2.3. Testing
followed by Environment
UV post-curing for 10 min using an Anycubic Wash & Cure station.
A controlled testing environment was created by fabricating an acrylic enclosure
(Supporting Information, Figure S1). A digital hygrometer was mounted on the rear of
2.3. Testing Environment
the container and fluid flow intake was made possible by fabricating a circular extrusion
on A
thecontrolled testing environment
side of the enclosure. was created
At room temperature, by fabricating
a saturated water flowan acrylic
with enclosure
a relative
(Supporting
humidity ofInformation, Figure flow
95% and a maximum S1). A digital
rate hygrometer
of about 4 mL/minwaswas mounted on the rear
used to investigate the of the
container and fluid flow intake was made possible by fabricating a circular
water collection capabilities. The weight of the collection cup was measured and recordedextrusion on
theincrementally
side of the on enclosure.
the OhausAt room
scale overtemperature, a saturated
a total collection time of 60 water
min. Atflow
t = 60with
min,atherelative
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 5 of 14

sample and the collection cup were weighed again on the same scale. A platform was
also made to support the sample and allow for precise control over its orientation and
placement in relation to the flow.

2.4. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Cactus Structure

The fluid flow and condensation rate of cactus structure were analyzed using the
COMSOL Multiphysics (6.1) simulation software. The model included velocity, pressure,
and temperature profiles at t = 0, 15, 30, and 60 s. To begin, COMSOL Multiphysics was fed
the two-dimensional (2D) cross-sectional geometry of the building modelled in SolidWorks.
The calculation was made simpler by using a single cactus structure with a specific barb
length (Li = 900 µm) and angle between adjacent barbs (θ = 45◦ ), which was simulated
with three distinct sub-barb angles ϕ = 45◦ , 75◦ , and 90◦ (on the XZ plane). With the use of
a 2D transient computation model for fluid flow and the air moisture transport module,
we mimicked the real-world conditions by simulating humid air using water vapor. The
external environment’s fluid flow was configured as laminar flow, and the humid air and
environment had a diffusion coefficient of 2.344 × 10−5 m2 /s.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Experimental Analysis
The fog water collection performance of the artificial cactus spine depends on its
shape, wettability, and spine arrangement. Moreover, the efficiency of cactus-mimetic
spines in collecting water is influenced by the rate of water condensation and the speed of
water transportation [48]. The condensation of water is determined by the vapor pressure.
Fast growth of the water droplet occurs when the origin (the initial stage of water droplet
formation on the surface of the barbs during the condensation process) surpasses the critical
size rc , and the vapor pressure is lower than the real pressure. Utilizing the Kelvin equation
(Equation (1)) [49], we propose that including barbs of varying length and angle on the
surface of the spines can offer more tips to capture fog and produce water droplets.
2σw Vml
k
P=e RT Ps (1)

This equation represents the molar volume of water (Vml ), the surface tension of water
(σw ), the gas constant (R), the temperature (T), the saturated vapor pressure of water on a
flat surface (Ps ), and the vapor pressure of water on a surface with curvature (k).
The critical coagulate radius, rc , of water can be determined as follows.

