Book-Eng Mathematics-I

1
Beta and Gamma Functions
Learning Objectives
After going through the chapter, the reader will be able to

l understand the improper integrals
l comprehend the Beta Functions with their properties
l explain the Gamma functions with their properties
l discuss the alternate form of Beta Function
l understand the transform of Gamma function
l explain the relation between Beta and Gamma Functions
l discuss the Duplication formula
1.1 Introduction
Many integrals which cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions
can be evaluated in terms of Beta and Gamma functions. Beta and Gamma
functions are important non-elementary functions which are commonly used
in evaluating area, surface, and volume etc. Beta and Gamma functions have
a very important place in definite integrals and have wide applications in
Engineering, Mathematics, Physics and Statistics etc.
We shall consider here briefly the two important functions known as Beta and
Gamma functions. Beta function is called an Euler’s integral of first kind and
the Gamma function is also called an Euler’s integral of second kind.
2 Chapter 1 Beta and Gamma Functions
1.2 Improper Integrals

b
Consider a definite integral
∫ f ( x ) dx ...(1.1)
a
with the following conditions: (i) f (x) is continuous for every value of x in
[a, b] and (ii) both the limit of integral are finite.
If one or both above conditions is/are not satisfied then the integral (1.1) is
known as improper integral.
1.3 Beta function

1
The definite integral ∫x (1 − x) n −1 dx for m > 0, n > 0 is called the Beta
m −1
0
1
function, denoted by B(m, n) and defined as B(m, n) = ∫x
m −1
(1 − x) n −1 dx
0
where m, n are positive numbers, integral or fractional.
1.4 Gamma function

∞
The definite (improper) integral ∫
0
e − x x n −1dx for n > 0 is called the Gamma
∞
function, denoted by Γ(n) and defined as Γ(n) = ∫ 0
e − x x n −1dx.
1.5 Elementary Properties of Beta Functions
1.5.1 Symmetry of Beta function, i.e., B(m, n) = B(n, m).

Using the definition of Beta function, we have
1
B(m, n) = ∫0
x m −1 (1 − x) n −1 dx , where m > 0, n > 0
1
∫ (1 − x) {1 − (1 − x)}
m −1 n −1
= dx
0

{ ∫ a
0
f=
( x)dx ∫0
a
f (a − x)dx }
1
∫ (1 − x)
m −1 n −1
= x dx
0
1
∫x
n −1
= (1 − x) m −1 dx
0
= B(n, m)
1.5 Elementary Properties of Beta Functions 3
Another Method:
1
∫x (1 − x) n −1 dx , for m > 0, n > 0 .
m −1
B (m, n)
=
0
Put 1 − x = t ⇒ − dx = dt
Now we have
0
B(m, n) =

∫1
(1 − t ) m −1 t n −1 (− dt )
0
= − ∫ 1
(1 − t ) m −1 t n −1dt
=
∫0
1
t n −1 (1 − t ) m −1 dt  { ∫a
b
f ( x)dx = − ∫
b} a
f ( x)dx
= ∫x
0
1
n −1
(1 − n) m −1 dt { ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t)dt}
b
a
b
= B(n, m)
Hence B(m, n) = B(n, m).
1.5.2 If m or n is a positive integer, B(m, n) can be evaluated in

an explicit form.
Case I: When n is a positive integer
1
∫x (1 − x) n −1 dx , for m > 0, n > 0 ...(1.2)
m −1
B (m, n)
=
0
Suppose if n = 1, then from equation (1.2) we have

1
B(m, n) =
∫x
m −1
(1 − x)1−1 dx
0
1
∫x
m −1
= dx
0
1
 xm 
=  
 m 0
1
= ...(1.3)
m
Now suppose if n > 1, then from equation (1.2) we have

1
B(m, n) =
∫x
m −1
(1 − x) n −1 dx
0
Taking (1 – x)n–1 as the first function and integrating by parts

m 1
 n −1 x  1 xm
= (1 − x ) .  − ∫0 ( n − 1)(1 − x ) ( −1).
n−2
dx
 m 0 m
n −1 1
∫ x (1 − x )
m n−2
= 0−0+ dx
m 0
n −1 1
x m (1 − x )
n−2
=
m ∫
0
dx
n −1 1
= ∫x
{( m +1) −1}
(1 − x ){( n −1)−1} dx
m 0
n −1
= B ( m + 1, n − 1)
m
Proceeding in the same way, we get
n −1 n − 2 n − 3 1
B(m, n) = . . ..... B ( m + n − 1,1)
m m +1 m + 2 m+n−2
n −1 n − 2 n − 3 1 1
= . . ..... . (by equation 1.3)
m m +1 m + 2 m + n − 2 m + n −1
(n − 1)!
Hence B(m, n) = .
m(m + 1)(m + 2)........(m + n − 2)(m + n − 1)
Case II: When m is a positive integer

We know that Beta function is symmetrical in m and n i.e., B (m, n) = B (n, m) .
Thus, using same case as in Case I, we have
(m − 1)!
B(m, n) = .
n(n + 1)(n + 2)........(n + m − 2)(n + m − 1)
Case III: When both m and n are positive integer

From Case I, we have
(n − 1)!
B(m, n) = .
m(m + 1)(m + 2)........(m + n − 2)(m + n − 1)
1.6 Elementary Properties of Gamma Functions 5
Multiplying both Numerator and Denominator by (m – 1)!, we get
( m − 1) !( n − 1)!
=
( m + n − 1)!
( m − 1)!( n − 1)!
Hence B(m, n) =
( m + n − 1)!
1.6 Elementary Properties of Gamma Functions

1.6.1 Γ(n + 1) =nΓ(n)
Using the definition of Gamma function, we have

∞
e− x x(
n +1) −1

Γ(n + 1) = ∫0
dx
∞
= ∫0
e − x x n dx
Integrating by parts (taking xn as first function), we get

∞
  e− x   ∞  e− x 
=  x n .   −
  −1   0
∫
0
n x n −1 
 −1 
dx
( )
∞
∫
n −x
= lim − x e − 0 + n e − x x n −1dx
n →∞ 0
 xn  ∞
= lim
n →∞
− x
 e
−0+n

∫0
e − x x n −1dx
∞  xn 
 xlim = 0
= 0 + n ∫
0
e − x x n −1dx
 →∞ e x

= nΓ(n)
Hence Γ(n + 1) =nΓ(n) .
1.6.2 Γ(1) = 1
Using the definition of Gamma function, we have
∞
Γ (n) = ∫0
e − x x n −1dx ...(1.4)
Put n = 1 in equation (1.4), we get

∞
Γ(n) =
∫0
e − x x1−1dx
∞
= ∫0
e − x dx
∞
 e− x 
= 
 −1 0
 { lim e
x →∞
−x
}
=0
= 0 + 1
= 1
Hence Γ(1) = 1.
1.6.3 Γ(n + 1 ) = n!, for n ≥ 0

We know that
Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n)

= nΓ {(n − 1) + 1}
= n(n − 1)Γ(n − 1)
= n(n − 1)Γ {(n − 2) + 1}
= n(n − 1)(n − 2)Γ(n − 2)

Proceeding the same way, we get
Γ(n + 1) = n(n – 1) (n – 2).... 3.2.1

= n! (Q Γ(1) = 1)
Hence Γ(n + 1) = n!
1.7 Alternative form of Beta function

∞ x m −1
B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx , m > 0, n > 0 .
Proof: Using the definition of Beta function, we have

1
∫x
m −1
B(m, n) = (1 − x) n −1 dx
0
1 1
Put x = ⇒ dx = − dy
1+ y (1 + y ) 2
Also when x = 0, y → ∞ and x = 1, y → 0
1.8 Transformation of Gamma Function 7
Now we have
m −1 n −1
0  1   1   1 
B(m, n) = ∫∞
 
1+ y 
1 − 
 1+ y 
− 2 
 (1 + y ) 
dy
= ∫0
∞ 1
m −1
y n −1
n −1
dy
(1 + y ) (1 + y ) (1 + y ) 2
{
 ∫
b
a
f ( x)dx = − ∫
a
b
f ( x)dx }
∞ y n −1
= ∫0 (1 + y ) m + n
dy
= ∫0
∞ x n −1
(1 + x) m + n
dx {
 ∫
a
b
f ( x)dx = ∫
b
a
f (t )dt }
By symmetrical we know that
B(m, n) = B(n, m)

∞ x m −1
So we have B(m, n) = ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
∞ x m −1dx ∞ x n −1
Hence B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
= ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx , for m > 0, n > 0 .
1.8 Transformation of Gamma Function

Γ( n) ∞

a n =
0 ∫
e − ax x n −1dx
Proof: Using the definition of Gamma function, we have
∞
Γ(n) =
∫ 0
e − x x n −1dx
Put x = ay ⇒ dx = a dy
Now we have
∞
Γ(n) = ∫ 0
e − ay (ay ) n −1 a dy
∞
= a n
∫ 0
e − ay y n −1 dy
Γ( n) ∞
or
an
=
∫ 0
e − ay y n −1 dy
or
Γ( n)
an
=
∫
∞
0
e − ax x n −1 dx { ∫ f (x)dx = ∫ f (t)dt}
a
b b
Γ( n) ∞
Hence
an
= ∫ 0
e − ax x n −1 dx.
1.9 Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions

Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
B(m, n) = for m > 0, n > 0 .
Γ ( m + n)
Proof: We know that
Γ ( m) ∞

xm
=
∫ 0
e − xy y m −1dy
∞
or Γ(m) = x m ∫0
e − xy y m −1dy ...(1.5)
Multiplying both sides of equation (1.5) by e − x x n −1 and integrating with

respect to x with limit 0 to ∞, we get
∫0
∞
Γ(m)e − x x n −1dx = { ∫
e − x x n −1 x m∫ e y dy}dx
∞
0 0
∞
− xy m −1
∫ {∫ e x dx} y dy
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ e − x x n −1 − (1+ y ) x m + n −1 m −1
or Γ ( m) dx =
0 0 0
∞ Γ ( m + n)
or Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) = ∫
0 (1 + y ) m + n
y m −1dy (Using definition of Gamma function)
Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) ∞ y m −1
or
Γ ( m + n)
= ∫ 0 (1 + y ) m + n
dy
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
or = B (m, n) (Using definition of Beta function)
Γ ( m + n)
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
Hence B (m, n) = .
Γ ( m + n)
1.10 Some Special Properties of Beta and Gamma

Functions
π
1.10.1 Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = , where 0 < n < 1 .
sin nπ
Proof: We know that
∞ x n −1
B (m, n) = ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx ...(1.6)
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
and B (m, n) = for m > 0, n > 0 ...(1.7)
Γ ( m + n)
1.10 Some Special Properties of Beta and Gamma Functions 9
Using equations (1.6) and (1.7), we have

Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) ∞ x n −1
B (m, n)
= =
Γ ( m + n) ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
Taking m + n = 1 or m = 1 – n, we get
Γ(1 − n)Γ(n) ∞ x n −1
=
Γ(1) ∫ 0 (1 + x)
dx,0 < n < 1
∞ x n −1
or (n)Γ(1 − n)
Γ= ∫0 (1 + x)
dx,0 < n < 1 ...(1.8)
We know that
∞ x n −1 π
∫0 (1 + x)
dx =
sin nπ ...(1.9)
From equations (1.8) and (1.9), we get
π
Γ ( n ) Γ(1 − n) = , where 0 < n < 1
sin nπ
Hence π .
Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) =
sin nπ
1.10.2 Γ(1 / 2) =π.
Proof: We know that

Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
B (m, n) =
Γ(m + n) …(1.10)
1
Put m = n = in equation (1.10), we get
2
1 1 Γ(1 / 2)Γ(1 / 2)
B ,  =

2 2 1 1
Γ + 
2 2
2
  1 
Γ
=   2  
{ Γ(1) =
1}
Γ(1)
2
  1  1 1
Γ  2   = B  2 , 2 
or
  
1
=
∫x
0
{(1/2 ) −1}
(1 − x ){(1/2)−1} dx
1 dx
= ∫0
x1/2 (1 − x )
1/2
1 dx
= ∫0
x − x2
1 dx
= ∫0
1  1
2
−x− 
4  2
Now putting x − 1 =
t and dx = dt
2
1/2 dt
= ∫−1/2 2
1 2
  −t
2
 
{ }
1/2 dt
= 2∫0  a a
1 2
2
∫−a
f ( x)dx = 2 ∫
0
f ( x)dx
  −t
2
1/2
 t 
= 2 sin −1  
  1 / 2 0
= 2[sin −1 1 − sin −1 0]
π 
= 2  − 0 
2 
= p
Squaring roots both sides, we get
1
Γ   =π .
2
Solved Examples 11
Solved Examples
∞ π
∫
2
Example 1.1: To prove that e − x dx = .
0 2
∞
∫
2
Sol. Let I = e − x dx
0
1
Put x2 = t ⇒ x = t1/2 so that dx = t (1/2) −1dt
2
Now we have
∞ 1 (1/2) −1
I = ∫
0
e−t
2
t dt
1 ∞
=
2 ∫ 0
e −t t (1/2) −1dt
1 1
= Γ 
2 2
π
=
2
{ Γ(1 / 2) =π}
1 x3 dx
Example 1.2: Evaluate
∫0
1 − x6
.
1 x3 dx
Sol. We have I =
∫ 0
1 − x6
1
Put x6 = t ⇒ x = t1/6 so that dx = t −5/6 dt
6
Now we have
1 t1/2 .  1 −5/6 
I = ∫
0 1− t
 t
6
dt

1 1
∫ t (1 − t )
−1/3 −1/2
= dt
6 0
2
1 1 −1 1
= ∫ t3 (1 − t ) 2 −1dt
6 0
1 2 1
= B ,  .
6 3 2
Example 1.3: Evaluate the following integrals:

1 ∞ a
(i)
∫ x (1 − x) dx
0
3 2
(ii)
∫
0
x 4 e − x dx (iii) ∫
0
x 4 a 2 − x 2 dx
∞ ∞
∫ ∫
3
(iv) x e − x dx (v) x 7 e −2 x dx
0 0
1
Sol. (i) Let I=
∫ x (1 − x) dx
3 2
0
1
=
∫x
4 −1
(1 − x)3−1dx
0
= B(4, 3)
Γ(4)Γ(3)
=
Γ(4 + 3)
( 3!)( 2!)
=
6!
1
= .
60
∞
∫ (ii) Let I=
0
x 4 e − x dx
∞
= ∫ x5−1e − x dx
0
= Γ(5)
= 4!
= 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
= 24.
(a )
a
∫ x4 2
(iii) Let I= − x 2 dx
0
a 2 dt a dt
Put x 2 = a 2t so that=
dx =
2x 2 t
Now we have
1 a
∫at
4 2
I= (a 2 − a 2t )1/2 dt
0 2 t
a6 1
∫t
3/2
= (1 − t )1/2 dt
2 0
5 3
a6 1 −1 −1
=
2 ∫ 0
t 2 (1 − t ) 2 dt
Solved Examples 13
a6  5 3 
= B , 
2 2 2
5 3
Γ Γ 
a6 2 2
=
2 5 3
Γ + 
2 2
5 3
Γ Γ 
a6 2 2
=
2 Γ ( 4)
3 1 1
. π. π
a6 2 2 2
=
2 3!
πa 6
= .
32
∞
∫
3
(iv) Let I= xe − x dx
0
1
Put x3 = t ⇒ x = t1/3 so that dx = t 2/3 dt
3
Now we have
∞ 1
I=
∫0
t1/6 e −t t −2/3 dt
3
1 ∞
=
3 ∫ 0
t −1/2 e −t dt
1
1 ∞ −1
=
3 ∫ 0
t 2 e −t dt
1 1
= Γ 
3 2
π
= .
3
∞
(v) Let I=
∫ 0
x 7 e −2 x dx
t dt
Put 2x = t ⇒ x = so that dx =
2 2
Now we have
7
∞ t  −t dt
I= ∫ 0
 e
2 2
1 ∞
=
28 ∫0
t 7 e −t dt
1 ∞
=
28 ∫0
t 8−1e −t dt
1
= Γ(8)
28
315
= .
16
1 x2
Example 1.4: Evaluate ∫0
1 − x5
dx .
1 x2
Sol. Let I = ∫
0
1 − x5
dx
dt 1 −4/5
Put x5 = t ⇒ x = t1/5 so that 5x4dx = dt or =
dx = t dt
5x4 5
Now we have
1 t 2/5 1 −4/5
I = ∫
0 1− t 5
t dt
1 1
∫t
2/5
= (1 − t ) −1/2t −4/5 dt
5 0
1 1
∫t
−2/5
= (1 − t ) −1/2 dt
5 0
3 1
1 1 −1 −1
=
5 ∫ 0
t (1 − t ) 2 dt
5
1 3 1
= B , 
5 5 2
Solved Examples 15
∞ x 2 (1 + x 4 ) 1
Example 1.5: Show that ∫ 0 (1 + x) 10
dx =
126
.
∞ x 2 (1 + x 4 )
Sol. Let I = ∫0 (1 + x)10
dx
∞ x2 ∞ x6
= ∫0 (1 + x)10
dx + ∫ 0 (1 + x)10
dx
∞ x3−1 ∞ x 7 −1
= ∫0 (1 + x)3+ 7
dx + ∫ 0 (1 + x)7 +3
dx
= B(3, 7) + B(7, 3)
= 2B(3, 7)
Γ(3)Γ(7)
= 2
Γ (10 )
2!.6!
= 2
9!
1

= .
126
∞ x m −1 − x n −1
Example 1.6: Prove that ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx = 0, m > 0, n > 0
∞ x m −1 − x n −1
Sol. Let I = ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
∞ x m −1 ∞ x n −1
= ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
− ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
= B(m, n) – B(n, m)
= B(m, n) – B(m, n) (by Symmetry property)
= 0.
∞ ( ) x8 1 − x 6
∫ (1 + x ) dx .
0 24
( )
∞ x8 1 − x 6
Sol. Let I = ∫ (1 + x ) dx
0 24
∞ x8 ∞ x14
= ∫ (1 + x )
0 24
dx − ∫ (1 + x )
0 24
dx
∞ x9−1 ∞ x15−1
= ∫ (1 + x )
0 9 +15
dx − ∫ (1 + x )
0 15 + 9
dx
= B(9, 15) – B(15, 9)

= B(9, 15) – B(9, 15) [Q B(m, n) = B(n, m)]
= 0.
1 dx
Example 1.8: Prove that ∫ ( − log x )=
0
π.
1 dx
Sol. Let I = ∫ ( − log x )
0
1 dx
= ∫0
  1 
1/2
log   
  x 
−1/2
1
=  log 
1
0 x ∫ dx
1 1
Put log   = t ⇒ = et or x = e–t so that dx = –e–tdt
 x x
When x = 0, t → ∞ and x = 1, t → 0
Now we have
0
I = − ∫ ∞
t −1/2 e −t dt
1
∞ −1
=
∫0
t 2 e −t dt
1
= Γ  
2
= π
1.11 Some other Special Properties of Beta and Gamma Functions 17
1.11 Some other Special Properties of Beta and

Gamma Functions
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
∫
m n
1.11.1 cos θ sin θ d θ = for all the values of
0 m+n+2
2Γ  
 2 
m and n such that m > 1, n > 1.
π /2
Proof: Let I = ∫
0
cos m θ sin n θ d θ
π /2
= ∫
0
cos m −1 θ sin n −1 θ(cos θ sin θ) d θ
1
( )
π /2 m −1
=
2 ∫ 0
1 − sin 2 θ sin n −1 θ(2cos θ sin θ)d θ
Put sin 2 θ = x so that 2sin θ cos θ d θ =dx
1
∫( ) ( x)
1 m −1 n −1
I = 1− x dx
2 0
m −1 n −1
1 1
=
2 ∫ (1 − x )
0
2 x 2 dx
n +1
= 1
1 m +1
−1 2 −1
2 ∫0 (1 − x ) 2 x dx
1  m +1 n +1
= B , 
2  2 2 
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ
1  2   2 
=
2 m+n+2
Γ 
 2 
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ
π /2 1  2   2 
∫
m n
Hence cos θ sin θ d θ = .
0 2 m+n+2
Γ 
 2 
∞ Γ ( m)
1.11.2 (i) ∫0
e − ax cos=
bx x m −1dx
rm
cos mθ
∞ Γ ( m)
(ii) ∫0
e − ax sin bx
= x m −1dx
rm
sin mθ
where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a ) .

