UNIT-V

ENERGY MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES

134
 HYBRID ECU
 The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is also known energy
management strategy (EMS).
 CLASSIFICATION OF HYBRID ECU:
The EMS can be classified into following broad categories:
 Rule based
 Optimization based
The Rule Based strategies consist of following subcategories:
i. Fuzzy based: The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types
 Predictive,
 Adaptive
 Conventional
Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are subdivided into
 State Machine
 Power follower
 Thermostat Control
 Optimization based strategies

i. Global Optimization: The global optimization methods are:

 Linear programming methods

 Dynamic Programming

 Stochastic Dynamic Programming

 Genetic Algorithms

ii. Real time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques are of following types:

 EFC minimization

 Robust control

 Model predictive
 Optimization based strategies
 In Figure 1 the classification tree of the various control techniques is shown. In the subsequent sections
the Rule based control strategies will be discussed in detail.
 RULE BASED CONTROL METHODS
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RULE BASED CONTROL METHODS:
Rule based control strategies can cope with the various operating modes of HEV. The rule-based strategies
are developed using engineering insight and intuition, analysis of the ICE efficiency charts shown in Figure 2
and the analysis of electrical component efficiency charts.
 RULE BASED CONTROL METHODS
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RULE BASED CONTROL METHODS:
An example of developing rule-based strategy can be explained using the ICE efficiency map shown in Figure
3. The lines, which are drawn using engineering insight and intuition, divide the map into three regions: A, B,
and C. The rules for operation of ICE in these three regions are:
 In the region A only, EM is used because in this region the fuel efficiency of the ICE is poor.
 In region B only ICE is used since this the region of high fuel efficiency.
 In region C both ICE and EM are used.
 DETERMINISTIC RULE BASED STRATEGIES
Heuristics based on analysis of power flow in HEV drivetrain, ICE efficiency map and human
experiences are utilized to design deterministic rules. These rules are generally implemented using
lookup tables to split requested power between the ICE and EM. The most commonly used strategies
are:
 Thermostat (on/off) control
 Power follower control
 Modified power follower
 State Machine based controller
In the following sections the controllers marked in bold are explained. Power follower control In this
strategy the ICE is the primary source of power and the EM is used to provide additional power when
needed by the vehicle. Care is always taken to maintain the SOC of batteries within safe limits. The
rule base that is generally used is:
 Below a certain minimum vehicle speed, only the EM is used.
 If the demanded power is greater than the maximum power that the ICE can produce at its
operating speed, the EM is used to produce excess power.
 The EM charges the batteries by regenerative braking.
 The ICE shuts off when the power demand falls below a limit at the operating speed. This is done
to prevent inefficient operation of ICE.
 This is a very simple and effective strategy but the major disadvantage is that the efficiency of the
entire drivetrain is not optimized
 MODIFIED POWER FOLLOWER
 In order to improve the power follower controller a cost function is introduced. The role of this cost
function is to strike a balance between fuel consumption and emissions at all operating points of HEV.
The rule base for the proposed strategy is as follows:

 Define the range of operating points: The range of operating points (distribution of ICE and EM torques)
is represented by the range of acceptable motor torques for the current torque request. The relation
between the ICE, EM and requested torque is given by

The greatest possible positive motor torque defines one extreme of the operating point range: This
value is the minimum of three values:
 The driver’s torque request
 The maximum rated positive torque of the motor at the current speed
 Maximum available positive torque from the EM, according to the limits imposed by the capability
of the batteries
 MODIFIED POWER FOLLOWER
 The greatest possible negative EM torque defines the other extreme of the operating point range. This
value is the maximum of:

 The difference between the driver’s torque request and the maximum positive torque available from the
ICE

 The maximum rated negative torque of the EM at the current speed

 The maximum available negative torque from the EM, according to limits imposed by the capability of the
battery.

For each candidate operating point, calculate the constituent factors for optimization:

The following steps are involved in this step:

 Calculate the fuel energy that would be consumed by the ICE. The actual fuel energy consumed for a
given ICE torque is affected by two things:

 Hot, steady state ICE fuel maps

 Temperature correction factors

 MODIFIED POWER FOLLOWER
For a given torque request and motor torque, equation 1 sets the ICE torque. At this torque and given
speed, the ICE map provides the fuel consumed by the ICE when it is hot (Figure 4). A cold ICE uses more
fuel than a hot ICE. A cold ICE correspondingly produces more emissions than a hot ICE. The outputs of the
ICE for cold and hot operation are given by
 MODIFIED POWER FOLLOWER
Calculate the effective fuel energy that would be consumed by EM for a time interval, for example 1 second
using the following steps:
 Find fuel energy versus EM torque
 Find versus EM torque, accounting for gain due to regenerative braking SOC
 Combine the curves obtained in above steps
 Determine the equivalent energy by evaluating the curve from step3 at
 State Machine Based

The state machine dictates the operating mode of the HEV such:

 ENGINE (ICE propelling the vehicle)

 BOOSTING (both ICE and EM propelling the vehicle)

 CHARGING (ICE propelling the vehicle and charging the battery)

The transition between the operating modes is decided based on:

 the change in driver demand

 a change in vehicle operating condition

 a system or a subsystem fault.

