Topic:-Alcohol, Phenol & Ether

Certificate
This is to certify that Reyansh Choudhary, a student
of Class XII, has successfully completed the research
project “Alcohol , Phenol & Ether” under the
guidance of Mr. Mohanlal sir during the academic
year 2024-2025 in partial fulfillment of chemistry
practical examination conducted by AISSCE, New
Delhi

Signature of Chemistry teacher Signature of External examiner

___________________ ___________________

Signature of Principle

____________
 Acknowledgement

To our esteemed teacher, Mohanlal sir, for providing

guidance, support, and valuable insights throughout the
project. Your expertise and patience helped us navigate the
complexities of chemistry and ensured the successful
completion of our project.
To our classmates, who collaborated and contributed to the
project’s development. Your cooperation, encouragement,
and constructive feedback were invaluable in shaping our
understanding of the topic.
To the school administration, for granting us permission to
conduct research and utilize necessary resources for our
project. Your support enabled us to explore the topic
thoroughly and present our findings effectively.
To our parents and guardians, for their unwavering support,
encouragement, and understanding throughout the project’s
execution. Your trust and confidence in us motivated us to
work diligently and produce a high-quality project.
To the authors of various research papers, articles, and
online resources, whose work served as valuable references
for our project. Your contributions to the field of chemistry
have enriched our understanding and inspired our curiosity.
To the broader scientific community, for their ongoing
research and efforts to understand and mitigate atmospheric
pollution, the focus of our project. Your tireless work has
helped us gain a deeper appreciation for the importance of
chemistry in addressing global challenges.
By acknowledging these individuals and entities, we express
our gratitude for their roles in enabling us to complete our
chemistry project. We hope that our project contributes to
the ongoing pursuit of knowledge and understanding in the
field of chemistry.
 Introduction
The chapter "Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers" in Class 12th CBSE
Chemistry focuses on the important organic compounds that play a
significant role in various chemical and industrial processes. These
compounds, derived from hydrocarbons, contain functional groups
such as hydroxyl (-OH) for alcohols, phenolic (-OH) for phenols, and
ether (-O-) for ethers, each contributing distinct chemical properties
and uses.

Alcohols: Alcohols are organic compounds containing one or more

hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a saturated carbon atom. Alcohols
are classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary based on the
number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon bonded to the hydroxyl
group. They are widely used in industries for the production of
beverages, solvents, fuels, and pharmaceuticals. Key examples
include methanol (CH₃OH), ethanol (C₂H₅OH), and isopropyl alcohol
(C₃H₇OH).

Phenols: Phenols are compounds where a hydroxyl group (-OH) is

directly attached to a benzene ring. These compounds are known for
their antiseptic and antioxidant properties and find applications in
the preparation of plastics, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. Common
examples include phenol (C₆H₅OH) and its derivatives like cresols and
hydroquinone.

Ethers: Ethers are characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to two

alkyl or aryl groups (R-O-R'). They are generally used as solvents in
chemical reactions due to their relatively low reactivity. Ethers have
a wide range of uses in industrial processes, including in the
manufacture of anesthetics and pharmaceuticals. Examples of ethers
include dimethyl ether (CH₃OCH₃) and ethyl ether (C₂H₅OC₂H₅).

In this chapter, students will explore the various methods of

preparation, properties, and reactions of alcohols, phenols, and
ethers. Understanding these compounds is essential for both
theoretical knowledge and practical applications in fields like
medicine, industry, and environmental science.
The chapter also highlights the significance of these organic
compounds in our everyday lives, making it crucial for students to
grasp their chemical behavior and applications in real-world contexts.
 Alcohol
This chapter explores the chemistry of alcohols, phenols, and ethers—
important organic compounds with diverse chemical and industrial
significance. Let’s break down the theory of these compounds,
focusing on their structure, classification, methods of preparation,
properties, and reactions.

1. Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl
groups (-OH) attached to a saturated carbon atom. They are classified
based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon bearing
the hydroxyl group.
Classification of Alcohols:
Primary Alcohols (1°): The hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon
that is bonded to only one alkyl group. Example: Ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
Secondary Alcohols (2°): The hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon
that is bonded to two alkyl groups. Example: Isopropanol (C₃H₇OH).
Tertiary Alcohols (3°): The hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon
that is bonded to three alkyl groups. Example: Tert-butyl alcohol
(C₄H₉OH).

Methods of Preparation:
Hydration of Alkenes: Alcohols can be synthesized by adding water
(hydration) to alkenes in the presence of a catalyst (H₂SO₄).
C2H4+H2O→H2SO4C2H5OHC_2H_4 + H_2O --- {H_2SO_4}
C_2H_5OHC2H4+H2OH2SO4C2H5OH
Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones: Alcohols can be prepared by
reducing aldehydes or ketones using reagents like LiAlH₄ or NaBH₄.
Fermentation of Sugars: Ethanol is industrially produced by the
fermentation of sugars in the presence of yeast.