Proof: We have
∞ ∞
∫ 0
e − ax eibx x m −1dx = ∫0
e − ( a −ib ) x x m −1dx
Γ ( m)
=
( a − ib )m
= ( a − ib ) Γ(m) ...(1.11)
m
, b r sin θ in ( a − ib )
−m
Put=a r cos θ= , we get
(a – ib)–m = ( r cos θ − ir sin θ )

−m
= r − m ( cos θ − i sin θ )
−m
= r ( cos m θ + i sin m θ ) ,
−m
where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a )
Put the value of ( a − ib )

−m
in equation (1.11), we get
∞
∫0
e − ax eibx x m −1dx = Γ(m).r − m (cos mθ + i sin mθ)
∞ Γ ( m)
or ∫0
e − ax (cos bx + i sin=
bx)x m −1dx
rm
(cos mθ + i sin mθ)
Equating real and imaginary parts of both sides, we get

∞ Γ ( m)
∫0
e − ax cos =
bx x m −1dx
rm
cos mθ ...(1.12)
∞ Γ ( m)
and ∫0
e − ax sin bx
= x m −1dx
rm
sin mθ ...(1.13)
where=r a 2 + b 2 ; θ = tan −1 (b / a ) .
1.12 Duplication Formula 19
Note: If we put m=1, then Γ(m) =

Γ(1) =
1 . From equations (1.12) and (1.13),
we get
∞ Γ(1)
∫ 0
e − ax cos bx x1−1dx =
r1
cos θ
∞ cos θ
or ∫0
e − ax cos bx dx =
r
...(1.14)
∞ Γ(1)
and ∫0
e − ax sin bx x1−1dx =
r1
sin θ
∞ sin θ
or ∫ 0
e − ax sin bx dx =
r
...(1.15)
b
where =r a 2 + b2 ; θ = tan −1 (b / a ) so that sin θ = and
a 2 + b2
a
cos θ = .
a 2 + b2
Hence from equations (1.14) and (1.15), we get
∞ a ∞ b
∫0
e − ax cos bx dx =
a + b2
2
and ∫0
e − ax sin bx dx =
a + b2
2
.
1.12 Duplication Formula
 m +1 π
Γ ( m )Γ  = 2 m −1 Γ(2m), m > 0 .
 2  2
Proof: We know that
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
B(m, n) = , for m > 0, n > 0 ...(1.16)
Γ ( m + n)
1
and B(m, n) =
∫x (1 − x) n −1 dx for m > 0, n > 0 ...(1.17)
m −1
0
Using equations (1.16) and (1.17), we have
Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) 1
∫x
m −1
= (1 − x) n −1 dx ...(1.18)
Γ ( m + n) 0
Put n = m in equation (1.18), we get

2
 ( m ) 
Γ 1
∫ x (1 − x )
m −1 m −1
= dx
 ( 2m ) 
Γ 0
Now putting=x sin 2 θ and dx= 2sin θ cos θ d θ
∫ ( sin θ)
π /2 m −1
= 2
(1 − sin 2 θ) m −1 2sin θ cos θ d θ
0
π /2
= 2 ∫ 0
sin 2 m −1 θ cos 2 m −1 θ d θ
π /2
∫ ( sin θ cos θ)
2 m −1
= 2 dθ
0
π /2 (2sin θ cos θ) 2 m −1
= 2
∫ 0 22 m −1
dθ
1 π /2
∫ ( sin 2θ)
2 m −1
= 2m−2
dθ
2 0
Again put 2q = f and d θ = d φ , we get

2
1 π dφ
=
2 2m−2 ∫ 0
sin 2 m −1 φ
2
1 π
=
2 2 m −1 ∫ 0
sin 2 m −1 φ d φ
2 π /2
=
2 2 m −1 ∫ 0
sin 2 m −1 φ cos0 φ d φ
(by the property of definite integral)

 2m − 1 + 1   0 + 1 
Γ Γ 
1 2   2 
= 2 m − 2 . 
2  2m − 1 + 0 + 2 
2Γ  
 2 
1 Γ ( m ) Γ (1 / 2 )
= 2 m −1
2  1
Γ m + 
 2
[Γ(m)]2
1 Γ ( m ) Γ (1 / 2 )
\ = 2 m −1
Γ(2m) 2  1
( Γ(1 / 2) =π )
Γ m + 
 2
Solved Examples 21
1 π
Hence Γ(m)Γ  m + = 2 m −1 Γ(2m).
 2 2
( n −1) /2
1 2 3 n − 1  ( 2π )
Note: Γ   Γ   Γ   ................Γ   = ,
n n n  n  n1/2
where n is a positive integer.
Solved Examples
∞ x
∫
0 1 + x6
dx .
∞ x
Sol. Let I =
∫0 1 + x6
dx
1
Put x6 = t ⇒ x = t1/6 so that dx = t −5/6 dt
6
Now we have
1 ∞ t1/6 .t −5/6 dt
I =
6 ∫0 1+ t
1 ∞ t −2/3
=
6 ∫0 (1 + t )
dt
1 ∞ t −2/3
=
6 ∫ (1 + t ) dt
0 1
1
−1
1 ∞ t3
=
6 ∫0 2 1
dt
(1 + t ) +
3 3
1  2 1
= B , 
6  3 3
 2 1
Γ  Γ 
1  3 3
=
6  2 1
Γ + 
 3 3
1  1
Γ   Γ 1 − 
1 3  3
=
6 Γ(1)
1 1  1
= Γ   Γ 1 − 
6 3  3
1 π  π 
=
6 sin π  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
 sin nπ 
3
1 π
= .
6 ( 3/2 )
π
= .
3 3
∞ x
Another Method: Let I =
∫
0 1 + x6
dx
3 1 −2/3
Put x= tan θ ⇒
= x tan1/3 θ so that
= dx tan θ sec 2 θ d θ
3
Now we have
π /2 tan1/3 θ 1 −2/3
I = ∫0 1 + tan 2 θ 3
tan θ sec 2 θ d θ
1 π /2
=
3 ∫ 0
tan −1/3 θ d θ
1 π /2
=
3 ∫ 0
sin −1/3 θ cos1/3 θ d θ
 1  1 
 − +1  +1
Γ 3  Γ 3 
 2   2 
1    
=
3  1 1 
−3 + 3 +2
2Γ  
 2 
 
1  2
Γ Γ
1  3   3 
=
6 Γ (1)
1 1  1
= Γ   Γ 1 − 
6 3  3
Solved Examples 23
1 π  π 
=
6 sin π  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
 sin nπ 
3
1 π
=
6 3
2
π
=
3 3
∞ x2
Example 1.10: Evaluate ∫ dx .
( )
0 3
1 + x4
∞ x2
Sol. Let I = ∫ dx
0
(1 + x )
4 3
2 1
Put x= tan θ ⇒
= x tan1/2 θ so that
= dx tan −1/2 θ sec 2 θ d θ
2
Now we have
π /2 tan θ 1
I = ∫ tan −1/2 θ sec 2 θ d θ
(1 + tan θ)
3
0 2 2
1 π /2 tan1/2 θ
=
2 ∫0 sec6 θ
sec 2 θ d θ
1 π /2
=
2 ∫0
tan1/2 θ sec −4 θ d θ
1 π /2
=
2 ∫0
sin1/2 θ cos7/2 θ d θ
1  7 
 2 +1  2 +1
Γ  Γ 
 2   2 
1    
=
2 1 7 
 + +2
2Γ  2 2 
 2 
 
3 9
Γ Γ
1  4   4 
=
4 Γ ( 3)
3 5 1 1
Γ  . Γ 
1 4 4 4 4
=
4 2!
5 1 5
= Γ  Γ 
128  4   4 
5 1  1
= Γ   Γ 1 − 
128  4   4 
5 π
=  π 
128 sin π  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
4  sin nπ 
5 2π
= .
128
∞ dx
Example 1.11: Evaluate ∫0 1 + x4
.
dx ∞
Sol. Let I = ∫
0 1 + x4
1 −3/4
Put x4 = t ⇒ x = t1/4 so that dx = t dt
4
Now we have
1 ∞ t −3/4 dt
I =
4 ∫ 0 1+ t
1 ∞ t (1/4) −1dt
=
4 ∫ 0 1 3
(1 + t ) 4 + 4
1 1 3
= B , 
4 4 4
1 Γ(1 / 4)Γ(3 / 4)
=
4 1 3
Γ + 
4 4
Solved Examples 25
1  1
Γ Γ 1−
1  4   4 
=
4 Γ(1)
1 1  1
= Γ   Γ 1 − 
4 4  4
1 π  π 
=
4 sin π  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
 sin nπ 
4
1 π
= .
4 1/ 2 ( )
π
= .
2 2
π /6
Example 1.12: Evaluate ∫
0
cos 4 3θ sin 2 6θ d θ .
π /6
Sol. Let I = ∫0
cos 4 3θ sin 2 6θ d θ
1
Put 3q = t ⇒ 3dq = dt so that d θ = dt
3
Now we have
π /6
I = ∫0
cos 4 3θ sin 2 6θ d θ
π /2 dt
= ∫0
cos 4 t sin 2 2t
3
1 π /2
=
3 ∫ 0
cos 4 t sin 2 2t dt
1 π /2
=
3 ∫ 0
cos 4 t (2sint cos t ) 2 dt
4 π /2
=
3 ∫ 0
cos6 t sin 2 t dt
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ
π /2 1  2   2 
∫
m n
Using cos θ sin θ d θ = , we have
0 2 m+n+2
Γ 
 2 
7 3
Γ Γ
4  2   2 
=
3  10 
2Γ  
 2
531 1
π π
4222 2
=
3 2.(4!)
5π
= .
192
1 {Γ(1 / 4)}
2
Example 1.13: Show that
∫ .
4
1− x dx =
0 6 2π
1 1
Sol. Let I = ∫ 0 ∫
1 − x 4 dx = (1 − x 4 )1/2 dx
0
1
4 2 1/2 1 −2
x sin θ ⇒
Put = = x sin dx
θ so that= sin θ cos θ d θ
2
Now we have
π /2 1
I = ∫0
(1 − sin 2 θ)1/2 . .sin −1/2 θ cos θ d θ
2
1 π /2
=
2 ∫0
cos 2 θ sin −1/2 θ d θ
3 1
Γ Γ 
1 2 4
=
2 7
2Γ  
4
1 1
π Γ 
12 4
=
2 3 3
2. Γ  
4 4
2
  1 
π Γ   
=   4 
1 3
6.Γ   Γ  
4 4
2
  1 
π Γ   
  4 
=
   1
1
6.Γ   Γ 1 − 
4  4
Solved Examples 27
2
  1 
π Γ   
  4   π 
=  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
π sin nπ 
6. 
π
sin
4
2
  1 
Γ  4  
  
=
6 2π
π /2 1 1 3
Example 1.14: Show that ∫0
cot θd θ= Γ Γ  .
2 4 4
Sol. We know that
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
∫
m n
sin θ cos θ d θ =
0 m+n+2
2Γ  
 2 
Now we have
π /2 π /2
∫0
cot1/2 θ d θ =
∫
0
sin −1/2 θ cos1/2 θd θ
 1  1 
 − 2 +1  2 +1
Γ Γ 
 2   2 
   
=
 1 1 
− + +2
2Γ  2 2 
 2 
 
1 3
Γ Γ 
4 4
=
2.Γ(1)
1 1 3
= Γ Γ  .
2 4 4
π /2 π nπ
Example 1.15: Prove that
∫
n
tan
= θdθ sec , −1 < n < 1
0 2 2
π /2
Sol. Let I =
∫ 0
tan n θ d θ
π /2
= ∫ 0
sin n θ cos − n θ d θ
 n + 1   −n + 1 
Γ Γ 
 2   2 
=
n−n+2
2Γ  
 2 
 n + 1   −n + 1 
Γ Γ 
 2   2 
=
2Γ (1)
1 1+ n   1+ n 
= Γ  Γ 1 − 
2  2   2 
1 π  π 
=  Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = 
2 1+ n   sin nπ 
sin   π
 2 
π
=
 π nπ 
2sin  + 
2 2 
π
=
nπ
2cos
2
π nπ
= sec ,where −1 < n < 1 .
2 2
π /2 π /2 dθ
Example 1.16: Show that I = ∫ 0
sin θd θ × ∫
0 sin θ
= π.
Sol. We know that
 m +1
Γ . π
2 
sin m θ d θ = 
π /2
∫0 m+2
2Γ  
 2 
Solved Examples 29
Now we have
π /2 π /2
I = ∫0
sin1/2 d θ × ∫0
sin −1/2 θ d θ
1   1 
 2 +1  − 2 +1
Γ  π Γ  π
 2   2 
  ×  
=
 1   1 
 2 +2 −2 +2
2Γ   2Γ  
 2   2 
   
Γ(3 / 4) π Γ(1 / 4) π
= ×
2Γ(5 / 4) 2Γ(3 / 4)
πΓ(1 / 4)
=
 1
4Γ 1 + 
 4
πΓ(1 / 4)
=
1
4. Γ(1 / 4)
4
= p.
1 dx
0
1 − xn
1 dx
Sol. Let I = ∫0
1 − xn
−1/2
∫ (1 − x )
1
= n
dx
0
2
2 n −1
x n sin 2 θ ⇒
Put = = x sin 2/ n θ so that
= dx sin θ cos θ d θ
n
Now we have
2 π /2
I =
n ∫ 0
cos −1 θ sin (2/ n ) −1θ cos θ d θ
2 π /2
=
n ∫
0
sin (2/ n ) −1 θ cos0 θ d θ
2 
 n −1+1  0 +1
Γ Γ 
 2   2 
2  
=
n 2 
 n −1+ 0 + 2 
2Γ  
 2 
 
1 1
Γ Γ 
2 n 2
=
n 1 1
2Γ  + 
n 2
1
Γ 
π n .
=
n  1 1
Γ + 
n 2
π /2 sin 2 m −1 θ cos 2 n −1 θ d θ Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
Example 1.18.: Prove that
∫0 2
(a sin θ + b cos θ) 2 m+n
= m n
2 a b Γ ( m + n)
.
Sol. We know that

Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) ∞ x m −1
B(m, n) =

Γ ( m + n)
= ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx
a 2 a sin 2 θ a
Put
= x tan
= θ 2
so that=
dx 2 tan θ.sec 2 θ d θ
b b cos θ b
Now we have
Γ ( m )Γ ( n ) π /2 a m −1 sin 2 m − 2 θ b m + n cos 2 m + 2 n θ a sin θ
Γ ( m + n)
= ∫0 m −1
b cos 2m−2
. 2
θ (a sin θ + b cos θ) 2 m+n
× .2
b cos3 θ
dθ
π /2 sin 2 m −1 θ cos 2 n −1 θ d θ
∫
m n
= 2a b
0 (a sin 2 θ + b cos 2 θ) m + n
π /2 sin 2 m −1 θ cos 2 n −1 θ d θ 1 Γ ( m)Γ ( n )

Hence ∫0 2
(a sin θ + b cos θ) 2 m+n
= m n.
2a b Γ ( m + n)
Solved Examples 31
1 1 π m −1
Example 1.19: Prove that B (m, m). B  m + , m +  = .
 2 2  24 m −1
Sol. We know that
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
B(m, n) =
Γ ( m + n)
Now we have
 1  1
Γ m + Γ m + 
 1 1 Γ ( m ) Γ ( m )  2   2
B (m, m). B  m + , m +  =
 2 2 Γ ( m + m)  1 1
Γ m + + m + 
 2 2
2
  1 
 Γ ( m )Γ  m + 2  
  
=
Γ(2m) Γ ( 2m + 1)
2
  1 
 Γ ( m )Γ  m + 2  
 
= 
Γ(2m).2mΓ ( 2m )
2
  1
Γ ( m )Γ  m +  
1   2
= 
2m  Γ(2m) 
 
