MODULE 1

Introduction to Thermodynamics
and Fundamental Concepts

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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 1. Introduction
• Thermodynamics is the study of the relations among heat, work and
properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state and
changes in state of physical systems.

2. System, Surroundings and Boundary

• System: A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space which is selected for the study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system is called
surroundings.
• Boundary: The real or imaginary
surfaces which separates the system
and surroundings is called boundary.
The real or imaginary surfaces which separates the system and
surroundings is called boundary.

3. Types of thermodynamic system

Based on mass and energy transfer the thermodynamic system is
divided into three types.
• Closed system
• Open system
• Isolated system
Closed system: A system in which the transfer of energy but not mass
can take place across the boundary is called closed system. The
mass inside the closed system remains constant.
For example: Boiling of water in a closed vessel. Since the water is
boiled in closed vessel so the mass of water cannot escapes out of

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the boundary of the system but heat energy continuously entering and leaving
the boundary of the vessel. It is an example of closed system.
Open system: A system in which the transfer of both mass and energy takes
place is called an open system. This system is also known as control
volume.
For example: Boiling of water in an open vessel is an example of
open system because the water and heat energy both enters and
leaves the boundary of the vessel.
Isolated system: A system in which the transfer of mass and energy
cannot takes place is called an isolated system.
For example: Tea present in a thermos flask. In this the heat and
the mass of the tea cannot cross the boundary of the thermos
flask. Hence the thermos flak is an isolated system.

4. Properties
Properties may be extensive or intensive.
Intensive properties: The properties which are independent of the mass of the
system. For example: Temperature, pressure and density are the intensive
properties.
Specific Propeties: A specific property is the intensive property obtained by
dividing an extensive property of a system by its mass. For example, heat
capacity is an extensive property of a system. Dividing heat capacity, by the mass
of the system gives the specific heat capacity, which is an intensive property.
Extensive properties: The properties which depend on the size or extent of the
system are called extensive properties. For example: Total mass, total volume
and total momentum.

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 5. State, Process and Equilibrium
State- Thermodynamic state of a system is its condition at a specific time. It is
described by the set of properties at that time, defined by its pressure, volume,
and temperature.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium- A thermodynamic system is said to exist in a state
of thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in any macroscopic property is
registered if the system is isolated from its surroundings.
Process- A process in thermodynamics refers to any change a system undergoes
to transition from one equilibrium state to another. During a process,
thermodynamic properties like pressure, volume, temperature, and energy may
change.

6. Types of Processes
Isobaric Process
• Definition: A process where the pressure (∆P=0)
remains constant.
• Key Features:
o Heat is exchanged, causing changes in volume and temperature.
o Common in systems like boiling water at atmospheric pressure.

Isochoric Process (Isovolumetric)

• Definition: A process where the volume (∆V=0) remains constant.

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 • Key Features:
o No work is done since there is no change in volume
(W=0).
o Any heat added or removed changes the internal
energy.
•

Isothermal Process
• Definition: A process where the temperature (∆T=0)
remains constant.
• Key Features:
o Heat exchange occurs to maintain the temperature
constant.
o Internal energy change (ΔU=0) is zero for an ideal
gas.

Adiabatic Process
• Definition: A process where no heat (Q) is exchanged with the
surroundings.
• Key Features:
o The system is thermally
insulated.
o Changes in internal energy

result solely from work

done on/by the system.

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Isentropic Process
• Definition: A reversible adiabatic process where entropy (∆S=0) remains
constant.
• Key Features:
o Often occurs in idealized systems with no friction or heat loss.
o Used to model processes in turbines and compressors.
Cyclic Process
• Definition: A series of processes where the system
returns to its initial state.
• Key Features:
o Net change in internal energy (ΔU=0) is zero.
o Heat absorbed (Q) equals work done (W).
• Example: Operations in heat engines and
refrigerators.

Reversible Process
• Definition: A process that can be reversed without leaving any net change
in the system and surroundings.
• Key Features:
o Occurs infinitely slowly to maintain equilibrium.
o Maximum efficiency but idealized (real-world processes are
irreversible).
Irreversible Process
• Definition: A process that cannot return both the system and surroundings
to their original states.
• Key Features:

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 o Includes effects of friction, turbulence, heat transfer with a
temperature gradient, etc.
o Always increases entropy of the system and surroundings.
Quasi-Static Process
• Definition: A process that occurs infinitely slowly,
allowing the system to remain in near-equilibrium
states.
• Key Features:
o Often approximated as reversible in practice.
o Helps simplify analysis of thermodynamic
systems.
Polytropic Process
• Definition: A generalized process where the relationship between pressure
and volume is expressed as:

• Key Features:
o Widely used to model real-world processes, such as gas compression
in engines.

