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Introduction to computer network

Overview of computer network
NETWORKS :- A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

Computer network :- “Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers

interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they
are able to exchange information.
Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.

The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.

In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary
from simple to complex level.

Components Of Computer Network:

Basic components of a computer network

Server: Servers are computers that runs operating system and hold data that can be shared
over acomputer network

Client: A client is a computer that is connected to other computers in the network and can
receive data sent by other computers.

Transmission Media: All computers in a computer network are connected with each other
through a transmission media such as wires, optical fibre cables, coaxial cables etc

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Network Interface card: Each system or computer in a computer network must have a card
called network interface card (NIC). The main purpose of NIC is to format the data, send the
dataand receive the data at the receiving node.

Hub: Hub acts as a device that connects all the computer in a network to each other. Any
request that comes from a client computer first received by Hub and then hub transmit this
request over a network so that the correct server receives and respond to it.
Switch: Switch is similar to hub however instead of broadcasting a incoming data request it
uses the physical device address in the incoming request to transfer the request to correct
server computer.
Router: Router joins multiple computer networks to each other. For example lets say a
company runs 100 computers over a local area network(LAN) and another company runs
another LAN of 150 computers. These both LANs can be connected with each other through
a internet connection which is provided by the router.

LAN cable: A wire that is used to connect more than one computers or other devices such as
printers and scanner to each other.
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network
interface card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address
to identify the system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination
.There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a
connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.
Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium

Applications of computer networks

1. Resource Sharing

Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can
share one Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks,
Fax Machines, etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box,
Postman, Android Studio, etc.
2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides
Search capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared
among the many users over the internet.
3. Communication

Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system
etc.

4. Entertainment Industry

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 In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment
industries are Video on demand, Multi person real-time simulation games, movie/TV
programs, etc.

5. Access to Remote Databases

Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by
the end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home
Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.

6. Home applications

There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For
example, you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction,
electronic commerce, and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts,
transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network
arranges a robust connection mechanism between users.

7. Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource
sharing is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans, and
tools can be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business
electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a
computer network.

8. Mobile users
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook
computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable
device. The computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches,
wearable devices, tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.

9. Social media

Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to
share and receive any information related to political, ethical, and social issues.

Network topologies and architectures:-

Network topology refers to the arrangement of elements in a communication network such
as links, nodes, and so on. The term network topology refers to the arrangement of various
types of telecommunication networks, such as command and control radio networks,
industrial field buses, and computer networks. Local area networks, a common computer
network installation, contain examples of network topologies.

Network topologies are classified into two types: physical and logical. While logical topology
emphasizes the pattern of data transfer between network nodes, physical topology
emphasizes the physical layout of the connected devices and nodes

Types of Network Topologies

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In computer networks, there are primarily six types of physical topology. They are as follows:
Bus Topology

Ring Topology

Star Topology

Mesh Topology

Tree Topology
Hybrid Topology
Bus Topology: The simplest type of topology is called a bus topology, in which network
communication takes place over a single bus or channel. There are numerous taps and drop
lines connected to the bus. Drop Lines are cables that connect the bus to the computer, and
taps are connectors. In other words, each node is connected to a single transmission line.

The following are the benefits of Bus topology:

Easy to install and use.

Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

Less wiring is needed.
Economical to implement.

The following are Bus topology drawbacks:

Efficiency decreases as nodes increase (strength of signal decreases).

A bus failure will result in network failure.

The bus's limited length means that only a certain number of nodes can connect to it.

As messages are broadcast to all nodes, there are more security concerns and risks.

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Ring Topology: When two computers are connected to form a ring, the topology is known as
a ring topology. The message passing is circular and unidirectional. A fixed amount of time is
allotted for each computer to access the network for transmission in this deterministic
network topology. Each node is a part of a closed loop.

Ring topology has the advantages listed below:

Simple installation

Fewer Cables are needed.

Minimizes the possibility of data collision.

An easy problem to solve.

The access time is the same for every node.

The following are some drawbacks to ring topology:

The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails.

Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path.
Getting more difficult to reconfigure.

Star Topology: A computer network topology known as a star topology connects each node
to a central hub. The hub or switch acts as a bridge between the nodes. Any node making a
service request or offering a service must first get in touch with the hub. The other connected
devices function as clients in a star topology, while the hub and switch serve as a server.

The benefits of the star topology are as follows:

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Less costly.
Centralized management.

Simple to scale.

Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.

Easy to upgrade and reconfigure.

The following are some drawbacks of the star topology:

The network will collapse if the primary device faults occur.
There are a limited number of devices in the network.

Mesh Topology: Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are linked
to one another by numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods for
transferring from one computer to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central
computer that acts as a communication hub.
Mesh topology has the benefits listed below:

Direct communication is facilitated by dedicated links.