 
2
1  π 
=  
2m  22 m −1 
  1 π 
 Γ(m)Γ  m + = 2 m −1 Γ(2m) 
  2 2 

1 π
=
2m 2 4 m − 2
π m −1
= 4 m −1 .
2
 1  ( 2n )!
Example 1.20: Prove that Γ  n + =  π , where n is a positive integer.
 2  22 n.n !
Sol. We know that the duplication formula is
 1 π
Γ ( n )Γ  n +  = Γ(2n)
 2 n
2 −1
2
 1 π Γ(2n)
or Γ  n +  = 2 n −1
 2 2 Γ( n)
π (2n − 1)!
= 2 n −1 (since n is a positive integer)
2 (n − 1)!
π 2n (2n − 1)!
= 2 n −1
2 2n (n − 1)!
π (2n)!
= 2 n −1
2 2(n)!
π (2n)!
= 2n
2 (n)!
(2n)!
= 2n
π
2 .(n)!
Γ(n + 1) nπ .
( )
∞
Example 1.21: Prove that
∫0
cos bx1/ n dx =
b n
cos
2
( )
∞
Sol. Let I = ∫ 0
cos bx1/ n dx
Put x = tn ⇒ dx = nt n–1dt
Now we have
∞ ∞
cos ( bt ) nt n −1dt = n ∫ cos ( bt ) t n −1dt
I =
∫ 0 0
∞
= real part of n ∫ 0
e −bti t n −1dt
Γ (n)  π π
= real part of n  i cos + i sin 
=
( bi ) n
 2 2
Exercise 1 33
Γ (n)  π π
−n
= real part of n  cos + i sin 
bn  2 2
Γ (n)  nπ nπ 
= real part of n n 
cos − i sin 
b  2 2 
Γ ( n + 1) nπ
= n
cos
b 2
Γ(n + 1) nπ
( )
∞
Hence ∫
0
cos bx1/ n dx =
b n
cos
2
.
Exercise 1
∞ x 2 (1 + x 2 ) 1
1. Show that (i) ∫
0 (1 + x) 15
dx =
180
∞ x 4 (1 + x5 ) 1
(ii) ∫
0 (1 + x) 15
dx =
5005
−1/3
2π .
∫ (8 − x )
2
2. Show that 3
dx =
0 3 3
−1/3
16  5 2 
∫ ( )
2
3. Show that x 4 8 − x3 dx = B ,  .
0 3 3 3
1
Γ 
1 1 π 4 .
4. Show that
∫0
1− x 4
dx =
4 3
Γ 
4
∞ π.
5. Show that
∫
2
e − x .x 2 dx =
0 4
6. Show that
1
. 1
∫ x (1 − x) dx =
2 3
0 60
2
7. Show that 3π .
∫0
(4 − x 2 )3/2 dx =
2 16π
8. Show that ∫0
(8 − x3 )1/3 dx =
9 3
.
x m −1 (1 − x ) B ( m, n ) .
n −1
1
9. Show that
∫0 (a + x) m+n
dx =
a n (1 + a )
m
1/4
10. Show that 1 
1 5 3 π .
∫ 
0 x
− 1 dx= B  , =
 4 4 2 2
∞ x2 π .
11. Show that
∫0 1+ x 4
dx =
2 2
π /2 π /2 π
12. Show that
∫0
tan
= θd θ ∫ 0
cot
= θd θ
2
.
1 x 2 dx 1 dx π
13. Show that ∫0 (1 − x 4 )1/2
× ∫ 4
0 (1 + x )1/2
=
4 2
.
2
∞ ∞ e− x π
∫ ∫
− x2
14. Show that xe dx × dx = .
0 0 x 2 2
15. Show that B (m, n) = B (m + 1, n) + B (m, n + 1) .
1
Γ 
3
∫( ) π   .
1 −1/2
16. Show that 1 − x3 dx =
0 5
3Γ  
6
π sin n −1 d θ 2n −1 n n
17. Show that
∫0 (a + b cos θ) n
= 2
(a − b )2 n /2
B ,  .
2 2
π sin θ {Γ(3 / 4)}2

18. Show that ∫ [5 + 3cos θ]
0 3/2
=
2 2π
.
∞ π
∫
2
19. Show that 3−4 x dx = .
0 4 log 3
Recapitulation 35
∞ 1 π
20. Show that
∫0
sin x 2 dx =
2 2
.
∞ Γ ( m) mπ
21. Show that (i) ∫0
x m −1 cos bxdx =
b m
cos
2
and
∞ Γ ( m) mπ
(ii) ∫0
x m −1 sin bxdx =
b m
cos
2
.
1  2 3  8  16
22. Show that Γ   Γ   Γ   ................Γ   = π4 .
9 9
      9 9 3
Recapitulation
1
1. The definite integral
0 ∫
x m −1 (1 − x) n −1 dx for m > 0, n > 0 is called
the Beta function, denoted by B(m, n) and alternative form of Beta
∞ x m −1
function is B(m, n) = ∫0 (1 + x) m + n
dx , m > 0, n > 0 .
∞
2. The definite (improper) integral
∫0
e − x x n −1dx for n > 0 is called the
Gamma function, denoted by Γ(n).

3. Some important properties of Gamma function are
(i) Γ(n + 1) =nΓ(n)
(ii) Γ(n) = 1
(iii) Γ(n + 1) =
n ! , for n ≥ 0
(iv) Γ(1 / 2) =π
Γ( n) ∞
(v)
an
= ∫0
e − ax x n −1dx .
4. The relation between Beta and Gamma Functions is defined as

Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
B(m, n) =
for m > 0, n > 0 .
Γ ( m + n)
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
∫
(ii) cos θ sin θ d θ = for all the values
m n
0 m+n+2
2Γ  
 2 
of m and n such that m > 1, n > 1 .
m +1 π
6. The duplication formula is Γ(m)Γ  = 2 m −1 Γ(2m), m > 0 .
 2  2
Exercise 1.1
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Beta function is also known as
(a) Euler’s integral of first kind
(b) Euler’s integral of second kind
(c) Euler’s integral of third kind
(d) None of these
1
2. The value of Γ   is equal to
2
(a) p (b) π
(c) 1 (d) None of these.
3. If n is a non-negative integer then value of Γ(n + 1) is equal to
(a) n! (b) n
(c) (n + 1)! (d) None of these
∞
4. Γ ( n ) =e − x x n −1dx if
∫ 0
(a) n > 0 (b) n < 0

(c) n = 0 (d) None of these.
1
5.
∫x .............. for m > 0, n > 0
m −1
(1 − x) n −1 dx =
0
(a) Γ(n + 1) (b) Γ(n)

(c) B(m, n) (d) None of these.
Exercise 1.1 37
6. For m > 0, n > 0 .

Γ ( m) − Γ ( n) Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
(a) B(m, n) = (b) B(m, n) =
Γ ( m + n) Γ ( m − n)
Γ ( m )Γ ( n )
(c) B(m, n) = (d) None of these
Γ ( m + n)
∞
7. The value of the integral ∫0
e − x x1/2 dx is
(a) p (b) π
(c) π (d) None of these.

2
∞ (x m −1
)
− x n −1 dx
8. For m > 0, n > 0 the value of the integral ∫
0 (1 + x) m+n is
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) m+n (d) None of these
n −1
1  1
9. The value of the integral
∫0
 log  dx is
 x
(a) Γ(n + 1) (b) Γ(n)
(c) B(m, n) (d) None of these.
State True or False

1. The value of Γ(1) is equal to 1.
1
2. The definite integral
∫x (1 − x) n −1 dx for m > 0, n > 0 is called the
m −1
0
Beta function.
∞ x m −1dx ∞ x n −1
3. For m > 0, n > 0; B(m, n) = ∫
0 (1 + x) m + n
≠ ∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n
dx .
∞
4. Γ ( n ) =e − x x n −1dx for n > 0.
∫
0
 m +1  n +1
Γ Γ 
π /2  2   2 
5. If m > 1, n > 1 then
∫ cos θ sin θ d θ =
m n
.
0 m+n+2
2Γ  
 2 
∞
6. The definite (improper) integral ∫ 0
Gamma function.
π
7. Γ(n)Γ(1 + n) = , where 0 < n < 1.
sin nπ
Γ ( m) Γ ( n)
8. For m > 0, n > 0; B(m, n) = .
2Γ ( m + n )
Fill in the Blanks

1. Γ ( n + 1)= .......Γ ( n ) , n > 0 .
∞
2. The definite (improper) integral
…………… function.
∫ 0
∞ x m −1dx ∞ x n −1
3. For m > 0, n > 0; B (m, n)..........
∫ 0 (1 + x) m + n ∫
...........
0 (1 + x) m + n
dx.
∞
∫
2
4. e − x dx = …………………..
0
∞
5.
∫
0
e − ax x n −1dx = …………………..
m + 1  ........
6. Γ(m)Γ  =
 2 m −1
Γ(2m), m > 0 .
 2  2
B (m + 1, n) m
7. = .
B (m, n) ...........
8. Γ  7  =
…………………..
 
2
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a)
5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b)
9. (b)
Answers 39
State True or False

1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T
5. T 6. T 7. F 8. F
Fill in the Blanks

π
1. n 2. Gamma 3. =, = 4.
2
Γ( n) π 15
5. 6. 7. m + n 8. π
an 8
qqq
2
Surfaces and Volumes of

Solids of Revolution
Learning Objectives
After going through the chapter, the reader will be able to understand the
l surface of solid of revolution
l surface of solids of revolution about x and y-axis
l surface of solids of revolution about any axis
l surface formulae for different form of equations
l solume of solid of revolution about x and y-axis
l solume formulae for different form of equations
2.1 Introduction
Integrals help us in solving the inversion problem; given the differential
coefficient to find the original function from which it is obtained. Many times
in practical situations we are confronted with the inverse problem; i.e., given
the derivative of a function, to find the function. A function φ(x) is said to be
a primitive or an anti-derivative of a function f(x) if φ′(x) = f(x). Let f(x) be a
function, then the collection of all its primitives is called the indefinite integral
of f(x) and is denoted by ∫ f(x) dx. The process of finding an indefinite integral
of a given function is called integration of the function. The φ(x) is primitive
b
of a function f(x) defined on [a, b], then ∫ f ( x) =
a
dx φ ( b ) − φ ( a ) , where the
b
symbol ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
is called the definite integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b.
42 Chapter 2 Surfaces and Volumes of Solids of Revolution
2.2 Surface of Solids of Revolution

A solid of revolution is generated by a plane area about a fixed line, called the
axis of revolution, in the plane. A surface of revolution is generated by revolving
the perimeter of the plane curve about a fixed line lying in its own plane.
2.3 Surface of Revolution about x and y-axis

Suppose f(x) is a continuous function of x for all values of x in xy-plane
included between x = a and x = b. Let A and B be respectively the points on the
curve y = f(x) corresponding to ordinates of x = a to x = b. Suppose P (x, y) be
any point on the given curve and AP = s. Then the curve surface of the solid
generated by the revolution of the area bounded by the curve y = f(x) about
x-axis is given by
y = f(x)
A
Q
P
X
O
X=a X=b
x =b
S = ∫
x=a
2πy ds
x =b
ds
= ∫
x=a
2πy
dx
dx
  dy  
x =b 2
= ∫ 2πy 1 +    dx,
x=a   dx  
2.4 Surface of Revolution about Any Line (Axis) 43
  dy  
2
ds
Where = 1 +    .
dx   dx  
Similarly, the curve surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the area
bounded by the curve x = f(y) about y-axis is given by
y =d
S = ∫
y =c
2πx ds
y =d
ds
= ∫
y =c
2πx
dy
dy
y =d   dx  2 
= ∫ 2πx 1 +    dy,
y =c   dy  
ds   dx  2 
Where = 1 +    .
dy
  dy  
2.4 Surface of Revolution about Any Line (Axis)

If the revolution is made neither x-axis, nor y-axis but about any other line then
the curved surface S = ∫ 2p (PM) ds, where PM is the perpendicular from any
point P on the line about which the revolution is to be made.
2.5 Surface formulae for different form of

equations
(i) Parametric form

Consider the given equation of the curve is x = x(t) and y = y(t) then the curved
surface
About x-axis is given by
t = t2
S = ∫ 2πy ( t ) ds
t = t1
t = t2
ds
= ∫ 2πy ( t ) dt
t = t1
dt
ds  dx  2  dy  2 
where =   +   .
dt
 dt   dt  
About y-axis is given by

t = t2
S = ∫ 2πx ( t ) ds
t = t1
t = t2
ds
= ∫ 2π x ( t ) dt
t = t1
dt
 dx   dy  
2 2
ds
where =   +   .
dt  dt   dt  
(ii) Polar form

Suppose the given equation of the curve is r = f(q) then the curved surface
About the initial line q = 0 (i.e., x-axis) is given by
θ =θ 2
S = ∫
θ =θ1
2π r sin θ ds
θ =θ 2
ds
= ∫
θ θ
=
2π r sin θ
dθ
dθ
1
 2  dr  2 
ds r +   .
Where =  dθ  
dθ 
About the perpendicular line through the pole q = p/2 (i.e., y – axis) is
given by
θ =θ 2
S = ∫
θ =θ1
2π r cos θ ds
θ =θ 2
ds
= ∫
θ θ
=
2π r cos θ
dθ
dθ ’
1
ds  2  dr  2 
where = r +   .
dθ   dθ  
2.6 Volume of Solid of Revolution about x and y-axis 45
2.6 Volume of Solid of Revolution about x and

y-axis
Y
y = f(x)
P = (x, y)
A B
O X
x=a dx x=b
If a plane curve is revolved about any fixed line (axis) in the plane curve, then
the body generated is known as solid of revolution. Let y = f(x) be the curve
revolved about the x-axis, then the volume of the solid of revolution of an
elementary strip of width dx at P(x, y) of the curve, is py2 dx, and summing all
such terms from x = a to x = b. Hence the volume of the solid of revolution of
the area AabB about the x-axis the is given by
x =b
V =
∫x=a
π y 2 dx
Similarly, if the curve is revolved about the y-axis between y = c to y = d, then

the volume of the solid of revolution is given by
y =d
V =
∫ y =c
π x 2 dy
2.7 Volume formulae for different form of

equations
(i) Parametric form

Suppose the given equation of the curve is x = x(t) and y = y(t) with the
parameter t varying from t = t1 to t = t2.
Then the volume about x-axis is given by
t = t2 dx
V = ∫t = t1
π y2
dt
dt
t = t2 2
=
∫ π [ y (t )] x '(t )dt
t = t1
Similarly, about y–axis is given by

t = t2 dy
V = ∫
t = t1
π x2
dt
dt
t = t2 2
= ∫ π [ x(t ) ] y '(t )dt
t = t1
(ii) Polar form

Suppose if the given equation of the curve is r = f (q) with radii vectors q = q1
to q = q2, then the volume
About initial line q = 0 is given by

θ2 2π 3
VV == ∫θ r sin θ dθ
1 3
P
r=f(θ)
Perpendicular line
θ2
θ1 X
O
Initial line
About the perpendicular line through the pole q = p/2 is given by

θ =θ 2 2π
V =∫
r 3 cos θ dθ
θ =θ1 3
Solved Examples
Example 2.1: Find the surface of a sphere of radius a.
Sol. We know that the equation of a circle of radius a is
x2 + y2 = a2 …(2.1)
Differentiating equation (2.1) with respect to x, we get
Solved Examples 47
A (a, 0) B
(-a, 0)
X
X
’
C
’
Y
’
dy
2x + 2 y =0
dx
dy x
or = −
dx y
  dy  
2
ds
\ = 1 +
   
dx   dx  
  x  2 
= 1 +  −  
  y  
x2 + y 2
=
y2
a
=
y
When we rotate circle about x-axis, it generate sphere as solid of revolution.
Now let A(-a, 0) and B(a, 0) be the bounding points of the semi-circle. The
diameter is taken as x-axis. Suppose S is the surface area of the sphere, then
we have
a
ds
S =
−a
∫ 2π y dx dx
a
a  ds a 
= ∫ 2π y y dx
−a
 = 
 dx y 
a
= 2π a ∫ dx
−a
= = 2π a ( x )− a
a
= 4π a 2 .
Example 2.2: Find the surface generated by the revolution of an arc of the
 x
catenary y = c cosh   about the axis of x.
c
Sol. The given equation of curve is

 x
y = c cosh   …(2.2)
c
dy  x 1
= c sinh   .
dx c c
dy  x
or = sinh  
dx c
ds   dy  2 
\ = 1 +   
dx   dx  
 2  x 
= 1 + sinh   
  c 
 x
= cosh  
c
Suppose if the arc to be measured from the vertex (x = 0) to any point (x , y),
then the required surface formed by the revolution of this arc about x-axis is
x
ds
S = ∫ 2π y dx dx
0
x
 x x  ds  x 
= ∫0 2π c.cosh  c  .cosh  c  dx  = cosh   
 dx  c 
Solved Examples 49
x
 x
= π c ∫ 2cosh 2   dx
0 c
x
  2x  
= π c ∫ 1 + cosh    dx
0   c 
x
 c  2x  
= π c  x + 2 sinh  c  
 0
 c  2x  
= π c  x + 2 sinh  c  
  
  x  x 
= π c  x + c sinh  c  .cosh  c   .
    
Example 2.3: Find the area of the surface formed by the revolution of the
parabola y2 = 4ax about the x-axis by the arc form the vertex to one end of the
rectum.
y2 = 4ax …(2.3)
dy
2y = 4a
dx
dy 2a
or =
dx y
  dy  2 
ds 1 +   
\ =   dx  
dx
 4a 2 
= 1 + 2 
 y 
y 2 + 4a 2
=
y2
4ax + 4a 2
=
y2
2 a x+a
=
y
From the given equation of the curve, the vertex (0, 0) to one end of the latus
rectum, say the end (a, 2a), x varying from 0 to a. Thus the required surface is
a
S = ∫ 2π y ds
0
a
ds
= ∫ 2π y dx dx
0
a
2 a x+a  ds 2 a x + a 
S = ∫ 2π y
0
y
dx  =
 dx y


a
= 4π a ∫ ( x + a ) dx
0
a
2 3/ 2 
== 4π a  ( x + a ) 
3 0
8
π a ( 2a ) − ( a ) 
3/ 2 3/ 2
=  
3
8 2
= π a  2 2 − 1 .
3
Example 2.4: Find the surfaces of the solid formed by the revolution, about
the axis of y, of the part of the curve ay2 = x3 from x = 0 to x = 4a which is
above the x-axis.
ay2 = x3 …(2.4)
dy
2ay = 3x2
dx
dy 3x 2
or = 2ay
dx
ds   dy  2 
\ = 1 +   
dx   dx  
  3 x 2  2 
= 1 +   
  2ay  
Solved Examples 51
 9 x4 
= 1 + 2 2 
 4a y 
 
 9 x4 
=  1 + 3 
 4a 2 x 
 a 
 9x 
= 1 + 
 4a 
1
= {4a + 9 x}
2 a
Suppose if the arc to be measured from the vertex (x = 0) to any point (x, y),
then the required surface formed by the revolution of this arc about x-axis is
4a
S = ∫ 2π x ds
x =0
4a
ds
= ∫ 2π x dx dx
x =0
4a
1
= ∫ 2π x 2 {4a + 9 x}dx
0 a
 ds 1 
=
 {4a + 9 x} 
 dx 2 a 
4a
π
=
a
∫ x ( 4a + 9 x )dx
0
Put 4a + 9x = t2
so that 9dx = 2tdt. when=x 0,=t 4a and when
=x 4=a, t 40a .
Now we have
40 a
π t 2 − 4a 2t
=
a
∫ 9
.t. dt
9
4a
40 a
2π
∫ (t − 4at 2 ) dt
4
=
81 a 4a
40 a
2π  t 5 4 3 
=  − at 
81 a  5 3  4a
128π a 2
=
1215
(
125 10 + 1 . )
Example 2.5: Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the
lamniscate r2 = a2 cos 2 q about the initial line.
Sol. The given equation of the curve is
r2 = a2 cos 2 q …(2.5)
π/4
O
A
a
X
-π/4
Differentiating equation (2.5) with respect to q, we get

dr
= − a 2sin 2θ
2
2r
dθ
dr a 2 sin 2θ
or = −
dθ r
ds  2  dr  2 
\ = r +   
dθ   dθ  
 2 a 4 sin 2 2θ 
= a cos 2θ + 
 r2 
r 2 a 2 cos 2θ + a 2 sin 2 2θ
=
r
a 4 cos 2 2θ + a 4 sin 2 2θ
=
r
a2
=
r
Solved Examples 53
Here we see that two loops in the given equation of the curve and one loop lies
between q = p/4 and q = – p/4 . Let S be the surface of the solid generated by
the revolution of the given curve. Then we have
π /4
S = ∫
−π / 4
2π y ds
π/ 4
ds
= ∫
−π / 4
2π y
dθ
d θ, where y =r sin θ
π /4  ds a 2 
a2  = 
= 2 ∫ 2π ( r sin θ ) dθ 
dθ r 
r 
0
π /4
= 4π a ∫ sin θ dθ
2
= 4π a 2 [ − cos θ ]0
π /4
2  π 
= 4π a  − cos + cos 0 
 4 
2  1 
= 4π a  − + 1
 2 
 1 
= 4π a 2 1 − .
 2
Example 2.6: Find the surface area of the solid generated by the revolution of
an arc of the cycloid about its base x = a (q + sin q), y = a (1 – cos q).
Y
θ=-π θ=π
B A
θ=0 O
x = a (q + sin q), y = a (1 – cos q) …(2.6)