2σw Vml
rc =   (2)
RTln PPc

In the preliminary phase of water condensation, the surface curvature (K) of the
condensed water droplet can be approximated as the curvature of the solid−liquid interface.
Consequently, augmenting the curvature of the solid−liquid interface would elevate the
vapor pressure (P) and diminish the crucial condensation radius (rc ). Both theories suggest
that fog capture is more efficient near the points of the spine; hence, the formation of
structures with more curvature would enhance fog collecting.
The vapor pressure exhibited a positive correlation with the curvature k of the cactus
spine tip. The water collection mechanisms of the 3D-printed spines were investigated by
changing the angle and length of the barbs on the cactus spine. Figure 2 shows the surfaces’
water collection rates. It was found that the barb with a smaller length (900 µm) condensed
more water droplets (0.83 g) after the period of 60 s (Figure 2a). At each instance, the water
droplet condensing speed of the 3D-printed spines with a length of 900 µm was significantly
higher at every interval than that of the spines constructed with a longer barb length. The
observed pattern suggests that a smaller barb length improves the effectiveness of water
collection because of a more advantageous surface-to-volume ratio and the capacity to
 µm was significantly higher at every interval than that of the spines constructed with a
longer barb length. The observed pattern suggests that a smaller barb length improves the
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 effectiveness of water collection because of a more advantageous surface-to-volume 6 of 14ratio
and the capacity to efficiently capture and direct condensed water droplets [50]. A more
prominent slope for L1 indicates a greater water capture rate, indicating that the 900 µm
efficiently
spines capture
are more and direct
well-suited forcondensed water interactions
the micro-scale droplets [50].between
A more fogprominent
dropletsslope
and the
for L indicates a greater water capture rate, indicating that the 900 µm spines
spine surface. In contrast, the larger barb sizes (L2 and L3) showed lower rates of water
1 are more
well-suited
collection. forcan
This the be
micro-scale
ascribed interactions
to a decrease between fog droplets
in surface roughness andand
the worse
spine surface. In
aerodynamic
contrast, the larger barb sizes (L2 and L3 ) showed lower rates of water collection. This can
efficiency, which may result in less efficient capture or retention of droplets. Length has a
be ascribed to a decrease in surface roughness and worse aerodynamic efficiency, which
major impact on the aerodynamic characteristics of the barb structures. To collect water
may result in less efficient capture or retention of droplets. Length has a major impact
droplets in the air andcharacteristics
on the aerodynamic guide them toofthe thesurface, shorter barbs
barb structures. are superior
To collect at producing
water droplets in
localized turbulence
the air and guide themandtoblocking airflow.
the surface, shorter Conversely, longer at
barbs are superior barbs enhance
producing drag and
localized
flatten the airflow
turbulence surrounding
and blocking theConversely,
airflow. structure, decreasing
longer barbs the possibility
enhance dragof droplet
and flattencapture.
the
Longer
airflowbarbs may also
surrounding cause
the waterdecreasing
structure, droplets to thebepossibility
more deflected, which
of droplet lowers
capture. the col-
Longer
lecting
barbs rate.
may also cause water droplets to be more deflected, which lowers the collecting rate.

Figure
Figure2.2.Water
Watercollection
collectionand
and transportation of3D-printed
transportation of 3D-printed cactus
cactus structure:
structure: (a) (a) microscopic
microscopic image
image
of of
different
different barb lengths 900 µm, 1000 µm, and 1100 µm with water collection amount over time; (b)
barb lengths 900 µm, 1000 µm, and 1100 µm with water collection amount over time;
microscopic image of different barb angle 45°, 90°, and 120° with amount of collected water for barb
(b) microscopic image of different barb angle 45◦ , 90◦ , and 120◦ with amount of collected water for
length 900 µm over 60 min period.
barb length 900 µm over 60 min period.

Figure
Figure22also
alsodemonstrates theeffect
demonstrates the effectofofvariation
variationinin barb
barb angle
angle onon
thethe water
water collection
collection
rate. ToTo
rate. measure
measure the
theefficiency
efficiencyofofeach
eachangle
angleon onbarb
barbsizes,
sizes,we
weused
used aa barb
barb length
length of
of 900
µm900(Figure
µm (Figure 2b). The
2b). The angle
angle of adjacent
of adjacent barbs
barbs ofofthe
thenatural
naturalcactus
cactus shown
shown in inFigure
Figure1a1a is
is approximately 40–45 degrees. This angle plays a crucial role in the cactus’s ability to
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 7 of 14

