Oraal Communicatiion

At Work
W UNIT 6
IINTERP
PERSONALCO
OMMUN
NIC
ATION

Objectivess
After study
ying this unitt, you should
d be able to:

● Definee interpersonnal communiication;

● Undersstand the difference between professional and p
personal
commuunication;
● Undersstand variouus diagnostic models of innterpersonall communicaation;
● Identiffy strategiess for perso onal excelleence in suuperior-suborrdinate,
cowork ker, and custtomer relatioonships at work.

Structure
6.1 Introdduction
6.2 Defin
ning Interperrsonal Comm
munication
6.3 Signifficance of Innterpersonal Communicaation
6.4 Princiiples of Interrpersonal Coommunicatioon
6.5 Barrieers to Interpeersonal Com
mmunication
6.6 Interppersonal Com
mmunicationn Models
6.7 Emotional Intelliggence and In
nterpersonal Communicaation
6.8 Interppersonal Com
mmunicationn Styles
6.9 Interppersonal andd Personal Management
M S
Skills
6.10 Summ
mary
6.11 Keyw
words
6.12 Self-A
Assessment Questions
6.13 Referrences and F
Further Read
dings

6.1 IN
NTRODU
UCTION
N
Interpersonnal Communnication, wheether effectivve or not, is a constant process
p
in the orgaanisation. It is inseparaable from annd essential to everything that
occurs in organisationnal life. Reegardless of the position one occcupies,
effective innterpersonal communicaation skills aare essentiall for the folllowing
reasons:
● It helpss to develop professionaal connectionns with otherr co-workerss,
colleaggues, peers, lleaders, and clients;
● It enhaances the abiility to relatee with other ppeople;
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cation ● It facilitates teamwork and collaboration; Interpersonal
Communication
● It results in increased job satisfaction;

6.2 DEFINING INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
The term ‘interpersonal’ refers to ‘between persons’ or ‘involving personal
relationship.’ It is a two-way flow and involves the following: (a) information
content, (b) feelings related to the content, (c) perceptions of both self and
others, and (d) responses to the contexts in which the conversation is
happening. It includes verbal and non-verbal forms of communication and
can be both synchronous (face-to-face) or asynchronous (emails, chats,
messages, etc.). To understand the interpersonal communication process, it is
important to understand a few models like the two-person relationship model,
the communication in context model, and the strategic model. Unlike the
prior one-way model and interaction model, these models highlight a few
important aspects which are useful in analyzing how things work.

6.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Human evolution relied heavily on interpersonal contact. According to
previous studies, early humans who lived in communities rather than alone
were more likely to survive. The findings also suggest that those who have
strong interpersonal ties are more likely to transmit these traits down to the
next generation.

Interpersonal abilities have a wide range of applications in the real world.

They have a measurable effect on mental and physical well-being. People
with superior interpersonal communication abilities are less anxious, have
better stress management skills, and are happier in their personal and
professional connections. Contrary to this, prolonged isolation and lack of
interpersonal skills result in damages to the well-being of humans. Other than
making relationships and health better, interpersonal communication skills
are highly sought after by potential employers. All these examples show how
interpersonal communication meets our basic needs as humans for security in
our social bonds, health, and careers.

6.4 PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Before we delve into the process, let us understand the four basic principles
of interpersonal communication which are as follows:

1) Inescapable:Whether you like it or not, it is impossible to avoid

communicating. If not verbally, the humans send much information non-
87
Oraal Communicatiion verballly. Thereforre, there is no way tto escape thhe communnication
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process.

2) Irreversible: Wheen words arre spoken, thhey cannot be taken baack. No

matter how hard yyou explain what you m
meant or apollogize, peopple may
end upu losing cconfidence in you. T Therefore, communicattion is
irreverrsible in natuure.

3) Compllicated: To believe thaat communiccation is nattural and eaasy is a

myth. The processs involves both verbal aand non-verbbal factors thhat lend
to its interpretation. Owingg to its coomplex natture, interppersonal
commuunication is open to misiinterpretation.