Differentiating equation (2.6) with respect to q, we get
dx dy
= a (1 + cos θ ) and = a sin q.
dθ dθ
ds  dx  2  dy  2 
Hence =   +  
dθ  dθ   dθ  
= {a (1 + cosθ )
2 2
+ ( a sin θ )
2
}
= a {(1 + 2cosθ + cos θ + sin θ )}
2 2
= a {(1 + 2cosθ + 1)}

= a {( 2 + 2cosθ )}
= a {2 (1 + cosθ )}
= a {2.2cos (θ / 2 )}
2
= 2a cos (θ / 2 ) .
For the given equation of the curve, q varies from –p to p and this arch is
symmetrical about the y-axis which meets the curve at the point q = 0. Thus
the required surface is
π
S = 2 ∫ 2π yds
0
π ds
= 2 ∫0 2π y dθ
dθ
π θ 
= 4π ∫0 a (1 − cos θ ) 2a cos  dθ
2
2 θ  θ 
π
= 8π a ∫0 2sin   cos   dθ
2
2 2
2 θ  θ 
π
= 16π a ∫0 sin   cos   dθ
2
2 2
Put q/2 = t ⇒ dq = 2 dt, we have
π /2
= 32π a 2 ∫ sin 2 t cos t dt
0
Solved Examples 55
3
Γ   Γ (1)
2
= 32π a
2
5
2Γ  
2
  m +1  n +1 
 Γ Γ 
π /2 1  2   2 
 ∫ cos θ sin θ dθ =
m n
 0 2 m+n+2 
 Γ  
  2  
1
π
= 32π a
2 2
3 1
2. . π
2 2
32π a 2
= .
3
Example 2.7: Find the volume of a hemi-sphere of radius a.
Sol. The equation of the generating circle of radius a and center as origin (0, 0)
is x2 + y2 = a2. The hemi-sphere is generating by the revolution of a quadrant
of the circle. Thus the required volume of a hemi-sphere is
Y
X’ (-a, 0) (a, 0)
O X
Y’
a
V= ∫0
π x 2 dy
∫ π (a − y 2 ) dy
a
2
=
0
a
 y3 
= π  a 2 y − 
 3 0
 a3 
= π  a − 3 
3
 
2π 3
= a
3
Example 2.8: Find the volume of a solid formed by the revolution of the loop
of the curve y2 (a + x) = x2 (a – x) about x-axis.
y2 (a + x) = x2 (a – x) ...(2.7)
Since the given equation of the curve is symmetrical about x-axis only at
points (0, 0) and (a, 0). So the loop lies between these points. Suppose V is the
volume of the solid generated by the revolution of upper half of the loop of the
curve about x-axis from x = 0 to x = a. Thus the required volume is
Y
x = -a
P(a, 0) X
a
V = ∫0
π y 2 dx
a x2 ( a − x )
= π ∫ dx
0 a+x
a  2a 3 
= π ∫0  − x + 2ax − 2a +
2 2
 dx
 a+x
a
 x3 x2 
= π  − + 2a − 2a x + 2a log ( a + x ) 
2 3
 3 2 0
 a3 3 3 3 3 
= π  − + a − 2a + 2a log 2a − 2a log a 
 3 
 4a 3  2a  
= π  − + 2a 3 log   
 3  a 
Solved Examples 57
= π  − 4a + 2a 3 log 2 
3
 3 
3  2
= 2a π  log 2 − 
 3
2 3
= a π ( 3log 2 − 2 ) .
3
a3
Example 2.9: Find the volume of the solid generated by the curve y = 2
a + x2
about its asymptote.
a3
y = 2 ...(2.8)
a + x2
Since the curve cuts only y-axis at the point (0, a) and y = 0 i.e., x-axis is
its asymptote. Therefore the solid is generated by the revolution of the curve
about x-axis. Suppose V is the volume of the solid generated by the revolution
of the curve about x-axis from x = – ∞ to x = ∞. Thus the required volume is
∞
V = ∫−∞
π y 2 dx
∞ a6
= 2π ∫0 dx
(a + x2 )
2 2
Putting x = a tan q and dx = a sec 2 θ dθ
X’
0 X
Y’
π /2 a6
= 2π ∫0 a sec 2 θ dθ
(a + a tan θ )
2 2 2 2
π /2 sec 2 θ
= 2π a 3 ∫ dθ
0 sec 4 θ
π /2
= 2π a 3 ∫ cos 2 θ dθ
0
3 Γ ( 3 / 2 ) Γ (1 / 2 )
 
= 2π a   (By Gamma formula)
 2Γ ( 2 ) 
1
π. π
2 πa . 2 2
=
2.1
1 2 3
= π a.
2
Example 2.10: Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the
cardioid r = a (1 + cos q) about the initial line.
r = a (1 + cos q) ...(2.9)
Since the given curve is symmetrical about the initial line and r = 0 when
cos q = –1 i.e., q = p and the maximum value of r = 2a when q = 0. Thus the
required volume is
Y Y
X’
A
X
O 0
Y′
Y’
π 2π 3
V = ∫ 0 3
r sin θ dθ
2π π
a 3 (1 + cos θ ) sin θ dθ
3
=
3 ∫0
( r a (1 + cos θ ) )
=
2π 3 π
a ∫ (1 + cos θ ) sin θ d θ
3
=
3 0
Putting 1 + cos q = t so that – sin q dq = dt
2π 3 0 3
t ( − dt )
3 ∫2
= a
Solved Examples 59
2π 3 2 3
3 ∫0
= a t dt
2
2π 3  t 4 
= a  
3  4 0
2 3
= π a [ 4 − 0]
3
8 3
= πa .
3
Example 2.11: Prove that the surface and volume of the solid generated
2 t3
by revolving the loop of the curve x = t , y = t − about the x-axis are
3
respectively 3p and 3p/4.
t3
x= t2 , y= t −
...(2.10)
3
Eliminating t from equation (2.10), we have
2 2
2  t2 
2  x
y = t 1 −  =x 1 −  .
 3  3
The given curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. At y = 0, t = 0, ± 3.
Y
(3, 0)
t=0
X
O
A(t= 3 )
The required surface is

3 ds
S = 2π ∫ y dt
0 dt
3  dx  2  dy  2 
= 2π ∫0 y   +   dt
 dt   dt  
3 t3 
= 2π ∫  t − 
0
 3 (( 2t ) + (1 − t ) )dt
2 2 2
3 t3 
= 2π ∫  t − 
0 3
( 4t 2
+ 1 + t 4 − 2t 2 )dt

3 t3 
= 2π ∫0  t −  (1 + t ) dt
2
 3 
3 t3 t5 
π ∫0 
3
= 2  t + t − −  dt
3 3
3
 t2 2 t4 t6 
= 2 π  + − 
 2 3 4 18 0
3 3 3
= 2π  + − 
2 2 2
= 3p.
The required volume is
3
V = ∫0
π y 2 dx
2
3  t 3  dx
= π ∫0  t −  dt
 3  dt
3  t6 2t 4   dx 
= π ∫0  t + −  ( 2t ) dt
2
 = 2t 
 9 3   dt 
3 t 7 2t 5 
π ∫0  9 − 3  dt
3
= 2 t +
3
 t 4 t8 2 t6 
= 2π  + − 
 4 72 3 6 0
9 9 
= 2π  + − 3 
4 8 
3π
= .
4
Solved Examples 61
Example 2.12: Find the volume and surface of the solid formed by revolving
x2 y 2
the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 about major axis.
a b

x2 y 2
+ =1 ....(2.11)
a 2 b2
Y
θ=-π θ=π
B A
θ=0 O
2 x 2 y dy
+ =0
a 2 b 2 dx
dy b2 x
or = −
dx a2 y
The surface area of the ellipsoid is
a
ds
S = 2 × ∫ 2π y dx
0
dx
a 2
 dy 
= 4π ∫ y 1 +   dx

0  dx 
a 2
 b2 x 
= 4π ∫0 y 1 +  − 2  dx
 a y
a
a 4 y 2 + b4 x2
= 4π ∫ y dx
0
a2 y
a
4π
=
a2 ∫
0
a 4 y 2 + b 4 x 2 dx
a
4π  x2 
= 2
a ∫
0
a 4b 2 1 − 2  + b 4 x 2 dx
 a 
a
4π b
a 2 ( a 2 − x 2 ) + b 2 x 2 dx
a 2 ∫0
=
a
4π b
a ∫0
= a 2 − e 2 x 2 dx
 a 2 − b 2 = a 2 e 2
 or b 2 = a 2 (1 − e 2 ) for an ellipse 
a
4π b 1  ex 2 2 2 a 2 ex 
=  a − e x + sin −1 
a e 2 2 a 0
2π b  2
= a e 1 − e 2 + a 2 sin −1 e 
ae  
 1 −1 
= 2π ab  1 − e + sin e  .
2
 e 
The volume of the ellipsoid is
a
V = 2 ∫ π y 2 dx
0
a
2 x2 
= ∫
2 π b  1 − 2 
dx
0  a 
a
 x3 
= 2π b 2  x − 2 
 3a 0
4π 2
= ab .
3
Example 2.13: Find the entire length of the astroid x = a cos3t, y = a sin3 t. Also
find the volume and surface when it revolves about the axis of x.
Sol. Given that x = a cos3 t, y = a sin3t …(2.12)
We know that the equation of the astroid is
x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3 …(2.13)
Since the curve is symmetrical about both the axis i.e., curve lies in all the four
quadrants.
Solved Examples 63

2 −1/3 2 −1/3 dy
x + y =0
3 3 dx
Y
t= π /2
a
X’
a X
O t= 0
Y’
1/3
dy  y
or = − 
dx x
The required length of the curve
= 4 × arc length of curve in first quadrant
  dy  
2
a
= 4 × ∫0 1 +   dx
  dx  
a  y 2/3 
= 4 × ∫ 1 + 2/3 dx
0
 x 
= 4
a x 2/3 + y 2/3
∫ 0 x 2/3
dx
= 4
a a 2/3
∫ 0 x 2/3
dx
a
= 4a1/3 ∫ x −1/3 dx
0
a
3 
= 4a1/3  x 2/3 
2 0
3 
= 4a1/3  a 2/3 
2 
= 6a.
From equation (2.12), we have
dx dy
= −3a cos 2 t sin t and = 3a sin 2 t cos t.
dt dt
 dx  2  dy  2 
ds +
Hence =  dt   dt  
dt  
= {( −3a cos t sin t ) + (3a sin t cos t ) }

2 2 2 2
= 3a sin t cos t.
The required surface is
π /2 ds
S = 2 ∫0 2π y dt
dt
π /2
= 4π ∫ a sin 3 t.3a sin t cos t dt
0
π /2
= 12π a 2 ∫ sin 4 t cos tdt
0
π /2
 sin 5 t 
= 12π a  
2
 5 0
12π a 2
= .
5
The required volume is
a
V = 2 ∫ π y 2 dx
0
π /2 dx
= 2π ∫0 y2 dt
dt
π /2
= 2π ∫ a 2 sin 6 t.(−3a sin t cos 2 t ) dt
0
π /2
= −6π a 3 ∫ sin 7 t.cos 2 t dt
0
3
Γ ( 4) Γ  
= −6π a 3 2
11
 
2Γ  
2
Exercise 2 65
1
π 3!
= −6π a 3 2
9 7 5 3 1
2 . . . . . π
2 2 2 2 2
32π a 3
= .
105
Exercise 2
1. Find the curved surface of a hemi-sphere of a radius a.
2. Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the ellipse
x2 + 4y2 = 16 about the x-axis.
3. Find the surface of the generated by revolution of the asteroid
x 2/3 + y 2/3 =
a 2/3 about the x-axis.
4. Prove that the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the
tractrix x = a cost +(1/2a) log tan2(t/2), y = a sin t about is asymptote is
equal to the sphere of radius a.
5. Find the area of the surface of revolution formed by the revolution the
curve r = 2a cos q about the initial line.
6. Find the surface of the solid formed by the revolution of the cardioid
r = a (1 + cos q) about the initial line.
7. Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve
r = a (1 – cos q) about the initial line.
8. The arc of the cardioids r = a (1 + cos q) included between
–(1/2)p < q < (1/2)p is rotated about the line q = p/2. Find the area of
the surface generated.
9. Show that the volume of a sphere of the radius a is (4/3)pa3.
10. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the
ellipse (x2/a2) + (y2/b2) = 1 about the x-axis.
11. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of an arc of
the catenary y = c cos h (x/c) about the x-axis.
12. The area of the parabola y2 = 4ax lying between the vertex and the latus
rectum is revolved about the x-axis. Find the volume generated.
13. The curve y2 (a + x) = x2 (3a – x) revolves about the axis of x. Find the
volume generated by the loop.
14. Find the volume of the spindle shaped solid generated by the asteroid
x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 about the x-axis.
15. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolving the cycloid
x = a(q – sin q), y = a (1 – cos q).
(i) about its base
(ii) about the y-axis.
16. Prove that the volume of the real formed by the revolution of the
cycloid x = a(q + sin q), y = a (1 – cos q) about the tangent at the vertex
is p2a3.
17. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the fraction
x = acost + (1/2a) log tan2(t/2).
18. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cissoids
2a sin 3 t
= x a= sin 2 t , y about its asymptotes.
cos t
19. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cardioids
r = a(1 – cosq) about the initial line.
20. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of r = 2a cosq
about the initial line.
21. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving one loop of the
lemniscates r2 = a2 cos 2q.
(i) about the initial line
(ii) about the line q = p/2.
22. Show that the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the curve
4
r = a + b cos (a > b) about the initial line is π a (a b ).
2 2
3
23. Show that if the area lying within the cardioids r = 2a (1 + cosq) and
without the parabola r (1 + cosq) = 2a revolves about the initial line,
the volume generated is 18 pa3.
Answers
 4π 
1. 2pa2. 2. 8π 1 + .
 3 3
12π a 2
3. . 4. 4pa2.
5
32π a 2
5. 4pa3. 6. .
5
32π a 2 48 2π a 2
7. .
8. .
5 5
Answers 67
π c2  c 2x 
10. 4 π ab 2 .
11.  x + sinh  .
3 2  2 c 
12. 2pa3
13. pa3 (8 log 2 – 3).
32π a 3
14. . 15. (i) 5p2a2 (ii) 6p3a3
105
2 3
17. π a .
18. 2π 2 a 3 .
3
8 3 4
19. π a . 20. π a 3 .
3 3
π a3 2  π 2 a3
21. (i)
24 
3log ( )
2 + 1 − 2  (ii)
 4 2
Recapitulation
1. Integration is the inverse of differentiation i.e., finding function from
the given derivative.
2. The process of finding an anti-derivative of a function is integration.
3. A function f(x) is said to be a primitive or an anti-derivative of a
function f(x) if f′(x) = f(x).
4. Let f(x) be a function, then the collection of all its primitives is called
the indefinite integral of f(x) and is denoted by ∫ f(x) dx.
5. The process of finding an indefinite integral of a given function is
called integration of the function.
6. The f(x) is primitive of a function f(x) defined on [a, b], then
b b
∫a f ( x ) dx = φ ( b ) − φ ( a ) where the symbol ∫ f ( x ) dx

a
is called the
definite integral of f(x) from x = a to x = b.
7. A solid of revolution is generated by a plane area about a fixed line,
called the axis of revolution, in the plane.
8. A surface of revolution is generated by revolving the perimeter of the
plane curve about a fixed line lying in its own plane.
9. The curve surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the area
bounded by the curve y = f(x) about x and y-axis respectively are
x =b y =d
given by ∫
x=a
2π y ds and ∫
y =c
2π x ds.
10. If the revolution is made neither x-axis, nor y-axis but about any
other line then the curved surface S = ∫ 2π ( PM )ds , where PM is the
perpendicular from any point P on the line about which the revolution
is to be made.
11. The curved surface in parametric form about x and y-axis
t = t2 t = t2
respectively are given by ∫ 2π y ( t ) ds and ∫ 2π x ( t ) ds , where

t = t1 t = t1
 dx   dy  
2 2
ds
=   +    .
dt  dt   dt  
12. The curved surface in polar form about θ = 0 and θ = π/2
θ =θ 2 θ =θ 2
respectively are given by ∫

θ =θ1
2π y ds and ∫
θ =θ1
2π x ds , where
ds  2  dr  2 
= r +   .
dθ   dθ  
13. The volume of the solid of revolution of about x and y-axis respectively
x =b y =d
are given by ∫
x=a
π y 2 dx and ∫ y =c
π x 2 dy .
14. The volume in parametric form about x and y-axis respectively

t = t2 dx t = t2 dy
are given by ∫t = t1
π y2
dt
dt and ∫t = t1
π x2
dt
dt .
15. The volume in polar form about θ = 0 and θ = π/2 respectively

θ =θ 2π
are given by ∫ 2π r 3 sin θ dθ and ∫θ =θ
θ
r 3 cos θ dθ .
2
2
θ 1 3 3 1
Exercise 2.1
2.1 The surface area of a hemi-sphere of radius a is
2 2
(a) πa (b) 2pa2
3
1 2
(c) πa (d) None of these
2
2.2 The surface area of a solid generated by the revolution of the curve
r = 2a cos q about q = 0 is
2
(a) π a 2 (b) 2pa2
3
Exercise 2.1 69
(c) 4pa2 (d) None of these

r = a (1 + cos q) about q = 0 is
1 2 32 2
(a) πa (b) πa
3 5
32 3
5
2.4 The volume of a hemi-sphere of radius a is
2 3 2 2
(a) πa (b) πa
3 3
1 3
2
2.5 The volume of a solid generated by the revolution of the cardioid
r = a (1 + cos q) about q = 0 is
1 2 8 3
(a) πa (b) πa
3 5
8 3
3
2.6 The volume of a solid generated by the revolution of the curve
y 2 (2a − x) =
x 3 about its asymptote is
1 2 3 8 3
(a) π a (b) πa
3 5
(c) 2π 2 a 3 (d) None of these
State True or False

2.1 The surface area of a sphere of radius a is 4pa2.
1 2
2.2 The volume of a sphere of radius a is πa .
3
4 2
a 2/3 is π a .
x 2/3 + y 2/3 =
3
8 3
r = a (1 – cos q) about q = 0 is π a .
3
2.5 The process of finding an anti-derivative of a function is integration.