Properties:
Physical Properties: Alcohols are polar due to the hydroxyl group,
resulting in higher boiling points compared to alkanes and ethers of
similar molecular weight.
Chemical Properties: Alcohols exhibit typical reactions such as:
Oxidation: Primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes and then to
acids; secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones.
Dehydration: Alcohols undergo dehydration to form alkenes in the
presence of concentrated H₂SO₄.
Reaction with Sodium: Alcohols react with sodium to form alkoxides
and hydrogen gas.
 Phenol

 1. Structure of Phenols
• The general structure of phenols is C₆H₅OH, where the -OH group is attached to a benzene ring.
• The hydroxyl group (-OH) is connected directly to a sp² hybridized carbon of the benzene ring.
• This makes phenol a polar molecule, with a slightly negative charge on the oxygen atom and a
slightly positive charge on the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group.
 2. Nomenclature of Phenols
• The IUPAC name of phenol is simply Phenol (C₆H₅OH).
• If there are substituents on the benzene ring, the positions are numbered starting from the hydroxyl
group.
• For example: 2-methylphenol (o-methyl phenol), 4-hydroxybenzenecarbaldehyde (para position).

 3. Physical Properties
• Appearance: Phenols are usually colorless solids or liquids with a sweet or pungent odor.
• Boiling and Melting Points: Phenols have higher boiling and melting points than hydrocarbons due
to hydrogen bonding.
• Solubility:
• Phenols are slightly soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding, but their solubility is not as high as
alcohols. The solubility increases with the presence of substituents that are electron-withdrawing or
have hydrogen bonding potential.
• They are more soluble in organic solvents like ether and alcohol.

 4. Chemical Properties
 Phenols are more acidic than alcohols, and their reactivity depends on the substitution in the
aromatic ring.
 a) Acidity
• Phenols are weak acids. The hydroxyl group is attached to a sp² hybridized carbon, and the negative
charge that forms after deprotonation can be stabilized by resonance with the aromatic ring.
• Reaction: Phenol can lose a proton to form phenoxide ion (C₆H₅O⁻), which is stabilized by resonance.
• Example: C6H5OH⇌C6H5O−+H+C₆H₅OH --> C₆H₅O⁻ + H⁺C6H5OH⇌C6H5O−+H+

 b) Reaction with Bases

• Phenols react with bases like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form phenoxide salts.
• Example: C6H5OH+NaOH→C6H5O−Na++H2OC₆H₅OH + NaOH  C₆H₅O⁻ Na⁺ +
H₂OC6H5OH+NaOH→C6H5O−Na++H2O

 c) Electrophilic Substitution Reactions

• Phenols readily undergo electrophilic substitution reactions due to the electron-rich nature of the
benzene ring. The hydroxyl group is an activating group, making the ring more reactive.
• Halogenation: Phenol reacts with bromine (Br₂) or chlorine (Cl₂) to form halogenated phenols.
• Example: When phenol reacts with bromine water, a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromophenol is
formed.

• Nitration: Phenol reacts with concentrated nitric acid (HNO₃) to form 2-nitrophenol or 4-nitrophenol
(depending on the reaction conditions).
• Sulfonation: Phenol reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to form phenol sulfonic acid.
 Ether

 Ethers are organic compounds where an oxygen atom is

bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. They are commonly
used as solvents in industrial processes due to their
relatively low reactivity and volatility.
 Structure and Classification:
• Simple Ethers (R-O-R’): Both alkyl groups (R and R’) are
identical or different. Examples: Dimethyl ether
(CH₃OCH₃), Ethyl methyl ether (C₂H₅OCH₃).
• Cyclic Ethers: The oxygen is part of a ring structure.
Example: Tetrahydrofuran (THF).
 Methods of Preparation:
• Williamson Synthesis: This is the most common method
for preparing ethers, where an alkoxide ion reacts with a
primary alkyl halide. R−O−+R’−X→R−O−R’+X−R-O⁻ + R’-X 
R-O-R’ + X⁻R−O−+R’−X→R−O−R’+X−
• Dehydration of Alcohols: Ethers can be synthesized by the
dehydration of alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst
(e.g., H₂SO₄). 2R−OH→H2SO4R−O−R+H2O2R-OH
\xrightarrow{H_2SO_4} R-O-R +
H_2O2R−OHH2SO4R−O−R+H2O
 Properties:
• Physical Properties: Ethers are relatively less polar than
alcohols and phenols, leading to lower boiling points. They
are also soluble in water and have low toxicity.
• Chemical Properties: Ethers are relatively inert, but they
can undergo reactions such as:
• Cleavage with Acid: Ethers can be cleaved into alcohols or
alkyl halides under acidic conditions (e.g., in the presence of
HI).
• Combustion: Ethers are flammable and combust to produce
CO₂ and H₂O.
Applications and Importance

•Alcohols: Used in beverages (ethanol), as

solvents, in fuel production, and in
pharmaceutical industries.
•Phenols: Used in antiseptics (phenolic
compounds), plastic production (e.g., Bakelite),
and in the synthesis of various drugs.
•Ethers: Widely used as solvents in the
pharmaceutical and chemical industries and as
anesthetics (e.g., diethyl ether).
 Conclusion

 This chapter provides essential insights into the

chemical behavior, properties, and industrial
applications of alcohols, phenols, and ethers.
Understanding these compounds is crucial for their wide
range of uses in daily life and in various scientific and
industrial fields, making this chapter a fundamental part
of organic chemistry
 Bibliography

 Textbook of class 12th Chemistry

 https://www.google.com/
 https://www.wikipedia.org/
 https://chatgpt.com/
 Help from subject teacher and lab attender