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 MODULE 2
Energy and Work, Fist Law of
Thermodynamics

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 Types of Energy

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 Work and Its Types

Displacement Work

Paddle Work

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 Flow Work

Shaft Work

Paddle Work

Displacement Work

Shaft Work
Flow Work

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 State Functions

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 Path Functions

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 First Law of Thermodynamics

Specific Heat Capacity

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 Types of Specific Heat Capacity

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 Relation between P and V for different Processes

Work done for different Processes

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 Mass Flow Rate and Volume Flow Rate

Mass Flow Rate

Volume Flow Rate

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 Relation Between Mass and Volume Flow Rate

Flow Work and Energy of Flowing Liquid

Flow Work or Flow Energy

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 Total Energy of a Flowing Liquid

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. A closed system of mass, 2 kg undergoes an adiabatic
process. The work done on the system is 30 kJ. The velocity of
the system changes from 3 m/s to 15 m/s. During the process,
the elevation of the system increases 45 meters. Determine
the change in internal energy of the system.

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2. A fluid at 4.15 bar is expanded reversibly according to a law PV =
constant to a pressure of 1.15 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.12
m³/kg. It is then cooled reversibly at a constant pressure, then is cooled
at constant volume until the pressure is 0.62 bar; and is then allowed to
compress reversibly according to a law PV= constant back to the initial
conditions. The work 23 done in the constant pressure is 0.525 kJ, and
the mass of fluid present is 0.22 kg. Calculate the value of n in the
fourth process, the net work of the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-
V diagram

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3. 0.078 kg of a carbon monoxide initially exists at 130 kPa and
120°C. The gas is then expanded polytropically to a state of 100
kPa and 100°C. Sketch the P-V diagram for this process. Also
determine the value of n (index) and the boundary work done
during this process.

0.1889kJ/kg.K

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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4.Air at 10°C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine steadily with
a velocity of 200 m/s. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m ^ 2 The air
leaves the diffuser with a velocity that is very small compared with the
inlet velocity. Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the air and (b) the
temperature of the air leaving the diffuser

287J/kg.K 1005J/kg.K

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5.Air flows through the supersonic nozzle. The inlet conditions are 7 kPa and
420°C. The nozzle exit diameter is adjusted such that the exiting velocity is 700
m/s. Calculate (a) the exit temperature, (b)the mass flux, and (c) the exit
diameter. Assume an adiabatic quasiequilibrium flow.

1005J/kg.K

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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 MODULE 3
Second Law of Thermodynamics

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 1. Limitations of 1st law of Thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy

conservation, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed from one form to another. However, its
limitations include:
• Does not specify energy quality: While energy is conserved, the
law does not address the quality of energy or its ability to do
useful work. Some forms of energy, like heat, may become less
useful for doing work as they dissipate.
• No information on entropy: The law does not account for the
increase in entropy (disorder) in a system, which is dealt with by
the second law of thermodynamics.
• Does not account for practical inefficiencies: In real-world
processes, energy transformations are often inefficient due to
friction, heat loss, and other factors, which the first law does not
address.
• Limited to closed or isolated systems: The law assumes that energy
exchange happens only within a closed system, not considering
external influences or open systems where energy and matter can
flow in and out.

2. Spontaneous and non-spontaneous

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 Spontaneous Process Non-Spontaneous Process

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 3. Statements for 2nd law
Statement I-

Statement II-
Kelvin-Plank Statement:
• It is impossible to build a heat engine that can convert all the heat input into work
output.
• It is impossible to get net work output in complete cycle if it exchanges heat between
bodies at same temperature.

Statement III-
Clausius Statement:
• Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
• This means that a heat engine cannot operate in such a way that it absorbs heat from
a cold reservoir and converts all of it into work (without rejecting some heat to a
warmer reservoir).
Example: A refrigerator requires external work to transfer heat from a cold area to a hot
area.

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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 2nd Law of Thermodynamics (Statement II)

Heat Engine

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Carnot's Theorem
The maximum efficiency a heat engine can achieve is given by
Carnot's Theorem, which states that no heat engine operating
between two temperatures can be more efficient than a Carnot
engine operating between the same temperatures.

Carnot’s Cycle

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Efficiency Of Carnot’s Engine

Reversed Carnot Cycle

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 2nd Law of Thermodynamics (Statement III)
Heat Pump and Refrigerator

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 Example Questions
1. A steam power plant produces 50 MW of net work while burning
fuel to produce 150 MW of heat energy at the high temperature.
Determine the cycle thermal efficiency and the heat rejected by the
cycle to the surroundings.

