Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

CVE 221 – Fluid Mechanics I

By

Engr. Dr. E. J. Nwankwo

Civil Engineering Department
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

September, 2024

CONTENT OF THE MODULE

1) Fluid fundamentals: definitions, units and dimensions.

2) Elements of fluid statics: fluid density, pressure, surface tension, viscosity, compressibility,
manometry, fluid thrust on immersed plane surfaces, floatation and stability.
3) Fluid Dynamics: Conservation laws, continuity equations, Eulers equation, Bernoulli’s
equation, Fluid power, momentum equation with applications, impact jet.
4) Introduction to incompressible viscous flow. Reynold’s number. Simple flow
measurements with current meters.
5) Hydraulic Machinery – Types of machines; impulse and reaction turbines, performance
curves of centrifugal pumps, turbines, axial pumps, specific speed of pumps, multistage
pumps, characteristics performance curves of pumps.

Objectives:
• The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in engineering.
• Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
• Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Lectures:
We are expected to have about 20 classes, presenting concepts, theories, and application.
Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. You will be
asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.

Assessment:
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 70% of the module credits.
This usually consists of 5 questions of which you choose 4.
Continuous assessment (CA) could be administered as multiple choice questions (MCQ)
sometime in the middle of the semester, worth 20% of the module credits. Class attendance will
take the remaining 10%.

Laboratories:
The five laboratory sessions examine how well the theoretical analysis of fluid dynamics describes
what we observe in practice. During the laboratory you will take measurements and draw various
graphs according to the details on the laboratory sheets. These graphs can be compared with those
obtained from theoretical analysis. You will be expected to draw conclusions as to the validity of
the theory based on the results you have obtained and the experimental procedure.

After you have completed the five laboratory experiments you should have obtained a greater
understanding as to how the theory relates to practice, what parameters are important in analysis
of fluid and where theoretical predictions and experimental measurements may differ.

The five laboratory sessions are:

1) Absolute (dynamic) viscosity measurement.
2) Kinematic viscosity measurement.
3) Stability of a floating pontoon
4) Impact of jet
5) Reynolds’ experiment
As you know, these laboratory sessions are compulsory course-work. You must attend them.
Should you fail to attend either one you will be asked to complete some extra work. This will
involve a detailed report and further questions. The simplest strategy is to do the lab.

Homework:
Example sheets: These will be given for each section of the course. Doing these will greatly
improve your exam mark. They are course work but do not have credits toward the module.
Separate tutorial classes to help with the example sheets could be arrange if time permits.
Lecture notes: These should be studied, though they explain only the basic outline of the necessary
concepts and ideas.

Books:
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module. You will probably not need
any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the fluid mechanics courses:
1) Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines in SI Units by R. K. Rajput
2) Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines in SI Units by R. S Khurmi
3) Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines in SI Units by R. K. Bansal
Fluid fundamentals: definitions, units and dimensions
There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which make it different from solid mechanics, which you
offered in Eng. 102:
1) The nature of a fluid is much different to that of a solid
2) In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of fluid without a beginning or end. In
solids we only consider individual elements.
We normally recognize three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. However, liquid and gas are
both fluids: in contrast to solids, they lack the ability to resist deformation. Because a fluid cannot
resist the deformation force, it moves, it flows under the action of the force. Its shape will change
continuously as long as the force is applied. A solid can resist a deformation force while at rest,
this force may cause some displacement but the solid does not continue to move indefinitely.

The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Referring to the
figure below, we see the force F acting tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC.
This is a shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element A’B’DC.

Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element.

Therefore, we can then say that a fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing, or deforms
continuously when subjected to external shearing forces.

One corollary of this definition is that if a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting. All
forces must be perpendicular to the planes which they are acting.

When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to
one another. When this happens, adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the
same at every point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing. At the pipe wall the velocity of the water
will be zero. The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe. This change in
velocity across the direction of flow is known as velocity profile and shown graphically in the
figure below:

Velocity profile in a pipe.

In the above we have discussed the differences between the behaviour of solids and fluids under
an applied force. Summarising, we have;

1. For a solid the strain is a function of the applied stress (providing that the elastic limit has
not been reached). For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress.
2. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and (if the
elastic limit is not reached) the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid
continues to flow for as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form
when the force is removed.