8
r = 2a cos q about q = 0 is π a 3 .
3
Fill in the Blanks
2.1 A surface of …………… is generated by revolving the perimeter of the
plane curve about a fixed line lying in its own plane.
r = 2a cos 2q about q = 0 is ………………
b
2.3 The integral represents ∫ 2π y ds of a solid generated by the revolution
a
about x-axis of the area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the ordinates
x = a, x = b and x-axis.
2.4 The volume of a hemi-sphere of radius a is ………………...
2.5 The volume of a sphere of radius a is ………………...
2.6 The volume of a solid generated by the revolution of the loop of the
curve y2 = x2 (a – x) about x-axis is ………………...
Answers
2.1 (b) 2.2 (c) 2.3 (b) 2.4 (a)
2.5 (c) 2.6 (c)
State True or False

2.1 T 2.2 F 2.3 T 2.4 T
2.5 T 2.6 F
Fill in the Blanks

2 3
2.1 revolution 2.2 4 pa2 2.3 surface 2.4 πa
3
4 3 1 2 3
2.5 πa 2.6 π a .
3 12
qqq
3
Sequences
Learning Objectives

l understand the definition of sequence
l comprehend the bounded sequence
l explain the convergent, divergent and oscillatory sequence
l discuss the important theorems on sequence
l understand the sandwich theorem
l explain the Cauchy’s first and second theorems on limits
l discuss the monotonic sequence and Cauchy sequence
3.1 Introduction
Sequences have great importance for the fundamental concept of real analysis.
Sequences are the basic for series which is very important for solving
differential equations and finding roots of algebraic equations and etc. In
Mathematics, asequence is a chain of numbers that usually follows a specific
pattern. The individual elements in a sequence are known as terms. Sequences
can be both finite and infinite. Mathematical sequences and series are also used
in business and financial analysis to help in decision making problems and
getting the best solution to a given problem. There are numerous mathematical
sequences such as arithmetical and geometric sequences that follow a certain
rule, triangular number sequences built on a specific pattern, the famous
Fibonacci sequence based on recursive formula, sequences of square or cube
72 Chapter 3 Sequences
numbers etc. Sequences are broadly used to in engineering, management and

economics etc. to obtain the numerous possibilities of a definite situation or
criteria to build, design, analyze, or forecast etc.
3.2 Sequences
Let S be a non-empty set then a function whose domain is the set of natural
number and whose range is a subset of S is called a sequence in the set S. and
denoted by < Sn > n ∈ N.
To discuss sequences in details first we use some basic terms as mention
following:
Range of a sequence
The set of all element of a sequence is called the range of the sequence.The
range of a sequence < Sn > is equal to the number of distinct element in the set
{S1 , S2 ............} .
For example, the range of the sequence < ( −1)n >= {−1, 1} , a finite set.
Constant sequence
A sequence < Sn > defined by S n = a, ∀n ∈ N is called the constant sequence.
For example, the sequence < S n > = < a, a, a,.............. > is a constant sequence.
Its range 1, the singleton {a} is a finite set.
Equality of two sequences
Two sequence < Sn > and < tn > are said to be equal if S n= tn , ∀ n ∈ N .
Operation on sequence
Operations of sum, difference, product and division in sequence hold.
Sub sequence
Let < Sn > be a sequence then < n1 , n2 ,.............nk > be a strictly increasing
sequence then the sequence < S n1 , S n2 ,...........S nk > be a subsequence of < Sn >.
For example, the sequence < 22 , 42 ,62 ,............... > is a subsequence of the
sequence < 12 , 22 ,32 , 42 ,52 ,62 ,......... > .
3.3 Bounded sequence

(i) A sequence < Sn > is bounded above if the range set of < Sn > is bounded
above i.e., if there exist a real number k1 such that S n ≤ k1 , ∀n ∈ N .
3.4 Supremum and Infimum 73
(ii) A sequence < Sn > is bounded below if the range set of < Sn > is bounded
below i.e., if there exist a real number k2 such that S n ≥ k2 , ∀n ∈ N .
(iii) A sequence < Sn > is bounded if its range set is bounded i.e. if there
exist two real numbers k1 and k2 such that k2 ≤ S n ≤ k1 , ∀n ∈ N .
or equivalently there exist a positive number k such that S n ≤ k .
Note. 1. Every subsequence of a bounded sequence is bounded.
2. If the range of a sequence is a finite set, then the sequence is bounded
because a finite set is always bounded.
3.4 Supremum and Infimum

The least number M if it exists of the set of upper bound of < Sn > is called the
supremum or least upper bound.
The greatest number m if it exists of the set of lower bound of < Sn > is called
infimum or greatest lower bound.
Theorem: 3.1: A sequence < Sn > is bounded then there exist m ∈ N , l ∈ R and
a > 0 such that S n − l < a, ∀n ≥ m .
Proof. Consider the sequence < Sn > is bounded then there exist two positive
numbers k1 and k2 such that k1 < S n < k2 , ∀ n ∈ N .
k1 + k2 k +k k +k ∀n∈ N
⇒ k1 − < S n − 1 2 < k2 − 1 2 ,
2 2 2
k1 − k2 k +k k −k
⇒ < Sn − 1 2 < 2 1 , ∀n∈ N
2 2 2
− ( k2 − k1 ) k1 + k2 k2 − k1
⇒ < Sn − < , ∀n∈ N
2 2 2
k2 − k1 k1 + k2
⇒ −a < Sn − l < a , , where a
∀n∈ N= = , l
2 2
⇒ l − a < Sn < l + a , ∀n∈ N
⇒ Sn − l < a , ∀n ≥ m m = 1∈ N l∈R
Conversely, now let S n − l < a, ∀n ≥ m
⇒ l − a < S n < l + a, ∀ n ≥ N
=
Now let k1 min [ S1 , S 2 ,...............S n −1 , l − a ]
and
= k2 max [ S1 , S 2 ,...............S n −1 , l + a ]
Now S n ≥ k1 , S n ≤ k2 , ∀n ∈ N
⇒ k1 ≤ S n ≤ k2 , ∀n ∈ N
Hence the sequence < Sn > is bounded.
3.5 Convergent Sequence
A sequence < Sn > is said to converge to l if for ε > 0 there exists a positive
number m such that S n − l < ε, ∀ n ≥ m .
The number l is said to be limit of sequence < Sn > and written as lim S n = l
n →∞
or lim S n = l .
Theorem 3.2: If < Sn > is a sequence of non-negative numbers such that
lim S n = l , then l ≥ 0 .
n →∞
Proof. Suppose if possible l < 0 , then we have −l > 0 .
l
Since lim S n = l for ε = −   > 0 then there exist m ∈ N such that
n →∞
2
l
S n − l < − , ∀n ≥ m
2
l l
⇒ l+ < Sn < l −
2 2
l
⇒ Sn <
2
or Sn < 0
But by the hypothesis we have S n ≥ 0 . So our assumption is wrong. So we

must have l ≥ 0 .
Theorem 3.3: A sequence cannot converge to more than one limit i.e., the limit
of a sequence is unique.
Proof. Consider if possible, a sequence < Sn > converge to two limit i.e., l and
l′, i.e., l ≠ l′ and l − l ' > 0 .
3.5 Convergent Sequence 75
1
Take =
ε l −l' > 0
2
Now sequence < Sn > converge to l for ε > 0 then there exist a positive number
m1 ∈ N such that S n − l < ε ∀n ≥ m1 …(3.1)
Again sequence < Sn > converge l′ for ε > 0 then there exist a positive number
m2 ∈ N such that S n − l ' < ε, ∀n ≥ m2 …(3.2)
Now let m = max {m1 , m2 }

By equations (3.1) and (3.2) hold for n ≥ m
l −l' = ( Sn − l ') − ( Sn − l )
≤ Sn − l ' + Sn − l

≤ ε + ε = 2ε
≤ l −l'

This result is absurd so our assumption is wrong therefore so the limit of a

sequence is unique.
Theorem 3.4: Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Proof. Let < Sn > be a sequence which converge to a number l for ε > 1 then
there exist a positive number m such that
S n − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m
⇒ −ε < S n − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m
i.e., l − ε < S n < l + ε, ∀n ≥ m

=
Let k1 min {S1 , S 2 ,.........S n −1 , l − ε}
⇒ k1 ≤ S n , ∀n ∈ N ...(3.3)
=
And let k2 max {S1 , S 2 ,.........S n −1 , l + ε}
⇒ k2 ≤ S n , ∀n ∈ N ...(3.4)
By equations (3.3) and (3.4), we have

k1 ≤ S n ≤ k2 , ∀n ∈ N
Hence the sequence < Sn > is bounded.

3.6 Divergent sequence
A sequence is said to be a divergent sequence if it diverges to either + ∞ or – ∞.
2 3 n
For example 1. < x, x , x ,..............x ,......... >, x > 1 diverges to + ∞.
2. < − x, − x 2 , − x3 ,.............. − x n ,......... >, x > 1 diverges to – ∞.
3.7 Oscillatory Sequence
A sequence < Sn > is said to be an oscillatory sequence if it is neither convergent
nor divergent. An oscillatory sequence is said to oscillate finitely or infinitely
according as it is bounded or unbounded.
For example. 1. The sequence < ( −1) > oscillates finitely.

n
2. The sequence < ( −1)n n > oscillates infinitely.
Theorem 3.5: If a sequence < Sn > diverges to infinity then any subsequence of
< Sn > also diverges to infinity.
Proof. Let < Snk > be any subsequence of the sequence < Sn >. Then by the
definition of a subsequence < n1 , n2 ,..........nk > is a strictly increasing sequence
of positive integers.
Now < Sn > diverges to ∞ for k1 > 0 there exists m ∈ N such that
S n > k1 , ∀ n ≥ m
i.e., S k > k1 , ∀k ≥ m
\ S nk > k1 , ∀nk ≥ m
Hence the sequence < Snk > diverges to infinity.
Theorem. 3.6: If lim S n = l and lim tn = l ' then lim ( S n + tn ) =+
l l'.
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞
Proof. Let given ε > 0 then lim S n = l then there exist a positive number
m1 ∈ N such that
ε
S n − l < , ∀n ≥ m1 ...(3.5)
2
Now lim tn = l ' then there exists m2 ∈ N such that
ε
tn − l ' < , ∀n ≥ m2 ...(3.6)
2
3.7 Oscillatory Sequence 77
Now let m = max [ m1 m2 ]
Then by equations (3.5) and (3.6) hold for n ≥ m

Now for n ≥ m , we have
( S n + tn ) − ( l + l ' ) = ( S n − l ) + ( tn − l ' )
≤ S n − l + tn − l '

ε ε

≤ + =ε
2 2
Now for given ε > 0 , there exists a positive number m such that
( S n + t n ) − ( l + l ' ) < ε, ∀n ≥ m
Hence the sequence < S n + tn > is convergent and

lim ( S n + tn ) =l + l ' =lim S n + lim tn .
n →∞ n →∞ n →∞
Theorem 3.7: If lim S n = l and lim tn = l ' , then lim ( S n tn ) = l l ' .

n →∞ n →∞ n →∞
Proof. Let given ε > 0 , we have

S n tn − l l ' = S n tn − ltn + ltn − l l '

= tn ( S n − l ) + l ( tn − l ')
≤ tn ( S n − l ) + l ( tn − l ' )

≤ tn S n − l + l tn − l ' ...(3.7)

Now lim tn = l ' . So it is bounded then there exist a positive number k such that
tn < k , ∀n ∈ N
Again now lim S n = l and lim tn = l ' therefore ε > 0 there exist two positive
n →∞ n →∞
number m1 and m2 such that

ε
Sn − l < , ∀n ≥ m1 …(3.8)
2k
ε
and tn − l ' < , ∀n ≥ m2 …(3.9)
2l
Let m = max [ m1 , m2 ] now by equations (3.8) and (3.9) hold for n ≥ m by

equation (3.7) we have
ε ε
S n tn − l l ' < k . +l.
2k 2l
ε ε
< + =ε
2 2
Hence nlim
→∞
( S n tn ) = l l ' .
S  l
Theorem. 3.8: If lim S n = l and lim tn = l ' ( ≠ 0 ) , tn ≠ 0, ∀n then lim  n  = .
n →∞ t
n →∞ n →∞  n  l'
1 1
Proof. We know lim = l'≠ 0
n →∞ t l'
n
S   1
Now lim  n  = lim  S n 
n →∞ t
 n  n →∞
 tn 
n →∞
 1
= lim S n  lim 
 n→∞ tn 
( )
1 l
= l =
l' l'
1 1
Notes. 1. The sequence < > is bounded since ≤ 1, ∀n ∈ N .
n n
2. The sequence < n 2 > is bounded below by 1 but not bounded above.
3. The sequence < −n 2 > is bounded above by – 1 but not bounded

below.
4. The sequence < S n > = < u n n > is neither bounded below nor
bounded above.
5. A negative number cannot be the limit of a sequence of non nega-
tive number.
6. A sequence < S n > is called a null sequence, if lim S n = 0 .
7. If lim S n = l and l < 0 then there exists a positive integer m such
n →∞
that S n < 0, ∀n ≥ m .
3.8 Sandwich Theorem 79
8. All sub sequences of a convergent sequence converge to the same

limit.
9. The limit of a sequence is unique.
3.8 Sandwich Theorem

If < S n >, < tn > and < un > are three sequences of real numbers such that
(i) for some positive integer k, S n ≤ un ≤ tn for n > k.
(ii) nlim
= S n lim
= tn l , then lim u = l .
→∞ n →∞ n
n →∞
Proof. Let ε > 0 be given.

Since lim S n = l therefore there exist m1 ∈ N such that
S n − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m1
l − ε < S n < l + ε, n ≥ m1
Similarly, lim tn = l , therefore there exist m2 ∈ N such that

n →∞
tn − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m2
l − ε < tn < l + ε, n ≥ m2
Let m = max {m1 , m2 , k } then for n ≥ m , we have

l − ε < S n ≤ un ≤ tn < l + ε
l − ε < un < l + ε
Thus un − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m .
Hence nlim un = l .
→∞
3.9 Cauchy’s first theorem on limits

S1 + S 2 + ......... + S n
If lim S n = l , then lim =l .
n →∞ n →∞ n
Proof. Define a sequence < tn > such that
S n = l + tn , ∀n ∈ N
\ lim tn = 0 .
n →∞
S1 + S 2 + ........... + S n t + t + ............tn
and = l+ 1 2 …(3.10)
n n
In order to prove the theorem we wish to show that
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn
lim =0
n →∞ n
Let ε > 0 be given, since nlim tn = 0 therefore there exist a positive integer m
→∞
such that
ε
tn − 0 = tn < , ∀n ≥ m …(3.11)
2
Also since every convergent sequence is bounded hence there exist a real
number k > 0 such that
tn ≤ k , ∀n ∈ N …(3.12)
Now for all n ≥ m , we have

t1 + t2 + .......... + tn t + t + .......tm tm −1 + ............. + tn
= 1 2 +
n n n
t + t2 + ......... + tm t + tm − 2 + ........... + tn
≤ 1
+ m −1
n n
≤ mk + n − m . ε [from equations (3.11) and (3.12)]

n n 2
mk ε  n−m 

≤ +  0 ≤ < 1 …(3.13)
n 2  n 
mk ε 2mk
If m is fixed, then < or n >
n 2 ε
2mk
Let us choose a positive integer p > , then
ε
mk ε
< for n ≥ p …(3.14)
n 2
Let M = max {m, p} from equations (3.13) and (3.14), we have
t1 + t2 + ......... + tn ε ε
< + =ε, ∀n ≥ m
n 2 2
3.10 Cauchy’s Second Theorem on Limits 81
t1 + t2 + .......... + tn
Thus lim = 0 and by equation (3.10) we get,
n →∞ n
S1 + S 2 + .............. + S n
lim =l .
n →∞ n
3.10 Cauchy’s Second Theorem on Limits

If < Sn > is a sequence such that S n > 0, ∀n and nlim S n = l , then
→∞
lim ( S1 , S 2 ,.........S n )
1/ n
=l
n →∞ .
Proof. Let us define a sequence < tn > such that
=tn log S n ∀n
Since lim S n = l , therefore lim tn = log l .

n →∞ n →∞
By Cauchy’s first theorem on limits, we have

t1 + t2 + .........tn
lim = log l
n →∞ n
log S1 + log S 2 + .........log S n
i.e., lim = log l
n →∞ n
lim log ( S1 , S 2 ,............S n )
1/ n
i.e., = log l
n →∞
lim ( S1 , S 2 ......S n )
1/ n
Hence =l
n →∞
S n +1
Theorem. 3.9: If < Sn > is a sequence such that S n > 0, ∀n and nlim =l,
→∞ Sn
then lim n S n = l .
n →∞
Proof. Let us define a sequence < tn > such that

S2 S3 Sn
=t1 S=
1 , t2 = , t3 ,.............,
= tn ,.........
S1 S2 S n −1
\ t1 t2 .......tn = S n
S n +1 S
Also lim = l ⇒ lim n = l ⇒ lim tn = l
n →∞ S n →∞ S n →∞
n n −1
Since S n > 0 ∀n , hence tn > 0 ∀n

Thus we have a sequence < tn > such that tn > 0 ∀n and lim tn = l .
n →∞
Hence by cauchy’s second theorem, we have

lim ( t1 , t2 ,.........tn )
1/ n
=l
n →∞
lim ( S n )
1/ n
i.e., =l.
n →∞
3.11 Monotonic sequence
(a) A sequence < Sn > is said to be monotonically increasing if S n ≤ S n +1 , ∀n
i.e., S n ≤ S m , ∀n < m .
(b) A sequence < Sn > is said to be strictly increasing if S n < S n +1 , ∀n ∈ N .
(c) A sequence < Sn > is said to be monotonically decreasing if S n ≥ S n +1 , ∀n
i.e., S n ≥ S m for n > m.
(d) A sequence < Sn > is said to be strictly decreasing if S n > S n +1 , ∀n ∈ N .
(e) A sequence < Sn > is said to be monotonic if it is either monotonically
increasing or monotonically decreasing.
Example. 1. < 2, 2, 4, 4, ,........... > is monotonically increasing.
1 1 1 1
2. < − > is strictly increasing & < 1, , , ,.......... > is strictly
n 2 3 4
decreasing.
3. < 0, 1, 0, 1, ................ > is not monotonic & < −2, 2, −4, 4.......... >
is not monotonic.
Theorem. 3.10: Every bounded monotonically increasing sequence converge.
Proof. Let < Sn > be a bounded monotonically increasing sequence. Let
=S {Sn : n ∈ N } be the range of the sequence < Sn >. Then S is a non empty set
which is bounded above, hence by the completeness axiom for R, there exists
a number l = supremum S, we shall show that < Sn > converges to l.
Let ε > 0 be given. Then l − ε < l . So that l − ε is not an upper bound of S.
Hence there exist a positive integer m such that S m > l − ε . Since < Sn > is
monotonically increasing. Therefore
S n ≥ S m > l − ε, ∀ ≥ m …(3.15)
Also since l is the supremum of S therefore.
S n ≤ l < l + ε, ∀n …(3.16)
For equations (3.15) and (3.16), we get
3.12 Limit Point of a Sequence 83
l − ε < S n < l + ε, ∀n ≥ m
i.e., S n − l < ε, ∀n ≥ m
Hence lim S n = l .
Theorem. 3.11: Every bounded monotonically decreasing sequence converges.
Proof. Let < Sn > be a bounded monotonically decreasing sequence. Define
a sequence < tn > such that tn =− S n ∀n ∈ N . Then < tn > is a bounded
monotonically increasing sequence and hence by the above theorem. If
lim ( −tn ) =
converges. If lim tn = l , then lim S n = − lim tn =
−l
Note. Every bounded monotonic sequence converge.
3.12 Limit Point of a Sequence

A real number p is said to be limit point of sequence every neighborhood of p
contains infinite number of term the sequence.
3.13 Cauchy sequences
A sequence < Sn > is said to be a Cauchy sequence if given ε > 0 there exists
m ∈ N such that
S n − S m < ε, ∀n ≥ m .