 State Machine Based

The various states involved in the control strategy are listed in Table 1
 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy logic is an extension of the conventional rule-based methods and

has following advantages over them:

 Robustness : It is inherently robust because it does not require

precise, noise free inputs and the output is a smooth function despite

a wide range of input variations.

 Adaptation : Since FLC processes user defined rules governing the

system, it can be modified easily to improve or drastically alter system

performance.
 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Logic in Design of Controllers:

The energy management and control strategy using FLC performs

following actions:

 maximizes fuel economy, minimize emissions and distribute the

driver's request for power between two sources: ICE and Motor .

 maximize fuel economy at any point in operation, that is, provide

dynamic or instantaneous optimization.

 maximize some other attributes such as acceleration of vehicle

 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Logic in Design of Controllers:

In Figure 1 the generic schematic diagram of FLC is shown. The four

components of FLC, as shown in Figure 1 , are:

 Fuzzification, which is the change from crisp values to fuzzy values.

For ICE speed, the crisp value may be 2000rpm and a possible rule

for ICE speed may be “If ICE rpm is too low, then inject more fuel”.

The fuzzy value associated with the “If X, then Z” statement would

be for X<2000 rpm.

 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Logic in Design of Controllers:

 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Strategy:
The FLC, explained in this section, satisfies the following objectives:
 minimize NOx emissions
 sustain battery SOC
 achieve desired torque requested by the driver
 The inputs to this FLC are:
 Acceleration pedal stroke (Acc)
 EM speed (ωem)
 An induction motor (IM) used in the drivetrain and the IM is directly
coupled to the ICE. Since the IM is directly coupled to the diesel ICE, it
will be in the field weakening region in most of the ICE operating, the
generating torque decreases as the ICE speed increases.
 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Strategy:
Some basic principles of generating the torque command from the
acceleration pedal stroke and ICE rotational speed in the HEV can be
described as follows:
Low ICE Speed: When the ICE rotational speed is low, it generates
pollutant emissions with low efficiency. Hence, in this operating
condition, the torque assistant control by the IM should be performed.
Assistant torque is commanded to increase in proportion to the
acceleration pedal stroke as in the conventional ICE vehicle, that is:
Medium ICE Speed: When the diesel ICE's speed is medium, it can
supply sufficient torque to the hybrid drive train. Hence, battery
recharging control is performed instead of torque assistance control
when acceleration pedal stroke is below some extent.
 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Strategy:

High ICE Speed:

 When the diesel ICE speed is high, the torque assistance control is
performed as that of the medium speed range.

 In battery recharging control the IM's output power is kept constant.

Now since the ICE can produce more power than in the medium
speed range, the factor K should be made to be negatively greater.
 The Fuzzy Logic Based Control System

Fuzzy Strategy:
.
INTRODUCTION:

The vehicle industry is experiencing a technological revolution in the powertrains of

vehicles. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is an effective choice to solve the problems of the
low energy density of a power battery and the short driving distance of an electric vehicle
(EV). Different configurations of HEVs have different control strategies, production costs,
and applicable conditions. However, for any configuration, the ultimate goal is to achieve
the comprehensive optimization of the efficiency of the engine and the motor so as to
improve the vehicle’s performance parameters such as economy, emissions, and durability.
The procedure of realizing the goal is commonly called an energy management
strategy (EMS).

CLASIFICATION OF DIFFERENT EMS:

The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is also known energy
management strategy (EMS).

The EMS can be classified into following broad categories:

• Rule based
• Optimization based

The Rule Based strategies consist of following subcategories:

i. Fuzzy based: The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types
a. Predictive,
b. Adaptive
c. Conventional
 ii. Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are subdivided into
a. State Machine
b. Power follower
c. Thermostat Control

The Optimization based strategies are of following types:

i. Global Optimization: The global optimization methods are:
a. Linear programming methods
b. Dynamic Programming
c. Stochastic Dynamic Programming d. Genetic Algorithms
ii. Real time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques are of following types:
a. EFC minimization
b. Robust control
c. Model predictive
d. Decoupling Control

COMPARISION OF DIFFERENT ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES:

1. Comparison Based on Characteristics

2. Comparison Based on Practicability

In recent years, many scholars have done extensive research on the EMSs of
HEVs. Among them, RCSs and OCSs are the current research .
ost of the control strategies and algorithms have not been applied in industry and
are still in the stage of scientific research. A classification and comparison of EMSs
and control algorithms for HEVs based on practicability
3. Comparison Based on Development and Evolution

Based on DRCSs, OCSs, and ICSs, the development history of EMSs for HEVs.
n order to improve the comprehensive performance of the hybrid power system, the
advantages of various EMSs are synthesized to realize compound control. The EMS
of intelligent optimal control, which effectively combines the optimization algorithm
and intelligent control method, is an effective way to solve the energy management
problems of HEVs and is an important research direction at present.