It is usually quite simple to classify substances as either solid or liquid. Some substances, however,
(e.g.pitch or glass) appear solid under their own weight. Pitch will, although appearing solid at
room temperature, deform and spread out over days - rather than the fraction of a second it would
take water. As you will have seen when looking at properties of solids, when the elastic limit is
reached, they seem to flow. They become plastic. They still do not meet the definition of true
fluids as they will only flow after a certain minimum shear stress is attained.

Mechanics:
Mechanics is a branch of engineering-science which predicts and describes the effects and actions
of force and energy on bodies.

Fluid Mechanics:
It follows that fluid mechanics is a branch of engineering-science which deals with the behavior
of fluid under the conditions of rest and motion. The analysis of the behavior of fluids is based on
the fundamental laws of mechanics which relate continuity of mass and energy with force and
momentum together with the familiar solid mechanics properties. Fluid mechanics may be divided
into three parts: statics, kinematics, and dynamics.
Statics: The branch of fluid mechanics that deals with forces and fluid at rest. It is also known as
hydrostatics.
Kinematics: It deals with the velocities, accelerations, and the pattern of flow only. Forces or
energy causing the velocities and accelerations are not considered under this heading.
Dynamics: Here, the forces and energy causing motion are considered in relation with the
velocities and accelerations.

System of units
As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become
confused as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field
of fluid mechanics. Over the years many different ways have been used to express the various
quantities involved. Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different
units for the same thing - they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American pint
is 4/5 of a British pint! To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric)
system - which you will already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in
the same system or the wrong solutions will result. Despite this warning you will still find that this
is the most common mistake when you attempt example questions.

The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience, secondary units are used in general practice which are made from combinations of
these primary units. The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
 Primary units

In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table. Notice
how the term “Dimension” of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a property of the
individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example, a metre is a length which has
a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have dimension of L. (The
above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing dimensions –
we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)

There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those
most used are shown in the table below:
Derived units
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
find out, else your guess will probably be wrong. One very useful tip is to write down the units of
any equation you are using. If at the end the units do not match you know you have made a mistake.
For example, if you have at the end of a calculation, 30 kg/m s = 30 m you have certainly made a
mistake - checking the units can often help find the mistake.
Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the substance.
It can be expressed in three different ways.

Mass Density
𝑚
Mass Density, ρ(rho), is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume ( 𝑉 ) at a standard

temperature and pressure.

Units: Kilograms per cubic metre, kg/m3 (or kgm-3)
Dimensions: ML-3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kgm-3, Mercury = 13546 kgm-3, Air = 1.23 kgm-3, Paraffin Oil = 800 kgm-3.
(at pressure = 1.013 ×10-5 Nm-2 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)

Specific Weight (Weight Density)

Specific weight (w), (sometimes g, and sometimes known as specific gravity) is defined as the
weight per unit volume.
or
The force exerted by gravity, g, upon a unit volume of the substance. The Relationship between
g and w can be determined by Newton’s 2nd Law,
since weight per unit volume = mass per unit volume × g
w = ρg
Units: Newton’s per cubic metre, N/m (or Nm-3)
Dimensions: ML-2T-2.
Typical values: Water = 9814 Nm-3, Mercury = 132943 Nm-3, Air = 12.07 Nm-3, Paraffin Oil =
7851 Nm-3

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity (S) is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid. For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum weight density
for water (which occurs at 4 oC) at atmospheric pressure. It is dimensionless and has no units.

Example 1
Calculate the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid that weighs 7
N.
Given: Volume of liquid (𝑉) = 1 litre = 0.001 m3
Weight of liquid (W) = 7 N

𝑊 7
(i) Specific weight (w) = = 0.001 = 7000 𝑁/𝑚3
𝑉
𝑊 7000
(ii) Density (ρ) = = = 713.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑔 9,81
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 713.5
(iii) Specific gravity (S) = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 0.7135
1000

Pressure
As mentioned above a fluid will exert a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. Since
these boundaries may be large and the force may differ from place to place it is convenient to work
in terms of pressure, p, which is the force per unit area. If the force exerted on each unit area of a
boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be uniform.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝐴)
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴

Units: Newton’s per square metre, Nm-2 , kgm-1s-2 .