S n + p − S n < ε, ∀n ≥ m and every p ≥ 0

or
or S m + p − S m < ε, ∀p ≥ 0
S p − S q < ε, ∀p, q ≥ m .
or
3.14 Some Important results

1. If lim S n = l and nlim tn = l ' then lim S1tn + S 2tn + ............... + S n tn = l l '
→∞
n →∞ n →∞ n
2. Every sequence has a monotonic subsequence.
1
3. Sequence < > has only one limit point namely 0.
n
4. The sequence < 1, 2,3,,.....................n,......... > has no limit point.
5. Every bounded sequence has at least one limit point.
6. Every bounded sequence has the greatest and the least limit point.
1
7. If < Sn > is a sequence of positive terms, then < Sn > is increasing < >
is decreasing. S n
Solved Examples
Example 3.1. Show that the sequence

( −1)n is convergent.
n
Sol. Suppose S n = ( −1)n / n .
Here we have lim

=
( −1)
S 2 n lim = lim = 0.
1
2n
n →∞ n →∞ 2n n →∞ 2n
and = ( −1)
lim S 2 n +1 lim= lim
2 n +1
= 0.
−1
n →∞ n →∞ 2n + 1 n →∞ 2n + 1
lim S 2 n lim
Therefore we get = = S 2 n +1 0 .
n →∞ n →∞
Thus lim S=
n 0, ∀n ∈ N ;
n →∞
Since 0 is a finite quantity. Hence the given sequence S n is a convergent

sequence.
4n
Example 3.2: Show that the sequence S n = has the limit 4.
n + 7 n1/2
Sol. Suppose ε > 0 i.e., ε is any positive number.
Here we have
4n 28n1/2
− 4 =
n + 7 n1/2 n + 7 n1/2
28
<
n1/2
Therefore we have
4n 28
1/2
−4 =ε if 1/2 < ε or n > 784 .
n + 7n n ε2
784
If we consider a positive number m > , then we get
ε2
S n − 4 =ε, ∀ n ≥ m.
Hence the limit of the given sequence S n is 4.

Solved Examples 85
Example 3.3: Show that the sequence S n where
 1 1 1 
S n= 
2
+ + ........... + .
 n + 1 n2 + 1 n 2 + 1 
n n
Sol. Suppose we have ≤ Sn ≤
2
n +n n2
1
≤ Sn ≤ 1
⇒ 1 .
1+
n
Now the sequences tn , S n , un are such that
(i) tn ≤ S n ≤ un , and
(ii) lim
= tn lim
= un 1 , where
n →∞ n →∞
1
=tn = and un 1
1 .
1+
n
Using (Sandwich theorem) (i) and (ii), we get lim S n = 1 .
n →∞
1
Example 3.4: Prove that lim
n →∞ n
{ }
1 + 21/2 + 31/3 + ............... + n1/ n =
1.
Sol. Suppose we have S n = n1/n .
⇒ lim S n lim
= = n1/ n 1 .
n →∞ n →∞
Using Cauchy’s first theorem on limits, we have

1
lim 1.
{S1 + S2 + S3 + ............... + Sn } =
n →∞ n
Hence lim 1 1 + 21/2 + 31/3 + ............... + n1/ n =

{ 1. }
n →∞ n
Example 3.5: Show that the sequence S n = 2n + 3 is bounded or not.

3n + 4
Sol. Suppose we have S = 2n + 3 .

n
3n + 4
5 7 19
i.e., Sn = , , , ........
7 10 13
The greatest member of the sequence is 5 i.e.,

7
5
S n ≤ , ∀n ∈ N .
7
Hence the given sequence S n is bounded.
Example 3.6: The sequence < 1, 1 , 1 ,...................... 1 > is a Cauchy sequence.

2 3 n
1
Sol. Let the given sequence be < Sn > where S n = take any given ε > 0 .
n
If n ≥ m , then we have
1 1
Sn − Sm =
−
n m
m−n
=
nm
n−m
=
nm
n−m 1 1  n−m 
= . <  0 ≤ < 1
n m m  n 
1
If we take m ∈ N such that m >
ε
1
i.e., <∈ then we have
m
1 1
S n − S m=
− <∈, ∀n ≥ m
n m
Hence the given sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Exercise 3
1. Show that every convergent sequence is bounded.
2. State and prove Sandwich theorem.
3. State and prove Cauchy’s first theorem on limits.
Recapitulation 87
4. State and prove Cauchy’s second theorem on limits.

5. Show that every Cauchy sequence is convergent.
6. Show that every bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.
1
7. Show that the sequence converges to 0.
n
3n
8. Show that the sequence S n = has the limit 3.
n + 5n1/2
9. Show that the sequence lim n1/ n = 1 .
n →∞
10. Show that the sequence =

Sn n ( )
n + 1 − n is convergent or not.
Recapitulation
1. Let S be a non-empty set then a function whose domain is the set of
natural number and whose range is a subset of S is called a sequence
in the set S.
2. The set of all element of a sequence is called the range of the sequence.
3. A sequence < Sn > defined by S n = a, ∀n ∈ N is called the constant
sequence.
4. Two sequence < Sn > and < tn > are said to be equal if S n = tn ∀ n ∈ N .
5. A sequence < Sn > is bounded above if the range set of < Sn > is bounded
above i.e., if there exist a real number k1such that S n ≤ k1 , ∀n ∈ N .
6. A sequence < Sn > is bounded below if the range set of < Sn > is bounded
below i.e., if there exist a real number k2 such that S n ≥ k2 , ∀n ∈ N
7. The least number M if it exists of the set of upper bound of < Sn > is
called the supremum or least upper bound and the greatest number
m if it exists of the set of lower bound of < Sn > is called infimum or
greatest lower bound.
8. A sequence < Sn > is said to converge to l if for ε > 0 there exists a
positive number m such that S n − l < ε , ∀ n ≥ m .
9. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
10. A sequence is said to be a divergent sequence if it diverges to either
+ ∞ or – ∞.
11. A sequence < Sn > is said to be an oscillatory sequence if it is neither

convergent nor divergent.
12. (Sandwich theorem) If < S n >, < tn > and < un > are three sequences
such that (i) for some positive integer k, S n ≤ un ≤ tn for n > k and
(ii) nlim
= S n lim
= tn l then lim u = l .
→∞ n →∞ n
n →∞
13. (Cauchy’s first theorem on limits) If lim S n = l , then

n →∞
S + S 2 + ......... + S n
lim 1 =l .
n →∞ n
14. (Cauchy’s second theorem on limits) If < Sn > is a sequence such that
S n > 0, ∀n and lim S n = l , then lim ( S1 , S 2 ,.........S n )
1/ n
=l .
n →∞ n →∞
15. A sequence < Sn > is said to be monotonically increasing

if S n ≤ S n +1 , ∀n i.e., S n ≤ S m , ∀n < m .
16. A sequence < Sn > is said to be monotonic if it is either monotonically
increasing or monotonically decreasing.
17. A sequence < Sn > is said to be a Cauchy sequence if given ε > 0
there exists m ∈ N such that S n − S m < ε, ∀n ≥ m.
Exercise 3.1
1. Every Cauchy sequence is
(a) convergent (b) divergent
(c) oscillatory (d) None of these
2. A sequence is Cauchy if and only if it is
(a) convergent (b) divergent
(c) oscillatory (d) None of these
3. An oscillatory sequence is
(a) always bounded (b) may or may not be bounded
(c) never bounded (d) none of these
Answers 89
4. Which of the following is not correct:

(a) If ( Sn ) is a sequence of non-negative numbers such that
lim S n = l , then l ≥ 0
(b) The limit of the sequence is unique
(c) A Cauchy sequence is convergent but converse is not true
(d) Every convergent sequence is bounded.
n +1
 1
5. lim 1 +  is equal to
n →∞  n
1
(a) (b) e
e
State True or False

1. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
2. Every bounded sequenceis convergent.
3. Limit of the sequence is unique.
4. Every subsequence of a convergent sequence is divergent.
5. The sequence =
S n sin nπ converges to 0.
Fill in the Blanks

1. Every Cauchy sequence is……………..
2. Every bounded monotonically increasing sequence is …………..
3. Every subsequence of a bounded sequence is ………………….
n
4. If a > e, then the lim n ! a  is given by………………….
n →∞ n
5. If the sequence S n converges to l then the sequence S n converges
to ….……
Answers
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b)
4. (c) 5. (b)
State True or False

1. T 2. F 3. T
4. F 5. T
Fill in the Blanks

1. convergent 2. convergent
3. bounded 4. + ∞
5. | l |
qqq
4
Infinite Series
Learning Objectives

l understand the infinite series and its types
l comprehend the convergent, divergent and oscillatory series
1
l explain the auxiliary series ∑n p
and comparison test
l discuss the Cauchy’s root test and D’ Alembert’s ratio test

l understand the Rabbe’s test, De Morgan’s and Bertrand’s test
l explain the Gauss’s test and Logarithmic test
4.1 Introduction
Infinite series play an important role in both theoretical and approximate handling
of differential equations that arise in engineering applications. Sometime we
cannot solve a second order differential equation with variable coefficient then
we use a method called Frobenius method to get approximated solution in
a series. In harmonic analysis, any periodic function can be expressed in an
infinite series of sine and cosine functions. In electrical engineering, some-
times ac voltage waveforms are not perfect sinusoidal waves therefore we use
Fourier series to approximate them very accurately as an infinite sum of sine
and cosine waveforms. In statistics theory, the moment generating functions
are used to express the mean, variance and other quantities which are in from
of the coefficients in a series. Hence the infinite series are the most powerful
majors tools used in analyzing differential equations, in developing methods
of numerical analysis, in defining new functions, etc.
92 Chapter 4 Infinite Series
4.2 Infinite Series and its types

Let us consider <un> is a sequence of real numbers. An expression is of the
form u1 + u2 +u3 +.................... + un +..........is said to be an infinite series, if the number

∞
of terms are in infinite. It is denoted by ∑u
n =1
n or ∑un.
A series ∑un is said to be convergent if the sum of its first n terms (say Sn),
tends to be a definite finite limit S as n tend to ∞, denoted as S = lim
n →∞
Sn .
A series ∑un is said to be divergent if the sum of its first n terms (say Sn ), tends
to + ∞ or – ∞ as n tends to ∞, denoted as lim S n = ∞ or − ∞ .
A series ∑un is said to be oscillatory if the sum of its first n terms (say Sn),
neither tends to a definite limit nor to + ∞ or – ∞ as n tends to ∞.
A series ∑un is said to be absolutely convergent if the series ∑|un| is convergent.
A series ∑un is said to be semi-convergent or conditionally convergent or non-
absolutely convergent if ∑un is convergent but ∑|un| is divergent.
Note: For a series ∑un to be convergent, it is necessary that lim un = 0 .
n →∞
1
4.3 Auxiliary Series ∑n p
An infinite series is of the form

1 1 1 1 1
∑ n p = 1p + 2 p + 3 p + ............... + n p + ........... …(4.1)
is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1
Proof:
Case 1: Consider p > 1. Here the terms of the given series (4.1) are all positive,
so we can write (4.1) as
1 1  1 1   1 1 1 1 
∑n p
= p
1 2
+ p + p + p + p + p + p 
3  4 5 6 7 
 1 1 
+  p + .......... + p  + ......... …(4.2)
8 15 
Now we have
3>2 ⇒ 3p > 2p, since p > 1
1 1
⇒ < p
3p 2
4.3 Auxiliary Series 93
Therefore we have
1 1 1 1
+ p < p+ p
2 p
3 2 2
1 1 2
or p
+ p < p
2 3 2
Similarly, we have
1 1 1 1 4
+ p+ p+ p < p
4 p
5 6 7 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8
and p
+ p + p + p + p + p + p + p < p , and so on.
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 8
Now from equation (4.2), we have
1 1 2 4 8
∑n p
<
1 p
+ p + p + p + .......................
2 4 8
… (4.3)
The right hand side of the (4.3) is a geometric series, whose common ration as
2 1
r == p
< 1 since p > 1.
2 2 p−1
Sum of n time of (4.3) is
 
1 − 1 
 ( 2 p −1 )n 
Sn =  
1
1 − p −1
2
 
1 − 1 
 ( 2 p −1 )n 
⇒ lim Sn = lim   finite
1
1 − p −1
2
1
Hence the series is convergent. So ∑n p
is also convergent where p > 1.
Case II. Consider p = 1 then the equation (4.1) can be written as
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑n p
= 1+ +  +  +  + + +  + ...................
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
… (4.4)
Now we have 3 < 4

1 1
⇒ >
3 4
1 1 1 1
i.e., + > +
3 4 4 4
1 1 1
or + >
3 4 2
Similarly, we have
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + >
5 6 7 8 2
Hence from equation (4.4), we have
1 1 1 1
∑n p > 1+ + + + ...................
2 2 2
Here the sum of the above series is
n
Sn = and lim S n = ∞, i.e., divergent series.
2
1
Hence the series is divergent. So ∑n p
is also divergent when p = 1
Case III. Consider p < 1 then the equation (4.1) can be written as
1 1
> for n = 2, 3, 4, …………… …(4.5)
np n
1 1 1 1 1
i.e., ∑n p
> 1+ + + + + ...................
2 3 4 5
which is a divergent series, as discussed in case II.
4.4 Comparison Test (V form)

Let us consider ∑un and ∑νn be the two series of positive terms such that
un
lim = l (finite and non – zero),
n →∞ v
n
then both the series converge or diverge together. In others words we can say
that the two series ∑un and ∑νn are either both convergent or both divergent.
Solved Examples 95
un u
Proof. We have > 0, ∀n so lim n = l ≥ 0 .
vn n →∞ v
n
But l ≠ 0 (by assumption)

un
Therefore lim = l > 0.
n →∞ vn
For any given ε > 0, there exists a positive number m such that
un
− l < ε, ∀n > m
vn
or un
l −ε< < l + ε, ∀n > m …(4.6)
vn
Since vn > 0, ∀ n; so multiplying both sides by νn in equation (4.6), we get
or ( l − ε ) ν n < un < ( l + ε ) vn ∀n > m …(4.7)
Here, if ∑νn is convergent then ∑ (l + ε) v n is also convergent, therefore ∑un

is also convergent.
Now again if ∑νn is divergent then ∑ (l + ε) v n is also divergent, therefore ∑un
is also divergent.
Solved Examples
Example 4.1: Test the convergence of the series
1 1 1
1+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ ....................
2.2 100
3.3100
4.4 100
1 1 1
Sol. The given series is 1 + 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ ....................
2.2 100
3.3 100
4.4 100
1 1
Here we have un = 1
= 101
Now we have n.n 100

n100
1
∑un = ∑ 101 ,

p
=
101 
> 1
n 100  100 
Therefore the auxiliary series ∑un is convergent.
1 1 1
Example 4.2: Test the convergence of the series + + + ................
2.3 3.4 4.5
1 1 1
Sol. The given series is + + + ................
2.3 3.4 4.5
1
Here we have un =
( n + 1)( n + 2 )
Consider νn 1
= .
n2
Here un n2 1
= =
vn ( )(
n + 1 n + 2 ) 1 + 1 + 2 
1
  
 n  n 
We have
un 1
lim = lim = 1 {finite and non-zero}
n →∞ v n →∞  1  2 
1 + 1 + 
n
 n  n 
1
Now we have ∑v = ∑ n
n 2
, (p = 2 > 1), therefore the auxiliary series ∑νn is
convergent. So by comparison test ∑un or ∑νn are either both convergent or
both divergent. Hence ∑un is also convergent.

1 1
Example 4.3: Test the convergence of the series + + ....................
1+ 2 2+ 3
1 1
Sol. The given series is + + ....................
1+ 2 2+ 3
1
Here we have un =
n + n +1
Consider νn 1
=
n1/ 2
We have
un n1/ 2 1
lim = lim = lim =1 (finite and non-zero)
n →∞ v n →∞ n + n +1 n →∞ 1
n
1+ 1+
n
1  1 
Now we have ∑ vn = ∑ 1/ 2 ,  p= < 1 , therefore the auxiliary series ∑ν is
n  2  n
divergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also divergent.

Solved Examples 97
1
Example 4.4: Test the convergence of the series ∑ .
( 2n − 1)
p
1
Sol. The given series is ∑
( 2n − 1)
p
1
Here we have un =
( 2n − 1)
p
Consider νn 1
=
We have np
un np 1 1
lim = lim = lim = p (finite and non-zero)
( 2n − 1)
n →∞ v p p
n
n →∞ n →∞
 1 2
2− 
 n
1
n p
, therefore the auxiliary series ∑vn is convergent
if p > 1 or divergent if p < 1. So by comparison test ∑un is also convergent if

p > 1 or divergent if p < 1.
Example 4.5: Test the convergence of the series ∑  n3 + 1 − n3  .