There are no channel traffic issues.

Due to each node having its own dedicated path, fault tolerance is good.

Quick communication.

Maintains security and privacy thanks to a separate communication channel.

There are backup options in the network in case a node fails.

Mesh topology has the following drawbacks:

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Extremely high cabling is required.
Implementation is expensive.

The network is difficult to install and takes up a lot of space.

Installation and regular maintenance are extremely difficult.

Tree Topology: A computer network topology known as a "tree topology" is one in which all
nodes are either directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Bus and Star
topologies are combined to create tree topology. With a tree topology, the network is split
up into manageablesegments that can be easily maintained.

The following are the benefits of Tree topology:

Network coverage over a long distance.

Checking each hierarchy makes fault finding simple.

There should be little or no data loss.

A large number of nodes can be directly or indirectly connected.

If one of the hierarchical networks fails, the others are unaffected.

The following are the drawbacks of Tree topology:

The cost of cabling and hardware is high.

Implementation is difficult.
Hub cabling is also necessary.

A large network with a tree topology is difficult to manage.

It necessitates a lot of maintenance.

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The network will fail if the main bus fails.

Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a computer topology made up of two or more

topologies. All topologies in this topology are interconnected based on their needs to form a
hybrid.

The following are the benefits of hybrid topology:

It can support a large number of nodes.

It allows us to modify the network to meet our specific requirements.

Very Dependable.

The following are the drawbacks of hybrid topology:

The design is complicated.

Implementation is costly.

MSAL (Multi station Access Unit) is required.

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Layered network architecture

Every network consists of a specific number of functions, layers, and tasks to perform. Layered
Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network process is
divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a specific
layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only s specific type of task.
To run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower layer adds its services
to the higher layer present above it. Therefore layered architecture provides interactions
between the sub-systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect
the next layer.

As shown in the above diagram, there are five different layers. Therefore it is a five-layered
architecture. Each layer performs a dedicated task. The lower level data for example from
layer 1 data is transferred to layer 2. Below all the layers Physical Medium is present. The
physical medium is responsible for the actual communication to take place. For the transfer
of data and communication layered architecture provides with a clean cut interface.
Features of Layered Architecture

Use of Layered architecture in computer network provides with the feature of modularity and
distinct interfaces.

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Layered architecture ensures independence between layers, by offering services to higher
layers from the lower layers and without specifying how this services are implemented.
Layered architecture segments as larger and unmanageable design into small sub tasks.

In layer architecture every network has different number of functions, layers and content.

In layered architecture, the physical route provides with communication which is available
under the layer 1.

In layered architecture, the implementation done by one layer can be modified by the another
layer.
Elements of Layered Architecture

There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described
below:

Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower layer to a
higher layer. Each layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions provided by each
layer are different.

Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rules used by the layer for exchanging and transmission
of data with its peer entities. This rules can consists details regarding a type of content and
their order passed from one layer to another.

Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from one
layer to the another.

OSI Model Full Form in Computer Networking

Introduction :
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that defines how
computers communicate with each other over a network. It consists of seven layers, each
with its own specific function and set of protocols.
Starting from the bottom, the first layer is the physical layer, which deals with the physical
aspects of transmitting data such as cables, connectors, and signaling. The second layer is the
data link layer, which is responsible for establishing and maintaining communication between
two devices on the same network.

The third layer is the network layer, which handles the routing of data between networks.
The fourth layer is the transport layer, which ensures reliable transmission of data between
two devices.The fifth layer is the session layer, which establishes and manages sessions
between applications. The sixth layer is the presentation layer, which deals with the syntax
and semantics of the data being transmitted .Finally, the seventh layer is the application layer,
which provides services to applications for network communication.
The OSI model is important because it helps network designers and administrators
understand how different protocols and technologies work together to provide network

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communication. It also helps in troubleshooting network issues by isolating problems to
specific layers.
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. The OSI model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization(ISO). It is a reference model for how
applications communicate over a network. The OSI model characterizes computing functions
into a universal set of rules and requirements to support interoperability between different
products and software.

Layers of OSI Model

OSI model has seven layers which are as follows:

1.The Physical Layer

2.The Data Link Layer
3.The Network Layer

4.The Transport Layer

5.The Session Layer

6.The Presentation Layer

7.The Application Layer

Advantages:

It is a layered model and each layer is independent. Thus, changes in one layer don’t affect
the other layers.

It divides the complex function into smaller parts.

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It is a generic model as it has the flexibility to adapt to many protocols.
It supports both connection-oriented as well as connectionless services.

It is more secure and adaptable than having all services bundled in a single layer.

Disadvantages:

It is purely a theoretical model and ignores the availability of resources and technologies.
Hence, its practical implementation is somewhat restricted.

