Chapter 2

Software Development Life Cycle

ICT407| Software Engineering
By Muhammad I Mungadi
 SDLC
• Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined,
structured sequence of stages in software engineering to develop the
intended software product.
• SDLC is a process that consists of a series of planned activities to develop or
alter the Software Products.
• SDLC is a process followed for a software project, within a software
organization. It consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop,
maintain, replace and alter or enhance specific software. The life cycle
defines a methodology for improving the quality of software and the overall
development process.
• ISO/IEC 12207 is an international standard for software life-cycle processes. It aims to
be the standard that defines all the tasks required for developing and maintaining
software.
SDLC
• The following figure is a graphical representation of the various stages
of a typical SDLC.
Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis

• Requirement analysis is the most important and fundamental stage in

SDLC. It is performed by the senior members of the team with inputs
from the customer, the sales department, market surveys and domain
experts in the industry. This information is then used to plan the basic
project approach and to conduct product feasibility study in the
economical, operational and technical areas.
• Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identification of
the risks associated with the project is also done in the planning
stage. The outcome of the technical feasibility study is to define the
various technical approaches that can be followed to implement the
project successfully with minimum risks.
Stage 2: Defining Requirements

• Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is to clearly

define and document the product requirements and get them
approved from the customer or the market analysts. This is done
through an SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document
which consists of all the product requirements to be designed and
developed during the project life cycle.
Stage 3: Designing the Product Architecture

• SRS is the reference for product architects to come out with the best
architecture for the product to be developed. Based on the requirements
specified in SRS, usually more than one design approach for the product
architecture is proposed and documented in a DDS - Design Document
Specification.
• This DDS is reviewed by all the important stakeholders and based on
various parameters as risk assessment, product robustness, design
modularity, budget and time constraints, the best design approach is
selected for the product.
• A design approach clearly defines all the architectural modules of the
product along with its communication and data flow representation with
the external and third party modules (if any). The internal design of all the
modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly defined with the
minutest of the details in DDS.
Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product

• In this stage of SDLC the actual development starts and the product is
built. The programming code is generated as per DDS during this
stage. If the design is performed in a detailed and organized manner,
code generation can be accomplished without much hassle.
• Developers must follow the coding guidelines defined by their
organization and programming tools like compilers, interpreters,
debuggers, etc. are used to generate the code. Different high level
programming languages such as C, C++, Pascal, Java and PHP are used
for coding. The programming language is chosen with respect to the
type of software being developed.
Stage 5: Testing the Product

• his stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the modern SDLC
models, the testing activities are mostly involved in all the stages of
SDLC. However, this stage refers to the testing only stage of the
product where product defects are reported, tracked, fixed and
retested, until the product reaches the quality standards defined in
the SRS.
Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and
Maintenance
• Once the product is tested and ready to be deployed it is released
formally in the appropriate market. Sometimes product deployment
happens in stages as per the business strategy of that organization.
The product may first be released in a limited segment and tested in
the real business environment (UAT- User acceptance testing).
• Then based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or
with suggested enhancements in the targeting market segment. After
the product is released in the market, its maintenance is done for the
existing customer base.
 SDLC Models
• There are various software development life cycle models defined and
designed which are followed during the software development process.
• These models are also referred as Software Development Process Models.
• Following are the most important and popular SDLC models followed in the
industry −
• Waterfall Model
• Iterative Model
• Spiral Model
• V-Model
• Big Bang Model
• Other related methodologies are Agile Model, RAD Model, Rapid Application
Development and Prototyping Models.
Waterfall Model

• The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It

is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model.
• Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in
Software Engineering to ensure success of the project. In "The
Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development is
divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the
outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next phase
sequentially.
Phases of waterfall model
The sequential phases in Waterfall model are
−
• Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of
the system to be developed are captured in this phase and
documented in a requirement specification document.
• System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are
studied in this phase and the system design is prepared. This system
design helps in specifying hardware and system requirements and
helps in defining the overall system architecture.
• Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is
first developed in small programs called units, which are integrated in
the next phase. Each unit is developed and tested for its functionality,
which is referred to as Unit Testing
• Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation
phase are integrated into a system after testing of each unit. Post integration
the entire system is tested for any faults and failures.
• Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is
done; the product is deployed in the customer environment or released into
the market.
• Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client
environment. To fix those issues, patches are released. Also to enhance the
product some better versions are released. Maintenance is done to deliver
these changes in the customer environment.
Waterfall Model - Application

• Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC

approach to be followed based on the internal and external factors. Some
situations where the use of Waterfall model is most appropriate are −
• Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
• Product definition is stable.
• Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
• There are no ambiguous requirements.
• Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the
product.
• The project is short.
Waterfall Model - Advantages

• Simple and easy to understand and use

• Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has specific
deliverables and a review process.
• Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
• Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
• Clearly defined stages.
• Well understood milestones.
• Easy to arrange tasks.
• Process and results are well documented.
Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

• No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

• High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
• Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
• Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
• Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this process model.
• It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
• Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
• Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
• Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't allow
identifying any technological or business bottleneck or challenges early.
Iterative Model - Design

• Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of

the software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving
versions until the full system is implemented.
• At each iteration, design modifications are made and new functional
capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to
develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller
portions at a time (incremental).
The following illustration is a representation
of the Iterative and Incremental model −
Iterative Model - Application

• Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has

some specific applications in the software industry. This model is
most often used in the following scenarios −
• Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
• Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or
requested enhancements may evolve with time.
• There is a time to the market constraint.
• A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the development team
while working on the project.
• Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to be used
on contract basis for specific iterations.
• There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the future.
Iterative Model - Advantages
• The advantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as follows −
• Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in the life cycle.
• Results are obtained early and periodically.
• Progress can be measured.
• Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
• Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
• Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration is an easily managed milestone.
• Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
• With every increment, operational product is delivered.
• Risk analysis is better.
• It supports changing requirements.
• Initial Operating time is less.
• Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
Iterative Model – Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of the Iterative and Incremental SDLC Model are as
follows −
• More resources may be required.
• Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for changing
requirements.
• More management attention is required.
• System architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are
gathered in the beginning of the entire life cycle.
• Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
• Not suitable for smaller projects.
• Management complexity is more.
• End of project may not be known which is a risk.
• Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
• Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
Spiral Model - Design

• The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with the
systematic, controlled aspects of the waterfall model. This Spiral
model is a combination of iterative development process model and
sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall model with a
very high emphasis on risk analysis. It allows incremental releases of
the product or incremental refinement through each iteration around
the spiral.
Phases of Spiral Model
• The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes
through these phases in iterations called Spirals.
• Identification: This phase starts with gathering the business requirements
in the baseline spiral. In the subsequent spirals as the product matures,
identification of system requirements, subsystem requirements and unit
requirements are all done in this phase.
• This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by continuous
communication between the customer and the system analyst. At the end of the
spiral, the product is deployed in the identified market.
• Design: The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline
spiral and involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical
product design and the final design in the subsequent spirals.
Phases of Spiral Model
• Construct or Build: The Construct phase refers to production of the actual
software product at every spiral. In the baseline spiral, when the product is
just thought of and the design is being developed a POC (Proof of Concept)
is developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
• Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and design details
a working model of the software called build is produced with a version number.
These builds are sent to the customer for feedback.
• Evaluation and Risk Analysis: Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating
and monitoring the technical feasibility and management risks, such as
schedule slippage and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end of
first iteration, the customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
The following illustration is a representation of the Spiral Model, listing
the activities in each phase.
Spiral Model Application

• The following pointers explain the typical uses of a Spiral Model −

• When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.
• For medium to high-risk projects.
• Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to economic
priorities as the requirements change with time.
• Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
• Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
• New product line which should be released in phases to get enough customer
feedback.
• Significant changes are expected in the product during the development
cycle.
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

• The advantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

• Changing requirements can be accommodated.
• Allows extensive use of prototypes.
• Requirements can be captured more accurately.
• Users see the system early.
• Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts can be
developed earlier which helps in better risk management.
Spiral Model - Pros and Cons

• The disadvantages of the Spiral SDLC Model are as follows −

• Management is more complex.
• End of the project may not be known early.
• Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for small
projects.
• Process is complex
• Spiral may go on indefinitely.
• Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive documentation.
Agile Model
• Agile model believes that every project needs to be handled
differently and the existing methods need to be tailored to best suit
the project requirements. In Agile, the tasks are divided to time boxes
(small time frames) to deliver specific features for a release.
• Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered
after each iteration. Each build is incremental in terms of features; the
final build holds all the features required by the customer.
Here is a graphical illustration of the Agile
Model −
Following are the Agile Manifesto principles −

• Individuals and interactions − In Agile development, self-organization and

motivation are important, as are interactions like co-location and pair
programming.
• Working software − Demo working software is considered the best means
of communication with the customers to understand their requirements,
instead of just depending on documentation.
• Customer collaboration − As the requirements cannot be gathered
completely in the beginning of the project due to various factors,
continuous customer interaction is very important to get proper product
requirements.
• Responding to change − Agile Development is focused on quick responses
to change and continuous development.
• Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Model
Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