Sol. The given series is ∑  n3 + 1 − n3 


Here we have un = { n3 + 1 − n
3
}.
 1 
or un = n3  1 + 3 − 1
 n 
 1  
 1 1 1  2 − 1 
or un = n3/ 2 1 + 3
+  6
 + ....................... − 1
 2n 2 2!n 
 
  1 
 1  −  
1  2
or un = n3/ 2  3 + + ...........
 2n 2 2! n 6 
 
 1 1 
or un =  3/ 2 − 9/ 2 + ...........
 2n 8n 
1
Consider νn =
n3/ 2
un 1
We have lim = (finite and non-zero)
n →∞ vn 2
1  3 
n 3/ 2
,  p=

> 1 , therefore the auxiliary series∑νn
2 
is convergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also convergent.
4.5 Cauchy’s Root test
Let ∑un be a series of positive terms such that lim un1/ n = l . Then the series
n →∞
∑un.
(i) converges if l < 1
(ii) diverges if l > 1
(iii) test fail if l = 1.
Proof: Consider ∑un be a series of positive terms so un > 0, ∀n .
1/ n
Now un denote the positive nth root of un, Therefore we have lim un1/ n = l > 0 .
n →∞
For e > 0, there exist a positive number m such that

u1/n n − l < ε ,
∀n ≥ m
or l − ε < un1/ n < l + ε , ∀n > m
( l − ε ) < un < ( l + ε ) , ∀n > m

n n
i.e., …(4.8)
Case I. Consider l < 1, and choose e > 0 such that r = l + ε < 1
i.e., 0 < l < r < 1 then by equation (4.8)
un < rn
i.e.,
∑rn < ∑un.
i.e.,
Here we see that ∑rn is a geometric series, whose common ratio is r, which is
less than 1. So ∑rn is convergent series. Therefore by comparison test ∑un is
also convergent series.
4.6 D’ Alembert’s Ratio Test 99
Case II. Consider l > 1 and choose e > 0 such that r = l − ε > 1
i.e., 1 < r < l > 0 then by equation (4.8)
i.e., rn < un
i.e., ∑rn < ∑un.
Here we see that ∑rn is a geometric series, whose common ratio is r which is
greater than 1. So ∑rn is a divergent series. Therefore by comparison test ∑un
is also divergent.
1
Case III. Consider l = 1 and let un = .
n
Now we have
1
lim un1/ n = lim=1
n1/ n
Using comparison test the series is divergent series.
1
Consider un =
n2
Now we have
2
lim un1/ n == 1  1 
lim 2/ n lim
=   1
n →∞ n →∞ n n →∞ n1/ n
 
Using comparison test the series is convergent series.
Hence the above two examples shows that Cauchy’s root test fails to decide
the natures of the series when l = 1 or in other words if l = 1 then we can say
nothing divergent and convergent series i.e., test fail.
4.6 D’ Alembert’s Ratio Test

un +1
Let ∑un be a series of positive term such that lim = l . Then the series∑un
n →∞ un
(iii) test fail if l = 1
Proof. Consider ∑un be a series of positive terms so un > 0, ∀n .
un +1
We have >0
un
un +1
⇒ lim = l > 0.
n →∞ un
un +1
Now lim = l therefore e > 0, there exist integer m such that
n →∞ un
un +1
− l < ε, ∀n ≥ m
un
un +1
i.e., (l − ε) < < ( l + ε ) , ∀n ≥ m
un
Putting n = m, m + 1, .......... ......(n – 1) in succession in the above inequality
and multiplying the corresponding sides (n – m) inequality, we get
un
( l − ε) < ( l + ε ) , ∀n > m
n−m n−m
<
um
um um
(l − ε) < un < ( l + ε )
n n
i.e., , ∀n > m …(4.9)
(l − ε) (l + ε)
m m
Case I. Consider l < 1 and choose e < 0 such that

r = l+e<1
then 0 < l<r<1
From equation (4.9), we get
um
un < a r n , where a = ∈ R+
rm
Here we see that ∑rn is a geometric series with common ration less then unity,
so it is convergent. Therefore by comparison test ∑un is also convergent.
Case II. Consider l > 1 and choose e > 0 such that
r = l–e>1
um
un > βr n , where a = m
∈ R+
r
Here we see that ∑rn is a geometric series with common ratio greater then
unity, so it is divergent. Therefore by comparison test ∑un is also divergent.
1 1
Case III. Consider l = 1 and let ∑u = ∑ n n 2
, where un =
n2
and
1
un +1 =
( n + 1)
2 .
Solved Examples 101
un +1 n2 1
Now we have lim = lim
= lim
= 1
( n + 1)
n →∞ u 2 2
n
n →∞ n →∞
 1
1 + 
 n
1
Using comparison test the series ∑ 2 , ( p= 2 > 1) is convergent series.
n
1
Now again consider ∑ un = ∑ is a series then we have
n
1 1
un = , un +1 =
n ( + 1)
n
un +1 n 1
Now we have lim lim
== lim
= 1
n →∞ un n →∞ n +1 n →∞  1
1 + 
 n
1
Using comparison test the series ∑ n , (p = 1) is divergent series.
Hence the above two examples shows that D’ Alembert’s ratio test not decided
the series is convergent or divergent when l = 1 or in other words if l = 1 then
we can say nothing divergent and convergent series i.e., test fail.
Note: Due to maintain similarity on solving all examples, we use D’Alemert’s

u
ratio test as in form: If ∑un is a series of positive term such that lim n = l ,
n →∞ u
then the series ∑u n
n +1
(i) converges if l > 1

(ii) diverges if l < 1
Solved Examples
1
Example 4.6: Test the convergence of the series ∑ 1+
1
n n
1
Sol. The given series is ∑ 1+
1 .
n n
1 1
Here we have un = 1+1/ n
=
n n . n1/ n
Now we have
1
lim un = lim = 0 <1.
n →∞ n →∞ n. n1/ n
Hence by the Cauchy root test the given series ∑un is convergent.
n2
 n 
Example 4.7: Test the convergence of the series ∑   .
 n +1
n2
 n 
Sol. The given series is ∑   .
 n +1
n2
 n 
Here we have un =  
 n +1
n
n2 / n
 n
 n   n  nn  1 
We have u1/n n =  =  =   
 n +1  n +1 nn  1 + 1 
Now we have  n
Hence by the Cauchy root test the given series ∑un is convergent.
+ ............... + ( n + 1) x .
3x 2 4 x3 n
2x + +
8 27 n3
+ ............... + ( n + 1) x .
3x 2 4 x3 n
Sol. The given series is 2 x + +
8 27 n3
Here we have un =
( n + 1) x n …(4.10)
n3
( n + 2 ) x n +1
Then we have un+1 =
( n + 1)
3
Now we have
( n + 1) ( x n ) ( n + 1)
3
un
lim = lim
n →∞ u n →∞ n3 ( n + 2 ) x n +1
n +1
3
 1  1 
1 + 1 +  1
n  n 
= lim  =
n →∞  2  x
1 +  x
 n 
Here three cases arise:
1
Case-I: If > 1 or x < 1 by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x
convergent.
Solved Examples 103
1
Case-II: If < 1 or x > 1 by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x
divergent.
Case-III: If x = 1 then the D’ Alembert’s ratio test fails.
Now we put x = 1 in the equation (4.10), we have
n +1 1
un = 3
, vn = 2
n n
We have
un n 2 ( n + 1)  1
lim = lim = lim 1 + = 1
n →∞ v 3
n n →∞ n n →∞
 n
(finite and non-zero)
1
Now we have ∑ vn = ∑ 2 , (p = 2 > 1), therefore the auxiliary series ∑vn is
n
convergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also convergent.
Hence the given series ∑un is convergent if x < 1 and x > 1 is divergent.
( n + 1) x n + ..........
n
2 32 2 43 3
x + x + x + .............. +
13 23 34 n n +1
( n + 1) x n + ..........
n
2 32 43
Sol. The given series is 3 x + 3 x 2 + 4 x3 + .............. +
1 2 3 n n +1
( n + 1)
n
Here we have un = n +1
xn …(4.11)
n
( n + 2)
n +1
Then we have un+1 = x n +1

( n + 1)
n+2
( n + 1) x n ( n + 1)
n n+2
un
Now we have lim = lim
n →∞ u
n n +1 . ( n + 2 ) x n +1
n →∞ n +1
n +1
n n+2
 1  1
n n 1 +  x n n n + 2 1 + 
 n   n
= n +1
 2
n n +1n n +1 1 +  x n x
 n
n n+2
 1  1
1 +  1 + 
 n  n = 1
= lim n +1
n →∞
 2 x
x 1 + 
 n
1
x
convergent.
1
divergent. x
( n + 1)
n
un = nn 1
vn
and= = .
n n +1 n n +1
n
We have
lim n = lim ( n +)1

n n
u n + 1 .n  1
n →∞ v
lim
=  1 +  =e > 1 (finite and non-zero)
n
n →∞
n n →∞
 n
1
Now we have ∑v = ∑ n,
n (p = 1), therefore the auxiliary series ∑vn is
divergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also divergent.
x x2 x3
Example 4.10: Test the convergence of the series + + + .................
1.2 2.3 3.4
x x2 x3
Sol. The given series is + + + .................
1.2 2.3 3.4
xn
Here we have un = …(4.12)
n . ( n + 1)
x n +1
Then we have un+1 =
( n + 1)( n + 2 )
Now we have
 2
un x ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
2 1 +  1
lim = n
n →∞ u lim = 
= lim =
n +1 n →∞ n .( n + 1) x n +1 n →∞ x x
Solved Examples 105
1
x
convergent.
1
x
divergent.
1 1
un = and vn = 2
n . ( n + 1) n
We have
un n2 1
n →∞ v n →∞ n . ( n + 1) n →∞  1
1 + 
n
 n
1
Now we have ∑ vn = ∑ 2 , (p = 2 > 1), therefore the auxiliary series ∑vn is
n
convergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also convergent.
n
Example 4.11: Test the convergence of the series xn , ( x > 0) .
(n 2
+ 1)
n
Sol. The given series is xn , ( x > 0)
(n 2
+ 1)
n
Here we have un = xn …(4.13)
(n 2
+ 1)
n +1
Then we have un+1 = x n +1
( n + 1)
2
+1
Now we have
n x n ( n + 1) + 1
2
un
lim = lim
n →∞ u
n +1
n →∞
n 2 + 1. n + 1x n +1
2
 1 1
1 +  + 2
= lim  n  n = 1
n →∞ 1 1 x
1+ 2 1+ 2 .x
n n
1
x
convergent.
1
x
divergent.
n 1
un = and vn =
2
n +1 n1/ 2
We have
un n . n1/ 2 1
n →∞ v n →∞ 2
n +1
n →∞ 1
n 1+ 2
n
1  1 
n 1/ 2
,  p=

< 1 , therefore the auxiliary series ∑vn
2 
is divergent. So by comparison test ∑un is also divergent.
4.7 Rabbe’s Test
If ∑un be a series of positive term, then the series ∑un is convergent or divergent
  un  
according to as lim  n − 1  > 1 or < 1.
n →∞
  un +1  
  u  
Proof: Case I. Consider lim n  n − 1  = k where k > 1
  un +1  
n →∞
Now choose a number p such that k > p > 1.
By sixth form of comparison test ∑un is convergent if after some particular

4.7 Rabbe’s Test 107
term
un v 1 1
> n (compare ∑un with
un +1 vn +1 ∑v = ∑ n
n p
and vn +1 =
( n + 1)
p )
( n + 1)
p p
un 1
or > = 1 + 
un +1 np  n
un p p ( p − 1) 1
or >1+ + + ...................
un +1 n 2! n 2
un p p ( p − 1) 1
or −1 > + + ........................
un +1 n 2! n 2
 u  p ( p − 1) 1
or n  n − 1 > p + + ......................... …(4.14)
 un +1  2! n
If n be taken sufficiently large the left hand side and right hand side of (4.14)
respectively approach k and p, also k > p.
  u  
Hence the series ∑un is convergent if lim n  n − 1  > 1 .
n →∞
  un +1  
  un  
Case II. Consider lim  n − 1  =l where l < 1.
  un +1  
n →∞
Now choose a number p such that l < p < 1.

1
Compare ∑un with the auxiliary series ∑v = ∑ n
n p
By the sixth form of comparison test ∑un is divergent if after some particular
term
( n + 1) 1 + 1 
p p
un v
< n = p =  
un +1 vn +1 n  n
un p p ( p − 1) 1
or <1+ + + ...................
un +1 n 2! n 2
 un  p p ( p − 1) 1
or  − 1 < + + ....................
 un +1  n 2! n 2
 u  p ( p − 1) 1
or n  n − 1 < p + + ....................... …(4.15)
 un +1  2! n
respectively approach l and p, also l < p.
  u  
Hence the series ∑un is divergent if lim n  n − 1  < 1 .
n →∞
  un +1  
  un  
Case III. If lim n  − 1  =1 the Rabbe’s test fail.
  un +1  
n →∞
Note. If D’Alembert’s ratio test fails then we apply Raabe’s test.
Solved Examples

7
x 1 x 3 1.3 x5 1.3.5 x
1+ + + + ...............
1 2 3 2.4 5 2.4.6 7
7
x 1 x 3 1.3 x5 1.3.5 x
Sol. The given series is 1 + + + + ...............
1 2 3 2.4 5 2.4.6 7
1.3...................... ( 2n − 1) x 2 n +1
Here we have un = …(4.16)
2.4....................... ( 2n )( 2n + 1)
1.3............... ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1) x 2 n + 3
Then we have un+1 =
2.4.................... ( 2n )( 2n + 2 )( 2n + 3)
un ( 2n + 2 )( 2n + 3)
So we have = …(4.17)
( 2n + 1) x 2
2
un +1
Now we have
un ( 2n + 2 )( 2n + 3) = 1
lim = lim
( 2n + 1) x 2
2
n →∞ u
n +1
n →∞ x2
1
Case-I: If > 1 or x2 < 1 by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x2
convergent.
1
Case-II: If 2
< 1 or x2 > 1 by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x
divergent.
Solved Examples 109
Case-III: If 1 = 1 or x2 = 1 then the D’ Alembert’s ratio test fails.

x2
Now we put x2 = 1 in the equation (4.17), we have
un = ( 2n + 2 )( 2n + 3)
( 2n + 1)
2
un +1
Using Raabe’s test, we have
 u    4n 2 + 10n + 6 − 4n 2 − 1 − 4n  
lim  n  n − 1 = lim  n  
  ( 2n + 1) 
2
  un +1   
n →∞ n →∞
 ( 6n + 5 ) 
= lim n 2 
n →∞
 ( 2n + 1) 
5
6+
n = 6= 3 > 1.
= lim 2
n →∞
 1 4 2
 2 + 
 n
Therefore by Rabbe’s test, the given series ∑un is convergent when x2 = 1

Hence the given series ∑un is convergent if x2 < 1 and x2 > 1 is divergent.
Example. 4.13: Test the convergence of the series

1 1.3 2 1.3.5 2
1+ x+ x + x + .....................
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 2 1.3.5 2
Sol. The given series is 1 + x+ x + x + .....................
2 2.4 2.4.6
1.3.5.................... ( 2n − 1) x n
Here we have u = …(4.18)
2.4.6................ ( 2n )
1.3.5................... ( 2n − 1)( 2n + 1)
un+1 = x n +1
2.4.6..................... ( 2n )( 2n + 2 )
Then we have
un ( 2n + 2 )
So we have = …(4.19)
un +1 ( 2n + 1) x
Now we have
 2
1 + 
lim
un
= lim
( 2n + 2 )
= lim
 n = 1
n →∞ u n →∞ ( 2n + 1) x n →∞  1 x
n +1 x 2 + 
 n
1
x
convergent.
1
x
divergent.
un ( 2n + 2 )
= ,
un +1 ( 2n + 1)
Using Raabe’s test, we have
  u   2n + 2   n
lim  n  n − 1  = lim  n  − 1  =
lim
n →∞ u
  n +1   n →∞
  2n + 1   n →∞ 2n + 1
1 1
lim = <1
= n →∞  1 2
 2 + 
 n
Therefore by Rabbe’s test, the given series ∑un is divergent when x = 1. Hence
the given series ∑un is convergent if x < 1 and x > 1 is divergent.
4.8 De Morgan’s and Bertrand’s Test
   un
   
according to as lim  n − 1 − 1 log n  > 1 or < 1.
  un +1  
n →∞

   u   
Proof: Case I. Consider lim  n  n − 1 − 1 log n  =k where k > 1.
   un +1   
4.8 De Morgan’s and Bertrand’s Test 111
Now choose a number p such that k > p > 1.
1
Compare ∑un with ∑v = ∑ n
n is convergent since p > 1.
( log n )
p
By the sixth form of comparison test ∑un is convergent if after some particular
term.
p
 1  1 
( n + 1) log ( n + 1)
p 1 +  log n 1 +  
un v  n   n 
> n = =
n [ log n ] [log n]
p p
un +1 vn +1
p
 1  1 
1 +  log n + log 1 +  
or un  n  n 
>
[log n]
p
un +1
p
 1  1 1 1 
1 +  log n +  − 2 + 3 − ........  
or un  n   n 2n 3n 
>
[log n]
p
un +1
p
un  1   1 1 
or > 1 +  1 + − 2 + ......
un +1  n   n log n 2n log n 
un  1   p p 
or > 1 +  1 + − 2 + ............
un +1  n   n log n 2n log n 
un 1 p p p p
or >1+ + + 2 − 2 − 3 + ...........
un +1 n n log n n log n 2n log n 2n log n
 un  1 p p p
or  − 1 > + − 2 + 2 + .......................
 un +1  n n log n 2n log n n log n
 u  p p p
n  n − 1 > 1 +
or − + + ..................
 un +1  log n 2n log n n log n
or   un   p p p
n  − 1 − 1 > − + + ...................
  un +1   log n 2n log n n log n
   un    p
or  n  − 1 − 1 log n  > p − + ...................... …(4.20)
   un +1    2n
respectively approach k and p, also k > p. Thus the equation (4.20) is satisfied
for sufficient large value of n.
   u   
Hence the series ∑un is convergent if lim  n  n − 1 − 1 log n  > 1 .
n →∞
   un +1   
Case II. Similarly, it can be proved as in the case of Raabe’s test that the series
   u   
∑un is divergent if lim  n  n − 1 − 1 log n  < 1 .
   un +1  
n →∞

Note. If D’Alembert’s ratio and Raabe’s tests both are fails then we use De
Morgan’s and Bertrand’s test.
4.9 Gauss’s Test
un
Let ∑un be a series of positive terms and can be expressed in the form
un +1
un a b
=1 + + np , where p > 1 and | bn | < a fixed number k or bn tends to a
un +1 n n
finite limit as n → ∞, then the series∑un converges if a > 1 and diverges if
a ≤ 1.
4.10 Logarithmic Test
If ∑un be a series of positive terms then the series ∑un is convergent or

 un 
divergent according to as lim n log  > 1 or < 1.
n →∞
 un +1 
 u 
Proof: Case-I. Consider lim n log n  = k where k > 1.
 un +1 
Choose a number p such that k > p > 1.