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2. Asteam power plant receives heat from a furnace at a rate of 280
GJ/h. Heat losses to the surrounding air from the steam as it passes
through the pipes and other components are estimated to be about 8
GJ/h. If the waste heat is transferred to the cooling water at a rate of
145 GJ/h, determine (a) net power output and (b) the thermal
efficiency of this power plant.

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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 3.Steam at 1 MPa, 600°C, expands in a turbine to 0.01 MPa. The
isentropic work of the turbine is 1152.2 kJ/kg. If the isentropic
efficiency of the turbine is 90 percent, calculate the actual work. Find
the actual turbine exit temperature or quality of the steam.

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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4. Refrigerant-R134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated vapor
at 120 kPa at a rate of 0.3 m³/min and exits at 1 MPa pressure. If the
isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80 percent, determine (a) the
temperature of the refrigerant at the exit of the compressor and (b) the
power input, in kW. Also, show the process on a T-s diagram with
respect to the saturation lines.

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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 MODULE 4
Air Standard Cycle

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 Ideal Gas Law

Summary of Standard Values for Air:

• Specific Gas Constant (R): 287.1 J/kg.K
• Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (Cₚ): 1005 J/kg.K
• Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cᵥ): 718 J/kg.K
• Ratio of Specific Heats (K or γ): 1.41.41.4

Air Standard Assumption

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Reciprocating Devices
Reciprocating devices are machines that use a reciprocating motion, where a part (typically
a piston) moves back and forth in a straight line within a cylinder. This motion is often used
to convert mechanical energy into work or to compress, pump, or move fluids. The motion
typically follows a cycle where the piston moves in one direction, then reverses direction,
making a back-and-forth movement.

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Terminologies
Top dead centre TDC, Bottom dead centre BDC, Stoke, Bore, Intake
Valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume, compression ratio and mean
effective pressure.

Mean Effective Pressure

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 Otto Cycle

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 Diesel Cycle

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 Dual Cycle

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Brayton Cycle- Open Gas Turbine Cycle

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 Stirling Cycle

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 Examples
1.An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the
working fluid. Initially P₁ = 95 kPa, T₁ = 17°C, and V₁ = 3.8 liters. During
the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ of heat are added. Determine all T's,
P's, is the back work ratio and the mean effective pressure

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 kJ/kg.K

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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2. An ideal diesel engine has a compression ratio of 20 and uses air as the
working fluid. The state of air at the beginning of the compression process is 95
kPa and 20°C. If the maximur temperature in the cycle is not to exceed 2200 K,
determine (a) the thermal efficiency and (b) the mean effective pressure. Assume
constant specific heats for air at room temperature. c. compare efficiency with
Carnot efficiency [(a) 63.5 percent, (b) 933 kPa

kJ/kg.K

kJ/kg.K

kJ/kg.K

Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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 3. A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has
a pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor
inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard
assumptions, determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the
compressor and the turbine, (b) the back work ratio, and (c) the
thermal efficiency

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 MODULE 5
Properties of Pure Substances

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 Pure Substances

Phases of Pure Substances

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Property diagram of Phase changes

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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Vapour Pressure Curve

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Saturated and Sub-cooled Liquid

Saturated and Superheated Vapours

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Latent Heat

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Quality

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Moisture Content

Important Definitions

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EXAMPLES
1.A piston-cylinder device contains 0.1 m³ of liquid water and 0.9 m³ of
water vapor in equilibrium at 800 kPa. Heat is transferred at constant
pressure until the temperature reaches 350°C.
(a) what is the initial temperature of the water,
(b) determine the total mass of the water,
(c) calculate the final volume.

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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2. The pressure in an automobile tire depends on the temperature of
the air in the tire. When the air temperature is 25°C, the pressure gage
reads 210 kPa. If the volume of the tire is 0.025 m3, determine the
pressure rise in the tire when the air temperature in the tire rises to
50°C. Also, determine the amount of air that must be bled off to restore
pressure to its original value at this temperature. Assume the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. [26 kPa, 0.007 kg]

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 K

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3. A 1-m³ tank containing air at 25°C and 500 kPa is connected through
a valve to another tank containing 5 kg of air at 35°C and 200 kPa. Now
the valve is opened, and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal
equilibrium with the surroundings, which are at 20°C. Determine the
volume of the second tank and the final equilibrium pressure of air.

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Shreyanshi Jaiswal, B.Tech (A.E)
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