effectively interact with its environment, and it served as inspiration for the design of our
bioinspired structures. The result indicates that the cactus spine structure, characterized by
a barb angle of 45◦ , has a higher water collection rate over time in comparison to structures
with angles of 90◦ and 120◦ . The reduced barb angle of 45◦ facilitates effective adherence
of water droplets to a greater surface area, hence promoting accelerated coalescence of
smaller droplets into bigger ones [51]. The acute angle facilitates the formation of a more
pronounced gradient, therefore enhancing the orientation of droplets towards the lower
part of the structure, where they can aggregate more effectively. Conversely, broader angles
(90◦ and 120◦ ) decrease this gradient, therefore decelerating the transit of water droplets
and resulting in less effective collection. Furthermore, a reduced barb angle amplifies
capillary action, which refers to the capacity of a liquid to move across confined areas
without recourse to external pressures. The reduced angle results in a more constrained
capillary channel on the surface, therefore enhancing the downward displacement of water
droplets by capillary forces [52]. Greater angles exhibit reduced capillary force because of a
wider and more level surface, therefore impeding the efficient movement and accumulation
of water. Furthermore, when the angle is set at 45◦ , gravity can even more efficiently
facilitate the downward movement of water once droplets have attached to the surface.
The more acute angle creates a straight trajectory for the water to flow due to gravitational
attraction. At larger angles (90◦ and 120◦ ), the plane of flow becomes more horizontal,
leading to the possibility of droplets being trapped or undergoing re-evaporation instead
of flowing downwards for collection. To consistently gather water on the apex of the 3D-
printed spines, the compressed water droplet must advance down the spines that mimic
cacti towards the base. The apparent direction of growth of the spines from the cactus
stem did not seem to be a significant determinant in the directional migration of the water
droplets. The water transport of spines resembling cacti is ascribed to the difference in
Laplace pressure on two sides. The formula for representing the pressure differential is as
follows (Equation (3)) [36].
Z L∗tan α
2 2σw α
∆Pcurvature = − 2
sin dz (3)
0 ( R + R0 ) 2

where ∆Pcurvature is the gradient of Laplace pressure, L is the length of the 3D-printed
cactus-mimetic spine barb, R is the radius of curvature of the surface or the spine where
water droplets form and R0 is the radii of the 3D-printed cactus-mimetic spine barb and the
collected water droplet, α is the tip angle, and dz is the integral variable of the 3D-printed
cactus-mimetic spine barb.
We also look at how different sub-barbs and spine counts affect the water condensation
of 3D-printed artificial cactus structures. Prior research on water-collecting substrates
and devices mostly concentrated on the single barb artificial spine array because of the
constraints inherent in its production capacity. Cactus-mimetic multi-barb spines have the
potential to greatly enhance water-collecting efficiency. Figure 3a illustrates the temporal
accumulation of water mass by the 3D-printed cactus-mimetic spine structure with varying
barb counts: Nb = 1 and Nb = 2. At the outset, the construction with a solitary barb (Nb = 1)
accumulates a little higher amount of water, reaching roughly 0.6 g after 20 min, in contrast
to the double barb (Nb = 2), which collects around 0.5 g. Over time, the performance of
both structures becomes comparable as the 45 min mark approaches. However, by 60 min,
the structure with two barbs outperforms the single barb by collecting the largest amount
of water, approximately 1.3 g, while Nb = 1 collects around 1.2 g, indicating that although
a single barb may offer faster initial water collection, the presence of two barbs enhances
the total capacity and efficiency in the long run. This is because the larger surface area for
droplet adherence and improved coalescence among the barbs result in more effective water
capture over extended periods of time. Moreover, the spines are anatomical structures
derived from natural species, purposefully engineered to optimize the absorption of water
from fog by augmenting the surface area and facilitating the generation and diffusion
of droplets. The efficiency of the system in collecting water demonstrates a substantial
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734