4) Highlyy contextuaal: The com mmunicationn process dooes not happpen in

isolatioon. It operattes in a psyychological, environmenntal, and situuational
contexxt. Hence it is not in yoour control. It depends on the whoo, what,
where, and why off that conveersation. Thee end result ultimately depends
d
on howw the messagge is ultimateely receivedd.

After undeerstanding prrinciples of interpersonal communiication, it beecomes

important to understandd the barriers to interperrsonal comm
munication.

6.5 BARRIER
RS TO IN
NTERPE
ERSONA
AL
C
COMMUNNICATIOON
Barriers to interpersonaal communication occurr when the sender’s
s messsage is
received diifferently frrom how it was intendded. Typically, communnication
breakdown ns result from m a lack off understandding and a missing atteempt at
clarificationn. There aree various kno
own and unkknown factors that mighht act as
barriers to successful
s innterpersonal communicaation. Some of
o them are:

● Langu
uage barrierrs
In any communicaation processs—oral or written,
w the seender(s) enccodes(s)
ideas, which the rreceiver(s) decode(s)
d to understand and give feeedback
accord
dingly. In thiis process, language
l plaays a very important roole. The
commuunication m may fail if the sender and receiver do not have a
reasonably comforrtable comm mon languagge as a meedium to exxchange
ideas.
● Stress
Stressfful situationns can make people chhoose to reemain detacched or
reserveed in nature. This resultss in isolationn and minimuum interactioon with
others. This in turn makees it difficcult for otthers to esstablish
commuunication wiith that persoon.
● Positioon
A supperior who is hostile to t subordinaates’ views and not openo to
suggesstions will eend up not receiving
r infformation an
nd ideas. Thhis will
adversely affect intterpersonal relationships
r s.
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cation Interpersonal
Communication

● Attitude
People with the ‘I’ viewpoint are normally perceived as self-centred and
un-empathetic. This attitude can create a problem in communicating with
other people in an organisation. People with such an attitude keep
themselves first and thus every communication is centredaround them. It
is important in the communication process to incorporate the feelings
and perception of the sender as well as receiver of the message.
● Distance
People separated by geographical boundaries and spatial distances may
find it difficult to communicate. However, with the advent of technology,
people can still communicate through social media, chats, emails, etc.
● Perceptions
Rigid perceptual labelling makes it difficult for people to change their
preconceived notions. With already made up mind, we refuse to listen
and an attempt to achieve effective communication suffers badly. In
other words, if one believes in a certain phenomenon then convincing
him/her otherwise will be a difficult task. For example, if the manager
believes that distribution of sample goods among consumers is futile,
then convincing him/her about the need for an effective marketing
strategy will have no benefits.
● Culture
People with different cultural backgrounds find it difficult to interact and
develop healthy interpersonal relationships. This can be attributed to the
different viewpoints inherited by people belonging to different cultures.
● Technology
Face-to-face interaction is still superior to technology-based
communication for developing effective interpersonal relationships. As
in face-to-face communication, one can get a more clear idea of posture,
gesture and expressions of the speaker as well as the reactions of the
listener.

Activity 1

Recall any recent event or a situation where your communication with your
partner/employee/colleague failed miserably. Unbiased, identify the list of
barriers you both experienced which could be the cause of communication
failure.
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Oraal Communicatiion ……………
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6.6 IN
NTERPE
ERSONA
AL COMM
MUNICA
ATION
M
MODELSS
Models arre the diagrrams that are a useful in analyzinng the proccess of
communicaation. These models help p one who iss trying to unnderstand, diiagnose
and perhapps repair a coommunicatioon process. IIn this sectioon, we will discuss
five modelss that can heelp us to undderstand inteerpersonal communicati
c ion in a
better way. The case siituation giveen in activityy 2 highlights the problemm in an
effective co
ommunicatioon process. After
A studyinng this sectioon, suggest ways
w in
which Mr. X and Mr. Y can improvve their com mmunication effectivenesss.

ONE WAY MODEL

haps the olddest model off communication. It is based
This is perh b on Ariistotle’s
Rhetoric. Theories
T revoolving aroun
nd this frameework are teermed the Cllassical
Rhetoric annd built around theoriess of argumeentation as well
w as perssuasion.
The model emphasizess the sender’s need to consider the right techniques to
present thee right messsage to the right audiennce as show wn in figuree 1. An
example off a one-wayy communication modell would be listening to TV or
radio broadcasts wherre a messag ge is comm municated frrom the sennder to
receiver in one directioon.