• Agile is based on the adaptive software development methods,

whereas the traditional SDLC models like the waterfall model is based
on a predictive approach. Predictive teams in the traditional SDLC
models usually work with detailed planning and have a complete
forecast of the exact tasks and features to be delivered in the next
few months or during the product life cycle.
• Predictive methods entirely depend on the requirement analysis and
planning done in the beginning of cycle. Any changes to be
incorporated go through a strict change control management and
prioritization.
Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

• Agile uses an adaptive approach where there is no detailed planning

and there is clarity on future tasks only in respect of what features
need to be developed. There is feature driven development and the
team adapts to the changing product requirements dynamically. The
product is tested very frequently, through the release iterations,
minimizing the risk of any major failures in future.
• Customer Interaction is the backbone of this Agile methodology, and
open communication with minimum documentation are the typical
features of Agile development environment. The agile teams work in
close collaboration with each other and are most often located in the
same geographical location.
Agile Model - Pros and Cons

• The advantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

• Is a very realistic approach to software development.
• Promotes teamwork and cross training.
• Functionality can be developed rapidly and demonstrated.
• Resource requirements are minimum.
• Suitable for fixed or changing requirements
• Delivers early partial working solutions.
• Good model for environments that change steadily.
• Minimal rules, documentation easily employed.
• Enables concurrent development and delivery within an overall planned context.
• Little or no planning required.
• Easy to manage.
• Gives flexibility to developers.
Agile Model - Pros and Cons

• The disadvantages of the Agile Model are as follows −

• Not suitable for handling complex dependencies.
• More risk of sustainability, maintainability and extensibility.
• An overall plan, an agile leader and agile PM practice is a must without which it will
not work.
• Strict delivery management dictates the scope, functionality to be delivered, and
adjustments to meet the deadlines.
• Depends heavily on customer interaction, so if customer is not clear, team can be
driven in the wrong direction.
• There is a very high individual dependency, since there is minimum documentation
generated.
• Transfer of technology to new team members may be quite challenging due to lack
of documentation.
RAD (Rapid Application Development)
• Rapid application development is a software development
methodology that uses minimal planning in favor of rapid
prototyping. A prototype is a working model that is functionally
equivalent to a component of the product.
• In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as
prototypes and are integrated to make the complete product for
faster product delivery. Since there is no detailed preplanning, it
makes it easier to incorporate the changes within the development
process.
Phases of Rad Model
• Business Modelling: The business model for the product under development is designed
in terms of flow of information and the distribution of information between various
business channels. A complete business analysis is performed to find the vital
information for business, how it can be obtained, how and when is the information
processed and what are the factors driving successful flow of information.
• Data Modelling: The information gathered in the Business Modelling phase is reviewed
and analyzed to form sets of data objects vital for the business. The attributes of all data
sets is identified and defined. The relation between these data objects are established
and defined in detail in relevance to the business model.
• Process Modelling: The data object sets defined in the Data Modelling phase are
converted to establish the business information flow needed to achieve specific business
objectives as per the business model. The process model for any changes or
enhancements to the data object sets is defined in this phase. Process descriptions for
adding, deleting, retrieving or modifying a data object are given.
The following illustration describes the RAD Model in detail.
RAD Model Vs Traditional SDLC

• The traditional SDLC follows a rigid process models with high emphasis on
requirement analysis and gathering before the coding starts. It puts
pressure on the customer to sign off the requirements before the project
starts and the customer doesn’t get the feel of the product as there is no
working build available for a long time.
• The customer may need some changes after he gets to see the software.
However, the change process is quite rigid and it may not be feasible to
incorporate major changes in the product in the traditional SDLC.
• The RAD model focuses on iterative and incremental delivery of working
models to the customer. This results in rapid delivery to the customer and
customer involvement during the complete development cycle of product
reducing the risk of non-conformance with the actual user requirements.
RAD Model - Application

• RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear

modularization is possible. If the project cannot be broken into modules,
RAD may fail.
• The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be
used −
• RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in an
incremental manner.
• It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for Modelling.
• It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating tools.
• RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with relevant
business knowledge.
• Should be used where the requirements change during the project and working
prototypes are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.
RAD Model - Pros and Cons

• The advantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

• Changing requirements can be accommodated.
• Progress can be measured.
• Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.
• Productivity with fewer people in a short time.
• Reduced development time.
• Increases reusability of components.
• Quick initial reviews occur.
• Encourages customer feedback.
• Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.
RAD Model - Pros and Cons