generation and diffusion of droplets. The efficiency of the system in collecting 8 of water
14
demonstrates a substantial improvement as the number of spines rises from 5 to 9, as ev-
idenced by the progressive increase in the mass of water collected over time. The building
improvement as the number of spines rises from 5 to 9, as evidenced by the progressive
with a spine count of nine constantly accumulates the most amount of water, reaching
increase in the mass of water collected over time. The building with a spine count of nine
around 3.5 g after 60 min Figure 3b. This suggests that the architectural design or surface
constantly accumulates the most amount of water, reaching around 3.5 g after 60 min
structure of the structure improves the efficiency of capturing fog. These findings indicate
Figure 3b. This suggests that the architectural design or surface structure of the structure
that an increased quantity
improves the efficiency of spinesfog.
of capturing leads to afindings
These greater indicate
numberthat
of chances for water
an increased quantitydrop-
lets
of to condense
spines and
leads to merge,number
a greater therebyofimproving
chances for the overall
water efficiency
droplets of water
to condense collection
and merge,
[53].
thereby improving the overall efficiency of water collection [53].

Figure 3. Water condensation system of 3D-printed bio-mimetic cactus structure: (a) microscopic
Figure 3. Water condensation system of 3D-printed bio-mimetic cactus structure: (a) microscopic
image of barbs with water collection in masses (g) over time; (b) microscopic image of artificial cac-
image of barbs with water collection in masses (g) over time; (b) microscopic image of artificial cactus
tus and comparison of spine number with water collection over time of 60 min period.
and comparison of spine number with water collection over time of 60 min period.

3.2. Simulation
3.2. SimulationAnalysis
Analysis
Distinctconfigurations
Distinct configurations of
ofour
our3D-printed
3D-printed artificial cactus
artificial structure
cactus will provide
structure turbu-tur-
will provide
lence ininthe
bulence theflow stream,
flow which
stream, willwill
which facilitate waterwater
facilitate collection. In thisIn
collection. study,
this we simulated
study, we simu-
the the
lated impact of arranging
impact multi-barb
of arranging spine
multi-barb arrays
spine by tilting
arrays andand
by tilting movement
movement on the flowflow
on the
stream. The resulting flow stream around each branching spine is depicted in Figure 4.
stream. The resulting flow stream around each branching spine is depicted in Figure 4.
The included simulation graph evaluates the influence of several barb angle angles on
The included simulation graph evaluates the influence of several barb angle angles on the
the XZ plane (45◦ , 75◦ , and 90◦ ) on the efficiency of a bioinspired fog collecting device.
XZIt plane
especially investigates theon
(45°, 75°, and 90°) the efficiency
effects of a bioinspired
of these angles fog collecting
on several parameters device. It
throughout a es-
pecially
60 mininvestigates the effects Information,
timeframe (Supporting of these angles on several
Figures S2–S5).parameters throughout a 60 min
timeframe (Supporting Information, Figures S2–S5).
omimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 9 of 14

Figure 4. Bionic
Figure simulation
4. Bionic simulationof 3D−printed
of 3D spine
−printed spine structures
structures with
with the the
effect of effect of fourparameters
four essential essential param
ters (velocity, pressure,Reynolds
(velocity, pressure, Reynolds number
number and and temperature)
temperature) at different
at different barb(XZ
barb angles angles (XZ
plane) plane) wi
with
fifteen−minute timetime
fifteen−minute interval.
interval.