It is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow, and costly.
The layers are interdependent, they can’t operate parallelly as they have to wait for the data/
packets from the predecessor layer.
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing
a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.

Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in
a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another,
over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL
to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

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The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC)

Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)

request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit
a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special
bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.

Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.

Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC
sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel
at a given time.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to

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transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Functions of the Network Layer

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header
by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards
the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Functions of the Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer

Connection-Oriented Service
Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes

Connection Establishment

Data Transfer

Termination/disconnection

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In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable a nd
secure.

2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.

Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can
be transmitted.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

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The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Functions of the Presentation Layer

Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which
is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has
to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.
Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or

control files from a remote computer.

Mail Services : Provide email service.

Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources

and access for global information about various objects and services.
Network Protocols Definition

Network protocols are a set of rules outlining how connected devices communicate across a
network to exchange information easily and safely. Protocols serve as a common language
for devices to enable communication irrespective of differences in software, hardware, or
internal processes.
Types of network protocols

Different protocols serve different functions to ensure efficient, quick, and secure network
communication. Various types of network protocols can be categorized into the following
three broad categories to help organizations operate seamlessly across different business
scenarios:

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1. Network Communication Protocols: These protocols determine the rules and formats to
transfer data across networks. Communication protocols govern various aspects of analog
and digital communications, such as syntax, authentication, semantics, and error detection,
among others. Some key network communication protocols include:

Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): Commonly referred to as the protocol of the internet
that allows communication between a server and browser.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): A reliable, connection-oriented protocol that helps in
the sequential transmission of data packets to ensure data reaches the destination on time
without duplication.
Internet Protocol (IP): Facilitates routing the data packets across networks. IP contains
addressing and control information to deliver packets across a network. It works along with
TCP. While it ensures delivering the packets to the right address, TCP aligns them in the right
order.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Unlike TCP, UDP is a connectionless protocol that doesn’t
ensure a connection between the application and server before transmitting a message. It’s
effective for use cases such as broadcasts or multicast connections.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows file sharing between servers by establishing two TCP
connections, one for data transfer and the other for control. The data transfer connection
transfers the actual files while the control connection transfers control information such as
passwords to ensure data retrieval in case of data loss.

2. Network Security Protocols: These protocols ensure safe data transmission over the
network connections. Network security protocols define the procedures to secure data from
any unauthorized access. These protocols leverage encryption and cryptography to
safeguard. Here are the most widely used network security protocols:

Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP): Helps securely transfer files across a network by using
public-key encryption and authenticating the client and server.
Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): Overcomes the limitation of HTTP by ensuring
the security of data transmitted between the browser and server through data encryption.
HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL): Primarily helps secure internet connections and safeguard
sensitive data using encryption. SSL protocol enables both server-client communication and
server-server communication.
3. Network Management Protocols: Network managers require standard policies and
procedures to manage and monitor the network for maintaining smooth communication.
Network management protocols ensure quick troubleshooting and optimal performance
across the network. The following are essential network protocols management:

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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): Helps administrators manage network
devices by monitoring endpoint information to proactively track network performance and
pinpoint network glitches for quick troubleshooting.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Helps diagnose network connectivity issues.
Network devices employ ICMP for sending error messages, highlighting congestion and
timeouts, and transmitting other operational information to assist in network
troubleshooting.

Network Services

Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and
explore the unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the
capabilities are enhanced multiple-times. Some basic services computer network can offer
are.
Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or fixed.
This software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various means
of accessing it
Accounting
In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped to them.
Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic form and make
available when requested.

Authentication and Authorization

User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or periodically.
User accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to resources can be
controlled using authorization schemes.

Domain Name Services

DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This system
maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and recall than IP
addresses. Because network operates with the help of IP addresses and humans tend to
remember website names, the DNS provides website’s IP address which is mapped to its
name from the back-end on the request of a website name from the user.
File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.

File Sharing
One of the reason which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing enables its
users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a specific server, which
is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can make its file shared on its own
computer and provides access to intended users.
File Transfer
This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to multiple
computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to locate other users
in the network and transfers files.

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Communication Services
Email
Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot work
without. This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or more email
servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends email to other user, it
is actually transferred between users with help of email server.

Social Networking
Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples, can find
other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share thoughts, pictures,
and videos.

Internet Chat
Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or more people
can communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay Chat services. These days,
voice chat and video chat are very common.

Discussion Boards
Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same interests.It
enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be seen by all other
users. Other may respond as well.

Remote Access
This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This feature is
known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g. mobile phone or
home computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.

Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share them. This
may include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.

Databases
This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and information,
processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using queries. Databases help
organizations to make decisions based on statistics.

Web Services
World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet .It is used to connect to the internet,
and access files and information services provided by the internet servers.

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