(The same unit is also known as a Pascal, Pa, i.e. 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2)
(Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1bar = 105 Nm-2)
Dimensions: ML-1T-2.

Pressure Head of a Liquid

A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight; this pressure increases as the depth of the
liquid increases. Hydrostatic law states that “the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically
downward direction must be equal to specific weight at that point”.
This law can actually be proved in two ways: (a) by considering an inverted cylinder standing in
container containing liquid and (b) by considering an elemental fluid.
 Pressure head.
(a) Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown in above. The liquid will exert pressure on all
sides and bottom of the vessel. Now, let a cylinder be made to stand in the liquid, as shown in the
figure.
Let
h = height of liquid in the cylinder,
A = area of the cylinder base
w = specific weight of the liquid
p = intensity of pressure
Now, total pressure on the base of the cylinder = weight of liquid in the cylinder
i.e., pA = wAh
𝑤𝐴ℎ
or 𝑝= = wh i.e., p= wh
𝐴

As p = wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth.
As the pressure at any point in a liquid depends on height of the free surface above that point, it is
sometimes convenient to express a liquid pressure by the height of the free surface which would
cause the pressure. i.e.,

𝑝
ℎ=
𝑤

(b) Consider the fluid element shown in the figure below

Let
p = intensity of pressure on face LM
∆𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the fluid element
Z = distance of the fluid element from free surface;
∆𝑍 = height of the fluid element.
The forces acting on the element are:
i) Pressure force on the face LM = p × ∆𝐴 … acting downward.
𝜕𝑝
ii) Pressure force on the face ST = (𝑝 + 𝜕𝑍 × 𝑍) × ∆𝐴 … acting upward

iii) Weigh of the fluid element = weight density × volume

= 𝑤 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍)
iv) Pressure forces on surfaces MT and LS … are equal and opposite.
For equilibrium of the fluid element, we have
𝜕𝑝
𝑝 × ∆𝐴 − (𝑝 + × ∆𝑍) × ∆𝐴 + 𝑤 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) = 0
𝜕𝑍
Or
𝜕𝑝
𝑝 × ∆𝐴 − 𝑝 × ∆𝐴 − × ∆𝑍 × ∆𝐴 + 𝑤 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) = 0
𝜕𝑍
Or
𝜕𝑝
− × ∆𝑍 × ∆𝐴 + 𝑤 × (∆𝐴 × ∆𝑍) = 0
𝜕𝑍
Or
 𝜕𝑝
= 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔
𝜕𝑍
The above equation states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to the
weight density of the fluid at that point. This is the “hydrostatic law”.
By integrating we have
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = ∫ 𝑝𝑔. 𝑑𝑍
Or
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑍
Or
𝑝
𝑍=
𝜌. 𝑔
Z is known as the pressure head.

Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

Pascal’s law states that “the intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same in all
directions”.
Mathematically,
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧

Proof
Consider a very small wedge-shaped fluid element as shown below.

Figure 1: Pressure on a fluid element at rest

Let
𝑝𝑥 = intensity of pressure on the horizontal direction
𝑝𝑦 = intensity of pressure on the vertical direction
𝑝𝑧 = intensity of pressure on the ∝ direction
∝ = angle of inclination of the fluid wedge
So that
Force on LN, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝐿𝑁 × 1
Force on MN, 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝑀𝑁 × 1
Force on LM, 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑝𝑧 × 𝐿𝑀 × 1
Note that the above computation assumed that the thickness of the wedge equals one.
A fluid at rest is in equilibrium. The implication of this statement is that the summation of forces
in the horizontal and vertical directions equals to zero.

Mathematically,

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0

Resolving the forces on the wedge in the horizontal direction, we have

𝐹𝑧 sin ∝ = 𝐹𝑥
Or
𝑝𝑧 . 𝐿𝑀. sin ∝ = 𝑝𝑥 𝐿𝑁 (1)

But it could be deduced from Figure 1 that

𝐿𝑁 = 𝐿𝑀. sin ∝
Replacing LN in Equation (1), we have
𝑝𝑧 . 𝐿𝑀. sin ∝ = 𝑝𝑥 𝐿𝑀. sin ∝
Or
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑥 (2)

Similarly, resolving the forces on the wedge in the vertical direction, we have
𝐹𝑧 cos ∝ + 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑦
Or
𝑝𝑧 . 𝐿𝑀. cos ∝ + 𝑊 = 𝑝𝑦 . 𝑀𝑁
Where 𝑊 is the weight of the fluid element. Since we are dealing with a very small fluid
element, the weight of the fluid element can be neglected so that
𝑝𝑧 . 𝐿𝑀. cos ∝ = 𝑝𝑦 . 𝑀𝑁 (3)
It could also be deduced from Figure 1 that
𝑀𝑁 = 𝐿𝑀. cos ∝
Replacing MN in Equation (3), we have
𝑝𝑧 . 𝐿𝑀. cos ∝ = 𝑝𝑦 . 𝐿𝑀. cos ∝
Or
𝑝𝑧 = 𝑝𝑦 (4)

Combining Equations (2) and (4), we have

𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 (5)

Which proves that the pressure forces at any point in a static fluid are independent of direction
(∝).

Gauge and Absolute Pressure

𝜕𝑝
In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship 𝜕𝑍 = 𝑤 = 𝜌𝑔. This can be

integrated to give

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑧 + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Figure 2 Fluid head measurement in a tank.

The constant can be determined by applying the initial conditions: at 𝑧 = 0 (at the surface), the
pressure is atmospheric (𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 ), so that

𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔. (0) + 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

==> 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Therefore,
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑧 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚
Because we constantly live under atmospheric pressure, and everything else exist under the same
pressure, it is convenient to take atmospheric pressure as datum. Pressure quoted in this way is
known as gauge pressure.

𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑧

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔. 𝑧 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Or

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Equivalent values of atmospheric pressure: 101.3 kN/m2, 101.3 kPa, 10.3 m of water, 76 mm of
mercury

The gauge pressure is negative whenever the absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure;
it may be called vacuum. For negative pressure,

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒

Surface Tension

Surface tension is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or acting
on the interface of two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane.

Figure 3
It can be seen in Figure 3 above that each molecule is attracted in all sides by the neighbouring
molecules. However, there is a net inward force on the molecules at the surface. The molecules
can only remain in equilibrium if the net inward forces are balance by some other forces, which
occurs in the form of tension due to the horizontal (surface) forces.

Surface tension is due to cohesion and between particles at the free surface. Cohesion is the force
of attraction by which the molecules of a liquid tend to remain together. It enables a liquid to resist
small amount of tensile stresses. In water, cohesion is mainly due to hydrogen bond and the weak
van der Waals forces, arising from the interaction of permanent or transient electric dipole
moments.

Practical manifestations of surface tension phenomenon:

i) Rain droplet
ii) Collection of dust particles on water surface
iii) Capillary rise
iv) Breaking up of liquid jet
Surface tension is small when compared to pressure and gravitational forces. However, the effect
of surface tension becomes quite significant when there is a free surface and the boundary
conditions are small as in the case of small as in the case of small models of hydraulic structures.

Typical values of surface tension:

Water-air: 0.073 N/m at 20 oC; Water-air: 0.058 N/m at 100 oC; Mercury-air: 0.49 N/m at 20 oC

Pressure Inside a Water Droplet

Figure 4 shows a free-body diagram of a water droplet. The droplet can stay as a bubble due to the
tension at the outer surface of the bubble. The tension is acting against the pressure inside bubble.

Figure 4: Pressure inside a water droplet

Let

p = pressure inside the droplet above outside pressure (which is the same as atmospheric
pressure).

d = diameter of the droplet.

𝜎 = surface tension of the liquid.

Force on the droplet due to surface tension

𝐹𝑠 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
Force due to pressure inside droplet,

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑝 ×
4

In equilibrium,

𝐹𝑝 = 𝐹𝑠

So that

𝜋𝑑 2
𝑝× = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
4

Or

4𝜎
𝑝=
𝑑

Capillarity

Capillarity is the phenomenon by which a liquid rises into a thin glass tube above or below it
general level, depending on its specific gravity. The phenomenon is due to the combined effects
of cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.

Figure 5: Capillarity effect

Let 𝐷 = diameter of the capillary rise

𝛽 = contact angle of the water surface

𝐷 = height of capillary rise

𝜎 = surface tension per unit length

𝑤 = weight density