Message and delivery tecchniques

Send
der Receivver

Figure 1: On
ne-Way modeel of Communiication (Fisher, 1981)

Though thhe model iss simple it provides a theory off compositioon and
communicaation for booth oral and d written diiscourse witth an emphaasis on
persuasion.. Despite lim
mitations, itt serves as a useful diiagnostic toool. The
major strenngth of thiss tool is thhat it emphaasizes the significance
s of the
receiver.

n Model
Interaction
The model was given bby Wilbur Schramm
S in the year 19997 and buildds upon
the linear model
m of com
mmunicationn which we ddiscussed in Unit 2.

Message (Delivered
Encoder through
h channels an
nd Decoder
media)
Noise
Noise

90 Feedback
cation Interpersonal
Figure 2: Interaction model of Communication (Schramm, 1997) Communication

Combining the ideas of several communication theorists, the interaction

model was an upgradation of the one-way model. The model included four
more concepts to the existing model: (1) channel, (2) encoding and decoding,
(3) noise, and (4) feedback. Figure 2 represents the Interaction model
(Schramm’s model) of communication.

The participants take turns being the sender and receiver. They create
meaning by sending and receiving messages in both physical and
psychological settings. The approach rejects communication as a one-way,
linear process and instead adds feedback, making communication
more interactive and a two-way process.

In this model, the channel represents the source through which the message
is sent. It can be verbal and non-verbal. Media represents various tools such
as letters, memos, mobile phones, televisions and social media websites.

Feedback includes a return loop by which the sender receives reactions. It

answers various questions that occur in the speaker's mind like ‘Is my
audience happy with my speech? ‘Are my customers convinced with the
product details I shared with them?’, etc. The inclusion of a feedback loop
allows a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. However, sometimes excess feedback may also
harm the communication process. In some instances, a sender has to think
through, encode and send the information without being distracted by the
feedback. Hence, though feedback can be used as an aid to understanding the
impact of the communication process, one needs to use other concepts
included in the model as well.

As the name suggests, the interaction model of communication is more

interaction-focused. It does not judge communication as effective or
ineffective rather acknowledges that communication is nuanced and complex.
It encourages the speaker to use feedback for simulating further questions
like ‘Why is my boss not replying to my email?’, ‘Why is my audience not
looking interested?’ etc. This helps in improving the effectiveness of an
overall communication process.

Though the interaction model came up as a major improvement over the one-
way communication model, it did not consider a few significant observations
which are: (1) communication process does not happen sequentially, i.e. one
step at a time as highlighted in the prior communication models, (2) in the
process of communication, the participants act both as sender and receiver
simultaneously, (3) role of self and others perception, and (4) communication
context. The other models were later developed to fill these gaps.

Two- Person Relationship Model

91
Oraal Communicatiion Although the
t interactioon model was
w a major improvemeent over a one-way
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model, it had its own drawbacks.
d I terms of tthe communnication proccess the
In
points this model
m ignorred were:

1) Comm munication prrocess does not happen sequentially y, i.e. one sttep at a
time ass highlightedd in the priorr communicaation modelss;

2) In the process of communicati

c ion, the partticipants act both as sendder and
receiveer simultaneoously;

3) It excluded sendeer’s and reeceiver’s peerceptions of

o each othher and
themseelves; and

4) The wiider social aand organisattional settinggs in which the communnication

takes place.
p

According to the two-pperson relatiionship moddel, the comm munication process

p
is reciprocaal: the sendeer’s views of,
o and behaaviour towarrds the receiiver are
simultaneouusly affectinng and beingg affected byy the receiveer as represeented in
figure 3.