• The disadvantages of the RAD Model are as follows −

• Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying business
requirements.
• Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.
• Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
• High dependency on Modelling skills.
• Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of Modelling and automated code
generation is very high.
• Management complexity is more.
• Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.
• Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.
• Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.
Software Prototyping
• Prototype is a working model of software with some limited
functionality. The prototype does not always hold the exact logic used
in the actual software application and is an extra effort to be
considered under effort estimation.
• Prototyping is used to allow the users evaluate developer proposals
and try them out before implementation. It also helps understand the
requirements which are user specific and may not have been
considered by the developer during product design.
Stepwise Approach of designing a software
prototype
• Basic Requirement Identification
• This step involves understanding the very basics product requirements
especially in terms of user interface. The more intricate details of the internal
design and external aspects like performance and security can be ignored at
this stage.
• Developing the initial Prototype
• The initial Prototype is developed in this stage, where the very basic
requirements are showcased and user interfaces are provided. These features
may not exactly work in the same manner internally in the actual software
developed. While, the workarounds are used to give the same look and feel to
the customer in the prototype developed.
Stepwise Approach of designing a software
prototype
• Review of the Prototype
• The prototype developed is then presented to the customer and the other
important stakeholders in the project. The feedback is collected in an
organized manner and used for further enhancements in the product under
development.
• Revise and Enhance the Prototype
• The feedback and the review comments are discussed during this stage and
some negotiations happen with the customer based on factors like – time and
budget constraints and technical feasibility of the actual implementation. The
changes accepted are again incorporated in the new Prototype developed
and the cycle repeats until the customer expectations are met.
Software Prototyping - Types

• Throwaway/Rapid Prototyping
• Throwaway prototyping is also called as rapid or close ended prototyping. This type
of prototyping uses very little efforts with minimum requirement analysis to build a
prototype. Once the actual requirements are understood, the prototype is discarded
and the actual system is developed with a much clear understanding of user
requirements.
• Evolutionary Prototyping
• Evolutionary prototyping also called as breadboard prototyping is based on building
actual functional prototypes with minimal functionality in the beginning. The
prototype developed forms the heart of the future prototypes on top of which the
entire system is built. By using evolutionary prototyping, the well-understood
requirements are included in the prototype and the requirements are added as and
when they are understood.
Software Prototyping - Types

• Incremental Prototyping
• Incremental prototyping refers to building multiple functional prototypes of
the various sub-systems and then integrating all the available prototypes to
form a complete system.
• Extreme Prototyping
• Extreme prototyping is used in the web development domain. It consists of
three sequential phases. First, a basic prototype with all the existing pages is
presented in the HTML format. Then the data processing is simulated using a
prototype services layer. Finally, the services are implemented and integrated
to the final prototype. This process is called Extreme Prototyping used to
draw attention to the second phase of the process, where a fully functional UI
is developed with very little regard to the actual services.
Software Prototyping - Application

• Software Prototyping is most useful in development of systems

having high level of user interactions such as online systems. Systems
which need users to fill out forms or go through various screens
before data is processed can use prototyping very effectively to give
the exact look and feel even before the actual software is developed.
• Software that involves too much of data processing and most of the
functionality is internal with very little user interface does not usually
benefit from prototyping. Prototype development could be an extra
overhead in such projects and may need lot of extra efforts.
Software Prototyping - Pros and Cons
• The advantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −
• Increased user involvement in the product even before its implementation.

• Since a working model of the system is displayed, the users get a better
understanding of the system being developed.

• Reduces time and cost as the defects can be detected much earlier.

• Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions.

• Missing functionality can be identified easily.

• Confusing or difficult functions can be identified

Useful Resources
• Software Testing Tutorial − This tutorial will give you basic understanding
on software testing, it's types, methods, levels and other related
terminologies.
• SDLC on Wikipedia − Brief explanation of Software Development Life Cycle
on Wikipedia.
• Agile Software Development on Wikipedia − Different concepts are
explained under this link.
• Agile - Another useful website for Agile
• A Down-To-Earth Guide To SDLC Project Management
• Head First Software Development: A Learner's Companion to Software
Development 1st Edition
Software Prototyping - Pros and Cons

• The Disadvantages of the Prototyping Model are as follows −

• Risk of insufficient requirement analysis owing to too much dependency on
the prototype.
• Users may get confused in the prototypes and actual systems.
• Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as
scope of the system may expand beyond original plans.
• Developers may try to reuse the existing prototypes to build the actual
system, even when it is not technically feasible.
• The effort invested in building prototypes may be too much if it is not
monitored properly.