The given data encompasses four essential parameters: velocity profile, pressure
The given data encompasses four essential parameters: velocity profile, pressure pro
profile, Reynolds number, and temperature distribution at 15 min time interval (Figure 4).
file, Reynolds
These metrics number, and temperature
enable a comprehensive distribution
understanding of theat 15 minoftime
dynamics interval (Figure 4
fog accumulation
Theseat metrics enable
various barb a comprehensive
angles. A velocity profile understanding ◦ of the dynamics
at an angle of 45 exhibits a streamlined of airflow
fog accumul
over the period of 60 min, characterized by a uniform distribution and
tion at various barb angles. A velocity profile at an angle of 45° exhibits a streamlineless disturbances
around
airflow overthethe
spine structure.
period of 60The efficient
min, transfer of fog
characterized by droplets
a uniform towards the tips, where
distribution and less di
they can be caught, is crucially facilitated by this streamlined flow. An analysis of the
turbances around the spine structure. The efficient transfer of fog droplets towards th
pressure profile at this angle reveals no pressure decreases, suggesting a consistent flow
tips, where they can
that facilitates be caught,fog
uninterrupted is crucially
movementfacilitated
across the by this streamlined
collector’s surface. Theflow. An analys
residual
of theReynolds
pressure profile
number at this
stays ratherangle reveals no
low, indicating pressure
a regime decreases,
of laminar suggesting
flow. This a consisten
flow pattern
flow that facilitates uninterrupted fog movement across the collector’s surface. of
is typically beneficial for the purpose of collecting fog, since it reduces the separation The resid
ual Reynolds number stays rather low, indicating a regime of laminar flow. This flow pa
tern is typically beneficial for the purpose of collecting fog, since it reduces the separatio
of water droplets from the surface and enhances their attachment to the core structure
Moreover, the temperature distribution is extremely consistent over the surface, indica
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 10 of 14

water droplets from the surface and enhances their attachment to the core structures. More-
over, the temperature distribution is extremely consistent over the surface, indicating that
temperature gradients have minimal impact on the water-collecting operation. Therefore, it
can be shown that a 45◦ angle has the potential to establish an optimal equilibrium between
flow dynamics and surface interaction, improving the total efficiency of water collecting. By
comparison, when the angle is set at 75◦ , the velocity profile shows very modest amounts
of turbulence, as indicated by the presence of uneven airflows around the spines. This
turbulence has the potential to augment the interaction between fog droplets and spines,
hence potentially improving the rates at which droplets are captured. Nevertheless, the
simultaneous pressure profile suggests heightened pressure fluctuations, which can re-
sult in elevated flow resistance and diminished collection efficiency because of droplet
detachment. The greater Reynolds number at this angle indicates a shift towards a flow
regime characterized by increased turbulence. Although a certain level of turbulence might
enhance droplet capture by promoting contact with the surface, too much turbulence can
disturb the flow and thereby decrease the overall efficiency. When the angle is 90◦ , the
velocity profile exhibits substantial turbulence characterized by prominent eddies and
chaotic flow patterns. This turbulence, characterized by a high Reynolds number, disturbs
the flow of fog and raises the probability of droplet separation, therefore decreasing the
effectiveness of cloud collecting. The pressure profile at this angle exhibits a significant
amplification in pressure variations, hence exacerbating flow instability. The temperature
distribution exhibits heterogeneity, which may impact the condensation and coalescence
processes of water droplets. In summary, the findings indicate that a barb angle of 45◦
provides optimal conditions for fog collection by promoting streamlined flow, maintaining
pressure stability, and supporting laminar flow dynamics. This configuration minimizes
droplet detachment while enhancing droplet transport and adhesion. The micro-scale
turbulence near the spines at 45◦ complements the uniform macroscopic flow, enabling
efficient droplet interaction and maximizing water collection efficiency. Conversely, larger
angles (75◦ and 90◦ ) introduce excessive turbulence and flow instability, reducing the
effectiveness of the fog collection system.