Sender’s views
v of, and behavior Receiver’s views of, annd
tow
wards receiveer behavior towards
t Sendder

Sender’s views (way oof

Sender’s view
S ws (way of thinkingg and feeling)..
thinking and feeling). of him
mself/ herself
of himself/ herself
Figure 3: Tw
wo-person relaationship mod
del of commun
nication (Turn
ner & Lombarrd, 1969)

Using this model as a ddiagnostic toool, we will be able to understand

u h
how the
communicaation processs is relatedd to human behaviour. In general, human
beings tendd to reach caause and efffect conclusiions. For exxample, “Mr. A has
slowed dow wn on the prroject work because
b his project leadder was not oopen to
taking his recommenda
r ations.” Thiss is the most convenient one-way cauuse and
wever, in dooing this we ignore the possibility
effect explaanation. How p off Mr. A
as not looking any morre inspiring to
t the projecct leader. Thiis could be because
b
Mr. A’s laggging enthussiasm and ouutput make him
h assume that t his sugggestions
do not deseerve much aattention. Thhe two-persoon relationsh hip model suuggests
that we muust look nott only at thee explicit beehaviour butt also at how w each
perceives thhe other.

According to this moddel, people tend

t to behaave in wayss that confirm m their
self-perceptions. The m
model illustraates the stroong influencee of self-perrception
on behavioour. Hence sself-perceptiion, the percceptual poin nt of view, anda the
inter-depenndence of tw
wo on each otther constituute the key id
deas in this model.
m

Activity 2
92
cation Case Situation Interpersonal
Communication
Read the following case and answer the questions given at the end of the
case. Mr. X and Mr. Y were the best of colleagues. They joined the
organisation in the same year and had a similar academic background. They
always got along well with each other. They had worked on several projects
together and were praised for their excellent team coordination by seniors. So
when Mr. X was told that Mr. Y selected a team that will work with him on a
new project and had not included him, he felt deceived. He immediately sent
a text to Mr. Y: “I can’t believe; you didn’t include me in the team!”

Mr. Y was in the middle of a meeting when his phone beeped with a new
notification. He could not stop himself and looked at the message. More than
the words he read Mr. X’s anger, frustration, and humiliation. The text had an
impact on Mr. Y. He could not concentrate on his meeting and forgot to
discuss some very important points. He immediately recalled how Mr. X did
not support his idea in the recent meeting and responded, “Even I could not
believe that you opposed my idea in front of all the senior executives”.

The episode was short but the damage was severe. They lost their year’s old
relationship. It took Mr. X and Mr. Y months to placate but the things were
not the same as before the damage had been done.

a) What barriers of interpersonal communication can you identify in the

above-given case that distorted Mr. X’s relationship with Mr. Y?

b) Suggest the ways which could have built a better understanding and
avoided the conflict.

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Transaction Model of Communication

With the progress in communication studies, scholars started viewing

communication as more than a process that is used to carry on conversations
and convey meaning. They observed that all communication happens within
some kind of context. While the earlier three models emphasized the
importance of looking into the individuals and their communication
behaviour, the transaction model of communication included the
conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the
role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

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Oraal Communicatiion The transaaction modeel of comm munication ddescribes coommunicatioon as a
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process in which com mmunicatorss generate social realitties within social,
relational, and culturall contexts. The
T model rrevealed threee new factoors and
these are:

1) Groupp characteriistics – The factors that exist in the group or groups to

which the commuunication beelongs such as the norm ms of behavviour a
group establishes
e aand expects its
i members to follow thhem.

2) Organnisational Structure and Cu ulture- Th his includees the

organissation’s desiign, policies, rules, hieraarchy, traditiions, values, etc.

3) Task characterist
c tics- This in
ncludes the nature
n of woork or the problem
p
about which
w the coommunicatioon is taking pplace.

The model asserts thatt we do not only comm

municate to exchange
e meessages
but we commmunicate to develop connectionss, form inteercultural allliances,
shape our self-conceppts, and enggage in disscussion with others too form
communitiees as represeented in figu
ure 4.