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES:

Regardless of the powertrain topology, the essence of the HEV control problem is the
instantaneous management of the power flows from energy converters to achieve the control
objectives. One important characteristic of this problem is that the control objectives are mostly
integral in nature (for instance, fuel consumption) or semi-local in time, such as drivability,
while the control actions are local in time.
Furthermore, the control objectives are often subject to integral constraints, such as
maintaining the battery SOC within a prescribed range .
In general, the energy management problem in a hybrid vehicle can be cast into an
optimization problem over a finite time horizon, whose solution can be found in the pool of
optimal control theory methods which are aimed at finding a control law for a given system
such that a certain optimality criterion, usually defined as an integral performance index over a
certain time frame, is achieved.
Traditional optimal control techniques can be used only with simple mathematical models of
the system, assuming perfect knowledge of the entire optimization horizon (time frame over
which the optimization is defined); since both these conditions are usually not respected by real
systems, optimal control implementation in a physical dynamic system, whose future is
unknown, is necessarily suboptimal.
 CHARGING TECHNIQS AND SCHEMETIC OF CHARGING STATION:
here are a number of different ways to charge your electric car’s battery pack. Being faced
with normal and fast charging methods, and different connector types, can be a little
daunting at first.
here are three categories or types of charging: Trickle Charge, AC Charge and DC
Charge.

1. TRICKLE CHARGE
The slowest method of charging your EV at home, using a standard (three-prong) 220V plug. It is
only recommended in urgent cases, with caution and consultation with electricity providers.

2. AC CHARGE
Having a wallbox installed lets you charge 3-4 faster using AC Household Charging. AC Public
Charging is also available.
3. DC CHARGE
The fastest way to charge your EV – at a public DC Fast charging station with power from 50kW and
above. With this method you can top up your battery from 20 to 80% in approx. 40 minutes. There
are also some ultra-fast charging stations that already provide more than 150kW.

Home charging
Around 80% of all EV charging is currently done at home. Usually overnight while owners sleep –

waking to a fully charged battery the next morning that almost always provides more than enough

EV range for most people’s daily travel needs.

There are TWO TYPES of home charging available: Using Trickle Charge with your household

current or AC Household Charge with an installed wallbox. Here are the key differences:

TRICKLE CHARGE

• Provides charging through a standard (three-prong) 220V plug that comes with your EV. The other

end is simply plugged directly into your EV

• Doesn’t require installation of additional charging equipment

• Can deliver 13 to 16 km of range per hour of charging

• Charging speed: approx. 65 km of range in 5 hours (overnight), or 200 km in 14 hours

• Using Trickle Charge is only recommended in urgent cases when you have low battery charge and

cannot drive to a public station or access an AC wallbox at home. This is because the use of

household electricity may cause problems associated with electricity bills and electrical loads, so

always use this charge solution with caution and discuss with your electricity provider before first

use. Purchasing an ICCB (In Cable Control Box) cable when using Trickle Charge is recommended,

for maximum reliability and peace of mind.

AC HOUSEHOLD CHARGING WITH WALLBOX

• The most common and recommendable home charging option

• Provides charging through a 230V outlet which allows charging 3 to 4 times faster than Trickle

Charge – depending on the acceptance rate of your specific model and the charger

• Especially useful if you have time to top up your electric vehicle overnight: it takes around 6 hours

to fully charge a 40 kWh battery car

• Requires the installation of a dedicated EV charging wallbox, which should be fitted by a trained

electrician

• Ideal if you have a garage or driveway in which it can be positioned

• There may also be financial incentives in your local region or country to minimise purchase and

installation costs

• Public charging stations

Increasingly convenient thanks to the ever-growing network, these stations can often be located

throughout urban centres in particular and allow you to top up your battery on the go if you need to

travel longer distances.

Public charging offers AC Charging with a wallbox or – in the majority of cases – DC Fast Charging.
 And both options are quicker than charging at home: AC Public Charging can be 3 to 10 times faster
than AC Household Charging, depending on the charging station output and your EV’s capacity to

handle AC Chargers. All DC Charging stations are considered fast, as the following figures show:

DC FAST CHARGERS

o Currently the quickest way to charge an electric vehicle

o Provides charging power above 50kW through a voltage above 450V and current up to 125A

o Is capable of charging from 20 to 80% of charge in approx. 40 minutes

o Utilises Combo DC (CCS for Combined Charging System)

o Use of DC Charge should be kept to a minimum in order to help prolong high-voltage battery life

An AC charger supplies the EV’s onboard charger, which then converts the AC power to DC allowing the
battery to charge. The size of the onboard charging device is constrained by space. Due to this limited
space, the amount of power they can deliver to the battery is relatively low. Which means that charging
is typically slower.
• A DC fast charger bypasses the onboard charging device, supplying power directly to the EV’s battery.
The DC charger is external to the car, so it isn’t constrained in size or cost. Meaning that charging is
typically much faster.