3.3. Analysis of Barb Arrangement

The configuration of barbs also has a substantial impact on the process of fog gath-
ering. All of our experiments and numerical analysis were conducted using a consistent
barb layout. Furthermore, we conducted a comparison analysis between the uniform
barb arrangement and the alternating barb arrangement to investigate the structure of the
barb arrangement on water collection. Figure 5 illustrates the comparative examination of
two hierarchical structures, “Alternating Hierarchy (AH)” Figure 5a and “Uniform Hierar-
chy (UH)”; Figure 5b shows a fog collecting system. The evaluation was conducted for a
duration of 60 min. The results revealed that the “AH” has a greater ability to collect water,
as shown by a higher rate of accumulation over the whole experiment period. During
the first 15 min time interval, the “AH” attains a water mass of around 0.6 g, which is
significantly higher than the 0.2 g collected by the “UH.” This pattern persists as the “AH”
accumulates around 2.0 g of water after 60 min, whereas the “UH” reaches a plateau at
around 0.8 g. The improved performance of the “AH” can be ascribed to its variability in
surface properties, which can either augment the surface area available for condensation or
raise the efficiency of water drainage. Conversely, the “UH” consistently maintains a linear
but restricted rate of water collection, indicating that a surface with more uniformity does
not enhance the physical processes necessary for effective fog harvesting. These results
emphasize the possible advantages of incorporating alternating hierarchical structures in
fog collecting system design to optimize water production.
Biomimetics 2024, 2024,
Biomimetics 9, x FOR
9, 734PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
11 of 14

Figure 5. 5.
Figure Comparison
Comparisonofofbarb
barb arrangement
arrangement forforwater
water condensation
condensation of 3D-printed
of 3D-printed artificial
artificial cactuscactus
spine
spine structure: (a) microscopic view of uniform barbs; (b) microscopic view of alternating barbs.barbs.
structure: (a) microscopic view of uniform barbs; (b) microscopic view of alternating