Physical &
P
Psychologicall
context

Com
mmunicator Social Creation of C
Cultural Communicaator
Contextt meaning C
Context

Relational
Context

Figurre 4: Transactiion model of ccommunicatio

on

Unlike the interaction model, whhich assumes that playeers switch roles
r as
sender and receiver, thhe transaction
n model asssumes that we
w are both senders
s
and receiveers at the sam
me time.
The transaaction modeel also incluudes a morre complexx understandding of
context. It prompts uss not to sim
mply hunt foor an ideal or anoffendder in a
complex siituation. Sinnce the trannsaction moodel of com mmunicationn views
communicaation as a result off the mulltiple forces and funnctional
interdependdence, it discourages us
u from juddging good and bad unntil we
thoroughly understand it. Before shhaping our oopinions, thee model urgees us to
see commuunication as having multtiple rather than
t single explanations
e , to see
interdependdencies, to seek a relattionship bettween comm munication and
a the
context in which
w it occuurs.

94
cation Unlike the interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate Interpersonal
Communication
positions as sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are
simultaneously senders and receivers.

6.7 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Let us now discuss the concept of emotional intelligence and its relationship
with interpersonal communication.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognise one's own and others'
emotions, to differentiate between them, and to accurately categorise them. It
aids in determining how to act responsibly in light of this knowledge. People
with a high EI score have better mental health, superior job performance, and
more effective leadership skills, according to studies. In 1995, Daniel
Goleman coined the phrase "emotional intelligence" in his book ‘Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ’. According to him, there are
five areas of attention - 1) self-awareness, 2) emotion management, 3) self-
motivation, 4) understanding emotions in others and 5) relationship
management.

Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal

Communication
Research reveals that unhealthy communication patterns affect the growth of
emotional intelligence. The people/ families/ groups that discourage conflict,
self-expression, and assertiveness may not develop the essential skills of
expressiveness and receptiveness - the two significant tools of successful
communication. On the contrary, the people/ families/ groups that share a
healthy exchange of ideas, discuss with each other before making decisions,
have enough open areas to build positive interpersonal communication with
others. The following tips might be helpful in maintaining good interpersonal
relationships with others:
1) Assess one’s assumptions before passing judgments.
2) Do not take refusals personally.
3) Do not typecast people.
4) Learn from the people who are better than you rather than considering
them as a threat.
5) Never act based on preconceived notions.

6.8 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

STYLES
Choosing a communication style is significant in making interpersonal
communication impactful. Effective communicator understands that there are
95
Oraal Communicatiion a few styles that may w work more effectively
e thhan others. There are siix main
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styles of intterpersonal ccommunicattion used in bbusiness setttings. These are:
Dominant style: A dominant style is noormally a one-way foorm of
communicaation. The pperson is perrceived to bbe low at lisstening skillss. They
are not receeptive to feedback. In a normal
n situaation, it can alienate
a empployees.
Egalitariann style: In ccontrast to thhe dominantt style, an eggalitarian styyle is a
form of tw wo-way com mmunication that involvves sharing informationn rather
than directiing behaviouur. It is usedd to encouragge others to express their ideas
and opinions in order to reach a mutual undderstanding. In most sittuations
particularly
y when coooperation iss needed itt is more effective thhan the
controlling style.
Systematicc style: Thee systematicc style of innterpersonal communicaation is
used to estaablish scheddules or impoose organisaation. Managgers using thhis style
would be likely
l to citee company standards
s orr rules. The systematic style is
useful for project
p plannning and wheen working with
w strict deeadlines.
Inspirationnal style: The
T dynamic inspirationnal style iss used to motivate m
people to act. This stylee can be effeective in crissis situationss, but it is geenerally
ineffective when the reeceivers do notn have enoough knowledge or expperience
to take the required action.
Passive styyle: The maanager is diifferential raather than directive
d andd shifts
responsibiliities to the teeam memberrs.

The avoida ance style: This style lacks commuunication. Managers

M usiing this
style try too avoid usinng their inffluence and may indicaate a disinteerest or
unwillingneess to particiipate in the discussion.
d
Activity 3

a) What communiccation stylee would yoou prefer to adopt to the

followiing situation
n?
● Pressenting an iddea to your rigid
r team leeader.
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● Adddressing the media to claarify on the accidental death
d of a coolleague
at th
he workplacee.
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Communication
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● Giving a presentation to an off-shore client who is impressive and
reputed.
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● Warning your subordinate who has not submitted the work on time.
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6.9 INTERPERSONAL AND PERSONAL

MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Interpersonal and personal management skills are essential as they are
associated with our performance. It involves a set of flexible skills that can be
improved through practice. Emotional intelligence plays a key role in helping
us “manage behaviour, navigate social complexities, and make personal
decisions that achieve positive results”. Following are a few ways through
which we can improve our interpersonal communications:
● Self-awareness- Being aware of the different aspects of self, including
traits, behaviour, and feelings.
● Self-management- Ability to use your emotional awareness to direct
your behaviour positively and productively.
● Social awareness- To read the emotions of others and react accordingly.
● Relationship management- Manage relationships through an awareness
of your emotions as well as the emotions of others.
● Building communication skills- Learn to apply the right language and
right style.
● Be empathetic-Consider the other person’s perspective while
interacting.
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Oraal Communicatiion ● Activee listening- D
Do not be jud
dgmental whhile conversing.
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● Avoid stereotypin
ng- Create a welcoming environmentt free from bias.
b

6.10 SU
UMMAR
RY
Healthy intterpersonal communicati
c ion minimizzes conflicts and promottes trust
and positivvity. Within organisattions, comm munication flow, inforrmation
overload, internationnal operatiions, cultuural diverssity, etc. make
communicaation increaasingly com mplicated. Inn such situuations, diaagnostic
models off interpersonnal commu unication caan serve ass a useful aid to
understandiing the prooblem and resolve theem. The co onstructive way
w of
improving interpersonaal communiication is too enhance one's
o EI. Thhere are
various sttrategies off interpersoonal commu munication to t adopt keeping
k
relationshipps, context, and
a consequuences in minnd.

6.11 KEYWOR
K RDS
Active listeening: Listenning that dem
mands closee attention too a message’s literal
and emotioonal meaningg.

Communiccation barrriers: Probllems that ccan affect thhe communnication

transaction.

Decoding:T
The act of exxtracting meeaning.

Emotionall Intelligencce:The ability to underrstand and manage

m one’s own
a understaand and respond to thee emotions of others too foster
emotions and
strong interrpersonal rellationships.

Encoding :Act
: of convverting the iddeas into coddes.

Feedback:The receiverr’s response to the message.

Noise: Anyy physical orr psychologiccal barrier thhat distorts th

he message.

Receiver:TThe participant in the process of communicaation who receives

r
informationn.

Sender:The participantt in the process of comm

munication who
w has an iddea and
communicaates it by enccoding.

6.12 SE
ELF-ASS
SESSME
ENT QUE
ESTION
NS
1) Are thee models wee examined in this unit useful? Justiffy

2) How can c one-waay model of o communiication imp

prove interppersonal
effectivveness despiite having drrawbacks?

3) What are the priimary elemeents of the transactionnal communnication

model?? How does the communnication moddel work?

98 4) What is
i interpersonnal commun
nication? Whhat are its coore competenncies?
cation 5) What skills are most important to be effective at the workplace? How Interpersonal
Communication
can those be improved?

6.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Arthur, T. N., & Lombard, G. F. (1969).Interpersonal Behavior and
Administration. New York: Simon & Schuster Limited.
Barnlund, D. C. (1970). A transactional model of communication in K.K.
Sereno and C.D. Mortenson (Eds.), Foundations of communication
theory (pp. 83-92). New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Beck, U (1992).Risk Society. SAGE India.https://in.sagepub.com/en-

in/sas/risk-society/book203184

Clair, R. S. (1977). Brent D. Ruben & John Y. Kim: General Systems Theory
and Human Communication. Rochelle Park, N. J.: Hayden Book Company,
1975. Behavioral Science, 22(1), 60–61.
https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830220111

Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into

practice in human communication. London: Edward Arnold.

Fisher, D. (1981). Communication in organisations. West Pub.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than

IQ. New York: Bantam Books.

Hughes, M., Patterson, B. L., & Terrell, J. B. (2005).Emotional

Intelligence In Action: Training and Coaching Activities for Leaders and
Managers. Pfeiffer.

Schramm, W. (1997). The beginnings of communication study in America.

Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.

Shannon, C. &Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of

communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

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