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In In conclusion,we
conclusion, wehave
have successfully
successfully demonstrated
demonstrated ananartificial fog fog
artificial collector inspired
collector inspired
by cacti with various geometric structures and a system of microchannel cavities at the
by cacti with various geometric structures and a system of microchannel cavities at the
bottom to facilitate water flow to the reservoir. The three-dimensional printing technique
bottom to facilitate water flow to the reservoir. The three-dimensional printing technique
made it possible, which clearly offers distinct advantages over other structured surfaces, to
made it possible,
optimize whichby
fog collection clearly
includingoffers
bothdistinct advantages
fog-capturing over other structured
and water-transportation surfaces,
processes.
to optimize
The fundamental mechanism consists of the following components: firstly, the presence pro-
fog collection by including both fog-capturing and water-transportation
cesses. The fundamental
of a turbulent and complex mechanism consists
flow field around the of the following
optimized components:
spines enhances firstly, the
the effective
presence
depositionof aarea,
turbulent and complex
so enabling flowof
the deposition field around
smaller waterthe optimized
droplets spines
and finally enhances the
facilitating
water collection;
effective deposition secondly,
area, sothe directional
enabling the movement
depositionofofwater
smallerdroplets
waterondroplets
these surfaces
and finally
significantly impacts their efficiency in collecting water. More
facilitating water collection; secondly, the directional movement of water precisely, water droplets on on
droplets
spines and barbs experience varying Laplace pressure on the two opposing sides. The tip
these surfaces significantly impacts their efficiency in collecting water. More precisely,
of the cactus-inspired spine barb was adjusted according to its length and angle to facilitate
water droplets on spines and barbs experience varying Laplace pressure on the two op-
rapid water movement along the spine. Current fog-harvesting methods have yielded
posing
around sides.
200 The tip of daily
L of water the cactus-inspired
over the past year spine
frombarb was40
a single adjusted
cm2 fog according to its length
collector, resulting
andin angle to facilitate rapid water movement
2 along the spine. Current
a mass flow rate of 0.03472 g/min per mm . The ultimate integrated fog collecting device fog-harvesting
methods have yielded
of this study attains aaround
mass flow 200rate
L ofofwater
0.07433daily overper
g/min themm 2 , representing
past year from a an single
115% 40 cm2
fogenhancement
collector, resulting
compared intoathe
mass flow
initial rate
mass of rate
flow 0.03472 g/minofper
difference mm2g/min
0.03961 per mm2 . inte-
. The ultimate
Microchannels
grated with microcavities
fog collecting device of this are study
able to attains
transfer amore
masswater
flowto the
ratebottom reservoir
of 0.07433 in per
g/min
the same length of time as other designs due to their directional water
mm2, representing an 115% enhancement compared to the initial mass flow rate difference spreading capabilities,
which enhance efficiency. Moreover, the efficacy of fog collecting after 3D printing can
of 0.03961 g/min per mm2. Microchannels with microcavities are able to transfer more wa-
be enhanced experimentally by applying surface chemical treatments such as sputtering
ter to the bottom reservoir in the same length of time as other designs due to their direc-
hydrophobic coating with a self-assembled monolayer [21] or dip-coating fluorodecyl
tional water spreading
polyhedral capabilities, which
oligomeric silsesquioxane and polyenhance efficiency. Moreover,
(ethyl methacrylate) the efficacy of
[54]. Unequivocally,
fogthe
collecting after 3D printing can be enhanced experimentally
amalgamation of additive manufacturing with biomimicry shows great potential as by applying surface
chemical
a subject treatments such as sputtering
of future investigation for waterhydrophobic
collecting andcoating
may be with a self-assembled
potentially useful formon-
olayer [21] or dip-coating fluorodecyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane and poly
relieving the water crisis in arid regions [55,56].
(ethyl methacrylate) [54]. Unequivocally, the amalgamation of additive manufacturing
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.
with biomimicry shows great potential as a subject of future investigation for water col-
mdpi.com/article/10.3390/biomimetics9120734/s1, Table S1: Parameters of samples manufactured
lecting and may be potentially useful for relieving the water crisis in arid regions [55,56].
and tested. Figure S1: Experimental setup and Testing environment. Figure S2: Bionic simulation
of 3D printed spine structures with effect temperature at different time intervals. Figure S3: Bionic
Supplementary
simulation of 3DMaterials: The
printed spine following
structures with supporting
effect Reynoldsinformation can betime
number at different downloaded
intervals. at:
www.mdpi.com/xxx/s1, Tableof
Figure S4: Bionic simulation S1:3DParameters of structures
printed spine samples manufactured and tested.
with effect pressure Figure
at different timeS1: Ex-
perimental
intervals. setup
Figureand Testing
S5: Bionic environment.
simulation Figurespine
of 3D printed S2: Bionic simulation
structures of velocity
with effect 3D printed spine struc-
at different
tures with
time effect temperature at different time intervals. Figure S3: Bionic simulation of 3D printed
intervals.
spine structures with effect Reynolds number at different time intervals. Figure S4: Bionic simula-
tion of 3D printed spine structures with effect pressure at different time intervals. Figure S5: Bionic
simulation of 3D printed spine structures with effect velocity at different time intervals.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.X.L. and Y.Y.; methodology, D.C., S.M.A.N., A.G.,
Q.H., C.X.L. and Y.Y.; validation, D.C.; formal analysis, D.C. and S.M.A.N.; investigation, D.C.,
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 734 12 of 14

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.X.L. and Y.Y.; methodology, D.C., S.M.A.N., A.G., Q.H.,
C.X.L. and Y.Y.; validation, D.C.; formal analysis, D.C. and S.M.A.N.; investigation, D.C., S.M.A.N.,
A.G. and Q.H.; data curation, D.C., S.C., K.C. and N.X.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.A.N.,
A.G. and Q.H.; writing—review and editing, C.X.L. and Y.Y.; visualization, D.C., S.M.A.N., A.G. and
Q.H.; supervision, C.X.L. and Y.Y.; project administration, C.X.L. and Y.Y.; funding acquisition, C.X.L.
and Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Science Foundation: CMMI-2114119; National
Science Foundation: CMMI-2338752; National Science Foundation: CMMI-2113727; San Diego State
University: Start-up funding Arizona State University: Start-up funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data will be made available upon request.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge ASU/SDSU Startup Fundings and the National Sci-
ence Foundation (NSF grants No. CMMI-2114119, CMMI-2338752, CMMI-2113727). The authors also
acknowledge the SDSU core research facilities for the use of Auriga Scanning Electron Microscopy.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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