1
Now compare the given series with auxiliary series ∑v = ∑ n
n p is convergent
as p > 1.
By the sixth form of comparison test ∑un is convergent if after some particular
term
4.11 Alternative to Bertrand’s Test 113
( n + 1)
p
un v
> n =p
un +1 vn +1 n
p
un  1 
or > 1 + 
un +1  n  (now take log both sides)
p
un  1
or log > log 1 + 
un +1  n
un  1
or log > p log 1 + 
un +1  n
un 1 1 1 
or log > p  − 2 + 3 − .....................
un +1  n 2n 3n 
un p p
or n log > p− + 2 − .................. …(4.21)
un +1 2n 3n
respectively approach k and p, also k > p. Thus the equation (4.21) is satisfied
for sufficient large value of n.
 u 
Hence the series ∑un is convergent if lim n log n  > 1 .
n →∞
 un +1 
Case II. Similarly, it can be proved that as in case I, the series ∑un is divergent
 u 
if lim n log n  < 1 .
n →∞
 un +1 
4.11 Alternative to Bertrand’s Test

 u  
according to as lim  n log n − 1 log n  > 1 or < 1
n →∞
 un +1  
4.12 Alternating Series
A series of the form
∞
∑ ( −1)
n −1
u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + .... + ( −1)
n −1
un + .... = un , where un > 0, ∀n
n=0
…(4.22)
is called alternating series.
The alternating series (4.22) is said to be convergent if

(i) un+1 ≤ un ∀n
(ii) lim un = 0 , i.e., un → 0 as n → ∞.

n →∞
Note: The above conditions are called the alternating series test (or Leibnitz
test) for an alternating infinite series.
Solved Examples
12 1232 123252
Example 4.14: Test the convergence of the series + + + ...............
22 22 42 22 42 62
12 1232 123252
Sol. The given series is + + + ...............
22 22 42 22 42 62
123252................ ( 2n − 1)
2
Here we have un =
22 42 62................ ( 2n )
2
123252..................... ( 2n − 1) ( 2n + 1)
2 2
Then we have un+1 =

22 42 62...................... ( 2n ) ( 2n + 2 )
2 2
Using D’Alembert’s ratio test, we have

2
 2
2+ 
( 2n + 2 )
2
un  n  =1
lim = lim = lim 2 (i.e., test fail)
( 2n + 1)
n →∞ u 2
n →∞ n →∞
 1
n +1
 2 + 
 n
Now applied Raabe’s test, we have
 un   ( 2n + 2 ) 2 
lim n  lim n
− 1 = n →∞  − 1
( )
2
n →∞ u
 n +1  
 2 n + 1 
 4 n 2 + 4 + 8n − 4 n 2 − 1 − 7 n 
= lim n 
( 2n + 3)
2
n →∞
 
 3 + 4n 
= lim n 
 ( 2n + 1) 
n →∞ 2
Solved Examples 115
3 
n . n  + 4
 n 
= lim 2
n →∞
 1
n2 2 + 2 
 n 
 3
4+ 
 n
= lim 2
n →∞
 1 
 2 + 
 n2 
4
= = 1. (i.e., test fail)
4
Now apply De Morgan’s Bertrand’s test, we have

   u      4n 2 + 3n  
lim  n  n − 1 − 1 log n  = lim   − 1 log n 
 n →∞   ( 2n + 1)
2
n →∞
   un +1    
  4n 2 + 3n − 4n 2 − 1 − 4n  
lim 
= n →∞   log n 
( 2n + 1)
2
   
  − ( n + 1)  
= lim   log n 
  ( 2n + 1) 
2
n →∞

  1 
 − 1 +  
= lim   n   log n
n →∞ 
1  n
2

2 +  
 n 
1
= − × 0 = 0 < 1
2
Hence by De Morgan’s Bertrand’s test, the given series ∑un is divergent.
22 22 42 22 42 62
1+ + + + ...................
32 3252 3252 7 2
22 22 42 22 42 62
Sol. The given series is 1 + + + + ...................
32 3252 3252 7 2
22 42 62........... ( 2n )
2
Here we have un =
32 52 7 2............... ( 2n + 1)
2
22 42 62.................. ( 2n ) ( 2n + 2 )
2 2
Then we have un+1 =

3252 7 2.............. ( 2n + 1) ( 2n + 3)
2 2

2
 3
 2+ 
( 2n + 3) lim
2
un  n
lim = lim
= = 1 (i.e., test fail)
( 2n + 2 )
2 2
n →∞ un +1 n →∞ n →∞
 2
2+ 
 n
Now applied Raabe’s test, we have
  u    ( 2n + 3) 2  
lim  n  n − 1  = lim  n  − 1 
n →∞ 
( )  
2
  un +1    2 n + 2
n →∞
 
  4n 2 + 9 + 12n  
= n →∞  n  2
lim − 1 
  4 n + 4 + 8n 
  4n 2 + 9 + 12n − 4n 2 − 4 − 8n  
= lim n 
n →∞ 

  ( 4 n 2
+ 4 + 8 n ) 


  5 + 4n  
= lim n 
n →∞ 
( ) 
2

  2 n + 1 

  5 
  4+ 
lim  n 2
 n 
= n →∞
  2 1 
  4n  1 + n 2   
   
  5 
  4 +   
= lim  1  n 

n →∞  4
 1+ 1 
  2 
n 
 
= 1 (i.e., test fail)
Now apply De Morgan’s Bertrand’s test, we have
Solved Examples 117
   u      4n 2 + 5n  
lim  n  n − 1 − 1 log n  = lim   − 1 log n 
  ( 2n + 2 )
2
   un +1   
n →∞ n →∞
 
  4n 2 + 5n − 4n 2 − 4 − 8n  
= lim   log n 
4 ( n + 1)
2
n →∞
   
  ( −4 − 3n )  
= lim   log n 
  4 ( n + 1) 
2
n →∞

 4 
  −3 −  
 n  log n 
= lim
n →∞ 
.
 1
2
n 
 4 1 +  
  n 
−3
= × 0 = 0 < 1.
4
Hence by De Morgan’s Bertrand’s test, the given series ∑un is divergent.

1! 2! 3! 4!
1+ x + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + .......
2 3 4 5
1! 2! 3! 4!
Sol. The given series is 1 + x + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + 4 x 4 + .......
2 3 4 5
n! x n
Here we have un =
( n + 1)
n
u n +1 =
(n + 1) x n +1
Then we have un+1 =
(n + 2)n+1
n +1
 2
un ( n + 2)
n +1 1 +  e
lim = =
lim lim
=  n …(4.23)
( n + 1) x n→∞ 1 + 1  x x
n →∞ u n →∞ n +1 n +1
n +1
 
 n
e
Case-I: If > 1 or x < e by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x
convergent.
e
Case-II: If < 1 or x > e by D’ Alembert’s ratio test the given series is
x
divergent.
e
Case-III: If = 1 or x = e then the D’ Alembert’s ratio test fails.
x
Put x = e in equation (4.23), we get
n +1
 2
un 1 +  e2
n
lim = lim  = lim
= 1 (i.e., test fail)
n →∞ un +1 n →∞
 1
n +1 n →∞ e 2
1 +  e
 n
Now apply Logarithmic test, we have
  u     2  1 
lim  n  log n   = lim  n  ( n + 1) log 1 +  log 1 +  − log e  
un +1   n →∞
   n  n 
 
n →∞
  2 4 8  
 ( n + 1)  − 2 + 3  
   n 2n 3n   
= lim n
  − ( n + 1)  1 + 1 + 1 ....  − 1 
n →∞
  
 n 2n
2  
3n3   
  2 8  2 2 8  
  2 − + 3 ..... +  − 2 + 3 ........  
n   n 3n  n n 3n  
= lim
n →∞  
 1 1  1 1 1  
  − 1 − + 2 ....... −  − 2 + 3   
   2n 3n   n 2n 3n   
 8   2 8 
 2n − 2 + 3n .... + 2 − n + 3n 2 ....
= lim    
n →∞ 
 1 1   1 1 
 − n − + ... − 1 − + 2 .. 
  2 3n   2n 3n  
 1 
=  −2 + 2 + − 1
 2 
1
= − < 0
2
Solved Examples 119
Hence by Logarithmic test, the given series ∑un is divergent.

1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ 1+ + 1+ + +
x + x 2 + x 2 3 + x 2 3 4 + ......

1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ 1+ + 1+ + +
Sol. The given series is x + x 2
+x 2 3
+x 2 3 4
+ ......
1 1 1
1+ + +.......+
Here we have un = x 2 3 n
1 1 1 1
1+ + +..........+ +
Then we have un+1 = x 2 3 n n +1

un 1
lim = lim 1 = 1 (i.e., test fail)
n →∞ u n →∞
n +1
x n +1
Now apply Logarithmic test, we have
 u   n  1 
lim  n log n  = lim
n →∞  n + 1
log   
n →∞
 un +1    x 
1 1  1
= lim  log    = log
n →∞ n x x
  
1 1
Case-I: If log > 1 or x < by Logarithmic test the given series is convergent.
x e
1 1
Case-II: If log < 1 or x > by Logarithmic test the given series is divergent.
x e
1 1
Case-III: If log = 1 or x = then the Logarithmic test fails.
x e
1
Now put x = and apply alternative Bertrand test, we have
e
 u    n 1  
lim  n log n − 1 log n  = lim  log − 1 log n 
n →∞
 un +1   n →∞  n + 1
 (1 / e )  
 n  
= lim  − 1 log n 
n →∞  n + 1
  
 −1 
= lim log n 
n →∞  n + 1
 
 
 −1 log n 
= lim  1. 
n →∞
1 + n 
 n 
= (– 1).0 = 0 < 1 divergent.
Therefore by alternative to Bertrand’s test, the given series ∑un is divergent
1 1 1
at x = . Hence the given series ∑un is convergent if x < and x ≥ is
e e e
divergent.
1 1 1 1
Example 4.18: Test the convergence of the series 1 − + − + − ..............
1! 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 1
Sol. The given series is 1 − + − + − ..............
1! 2! 3! 4!
∞
∑ ( −1)
n −1
Here the given series is in form un i.e., alternating series, where
n=0
1 1
un = and un +1 =
n! ( n + 1)!
So we have
1 1 n !− ( n + 1)!
un +1 − un = − = <0
( n + 1)! n! n!( n + 1)!
i.e., un +1 ≤ un , ∀n
Now we have
1
lim un = lim = 0.
n →∞ n →∞ n!
Hence by Leibnitz’s test for alternative series, the given series is convergent.
1 1 1 1
Example 4.19: Test the convergence of the series 1 − + − + .................
2 4 8 16
Exercise 4 121
1 1 1 1
Sol. The given series is 1 − + − + .................
2 4 8 16
∞
∑ ( −1)
n −1
Here the given series is in form un i.e., alternating series, where
n=0
1 1 1 1
un = 1 − + − + .............
2 4 8 16
So we have
1 1 1 1
∑ ( −1)
n −1
un = 1 + + + + + ........
2 4 8 16
1
Now we have un ' =
2n
Using Cauchy root test, we have
lim u 'n1/ n = lim 1 = 1 < 1 (i.e., convergent)

n →∞ n→∞ 2 n / n 2
Hence the given series is absolutely convergent.
Exercise 4
Test the convergence of the following series:
1.2 3.4 5.6

1. + + + ...................
32.42 52.62 7 2.82
2 −1 3 −1 4 −1
2. 3
+ 2 + 2 + .......................
3 −1 4 −1 5 −1
n
3. ∑ n +2 5
4. ∑  1 sin 1 
 n n
1
5. ∑ cos n
n2
 1
6. ∑ 1 + 
 n
− n3/2
 1 
7. ∑ 1 + 
 n
8. ∑  n4 + 1 − n2 

x x 2 x3
9. 1 + + + + .........
1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3 xn
10. 1 + + + + ................ + 2 + .............
2 5 10 n +1
1 1.2 2.3 1.2.3.4

11. + + + + ....................
2 3.5 3.5.7 3.5.7.9
n !.3n
12. ∑ nn
xn
13. ∑
a+ n
 3n − 1 
14. ∑  2n 

n3 − 1 n
15. ∑n 3
+1
x , ( x > 0)
1 x 2 1.3.5 x 4 1.3.5.7.9 x 6
16. 1 + . + . + . + .................
2 4 2.4.6 8 2.4.6.8.10 12
x 1 x 3 1.3 x 5 1.3.5 x 7
17. + + + + ..................
1 2 3 2.4 5 2.4.6 7
2 2 3 3 4 4
18. x + 2 x + 3 x + 4 x + ..................
2! 3! 4!
19. 1 +
(1 − a ) + (1 + a ) a (1 − a )( 2 − a ) +
12 12 22
( 2 + a )(1 + a ) a (1 − a )( 2 − a )( 3 − a )
+
12 22 32
Answers 123
2 2 2
20.  1  +  1.3  +  1.3.5  + ..............

3 3 3
 2.4   2.4.6   2.4.6.8 

     
1 1 1 1
21. − + − + .............
log 2 log 3 log 4 log 5
( −1)
n −1
∞
22. ∑
n =1  n ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) 
1 1 1
23. 1 − + − + ................
2 2 3 3 4 4
Answers
5. divergent 6. divergent
9. convergent
10. convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x > 1.
11. convergent 12. divergent
14. convergent.
16. convergent if x2 < 1 and divergent if x2 > 1.
17. convergent if x2 < 1 and divergent if x2 > 1.
1 1
18. convergent if x <
and divergent if x ≥ .
e e
19. divergent 20. divergent
23. absolutely convergent.
Recapitulation
1. An expression is of the form u1 + u2 + u3 + .................. + un + ....... is
said to be an infinite series, if the number of terms are in infinite.
2. A series ∑un is said to be convergent if the sum of its first n terms
(say Sn), tends to be a definite finite limit S as n tend to∞, denoted as
S = lim S n .
n →∞
3. A series ∑un is said to be divergent if the sum of its first n terms (say Sn),
tends to + ∞ or – ∞ as n tends to ∞, denoted as lim S n = ∞ or − ∞ .
n →∞
4. A series ∑un is said to be oscillatory if the sum of its first n terms (say
Sn), neither tends to a definite limit n or to + ∞ or – ∞ as n tends to ∞.
5. A series ∑un is said to be absolutely convergent if the series ∑|un| is
convergent.
6. A series ∑un is said to be semi-convergent or conditionally
convergent or non-absolutely convergent if ∑un is convergent but
∑|un| is divergent.
7. For a series ∑un to be convergent, it is necessary that lim un = 0 ,
n →∞
1
8. (Auxiliary Series ∑n p )An infinite series is of the form
1 1 1 1 1
∑n p
=
1 p
+ p + p + ............... + p + ...........
2 3 n

is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p < 1.
9. (Comparison Test -V form) Let us consider ∑un and ∑vn be the two
un
series of positive terms such that lim = l (finite and non – zero),
n →∞ v
n
then both the series converge or diverge together.
10. (Cauchy’s Root test)Let ∑un be a series of positive terms such that
lim un1/ n = l . Then the series ∑un
n →∞
(iii) test fail if l = 1
Recapitulation 125
11. (D’ Alembert’s ratio test)Let ∑un be a series of positive term such
u
that lim n +1 = l . Then the series ∑un
n →∞ u
n

or in another form: If ∑un is a series of positive term such that
u
lim n = l , then the series ∑un
n →∞ u
n +1
(i) converges if l > 1

(ii) diverges if l < 1
12. If D’Alembert’s ratio test fails then we apply Raabe’s test.
13. (Rabbe’s test) If ∑un be a series of positive term, then the series ∑un
  un  
is convergent or divergent according to as lim  n − 1  > 1
or < 1.
n →∞
  un +1  
14. If D’Alembert’s ratio and Raabe’s tests both are fails then we use De
Morgan’s and Bertrand’s test.
15. (De Morgan’s and Bertrand’s test) If ∑un be a series of positive
term, then the series ∑un is convergent or divergent according to as
  u
   
lim n  n − 1 − 1 log n  > 1 or < 1 .
n →∞
  un +1   
un
16. (Gauss’s test) Let ∑un be a series of positive terms and can be
un +1
expressed in the form un =1 + a + bn , where p > 1 and | bn | < a

un +1 n np
fixed number k or bn tends to a finite limit as n → ∞, then the series
∑un converges if a > 1 and diverges if a < 1.

17. (Logarithmic test) If ∑un be a series of positive terms then the series
 u 
∑un is convergent or divergent according to as lim  n log n  > 1 or
n →∞
 un +1 
< 1.
18. (Alternating series)A series of the form

∞
u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + ........... + ( −1) un + ......... = ∑ ( −1)
n −1 n −1
un ,
n=0
where un > 0, ∀n is called alternating series. The alternating series is

said to be convergent if
(i) un+1 < un, ∀n
(ii) lim un = 0 , i.e., un → 0 as n → ∞.
n →∞
Exercise 4.1
4.1 A series is said to be infinite if
(a) the sum of the first n terms tends to + ∞
(b) the sum of the first n terms tends to – ∞
(c) the number of terms are infinite
(d) None of these
4.2 A series is said to be oscillatory if it is
(a) not convergent
(b) not divergent
(c) neither convergent nor divergent
(d) None of these.
1
4.3 The auxiliary series ∑n p is divergent if:
(a) p = 1 (b) p < 1
(c) p > 1 (d) p = 0
4.4 A series is said to be divergent if (when n → ∞):
(a) the sum of the first n terms tends to + ∞
(b) the sum of the first n terms tends to – ∞
(c) both (a) and (b) are true
(d) None of these.
4.5 If ∑un be a series of positive terms such that lim u1/n n = l , then series:
(a) converges if l < 1 (b) diverges if l > 1
(c) both (a) and (b) are true (d) both (a) and (b) are false
Answers 127
State True or False

4.1 An infinite series contains infinite number of terms.
4.2 Every absolutely convergent series is convergent.
4.3 If sum of the first n terms of an infinite series tends to + ∞ or – ∞ as n
tends to infinity then series is said to be convergent.
1
4.4 The series ∑ is convergent.
n
4.5 If ∑un converges to l1 and ∑vn converges to l2, then ∑ ( un + vn )
converges to l1 + l2.
Fill in the Blanks

4.1 A series whose terms are alternatively positive and negative is called
an…………………
4.2 For every convergent series, it is necessary that ……………………..
4.3 If lim un = 0 then the series may or may not be ……………………...
4.4 A series ∑un is said to be absolutely convergent if ……………… is
convergent.
4.5 Every semi-convergent series is …………..……
Answers
4.1 (c) 4.2 (c) 4.3 (b) 4.4 (c)
4.5 (c)
State True or False

4.1 T 4.2 T 4.3 F 4.4 F
4.5 T
Fill in the Blanks

4.1 alternatively series 4.2 lim un = 0
4.3 convergent 4.4 ∑u n ||
4.5 convergent
qqq
5
Fourier Series
Learning Objectives

l understand the trigonometric Fourier series
l comprehend the Periodic Functions
l explain the even and odd functions with their properties
l discuss the Euler formulas for the Fourier coefficients
l understand the half range expansions in Fourier series
l comprehend the change of interval in Fourier series
l discuss the Parseval’s identity for Fourier series
l explain the harmonic analysis
5.1 Introduction
Fourier series has great importance in the study of heat conduction, rotating
machines, sound waves, the motion of the earth, heart under normal conditions,
concentration of chemicals and acoustics etc. A French Mathematician
Fourier, in 1807 introduced the Fourier series. Fourier series is an infinite
series representation of periodic function in terms of the trigonometric sine
and cosine functions. Fourier series is a very important tool to solve ordinary
and partial differential equations with periodic function.
Fourier series is mostly used for solving physical and engineering problems and
its usefulness is due to fact that many functions, which are not differentiable,
can be expressed easily by Fourier series. Fourier series is not possible only
130 Chapter 5 Fourier Series
for continuous function but also for periodic functions, function discontinuous
in their values and derivatives.
5.2 Trigonometric Fourier Series

∞
a0 + ∑ ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) ,
A series f ( x ) =
n =1
where a0, an, bn are Fourier constants and interval (–π. π), (0, π) independent
of x, is called the trigonometric Fourier series.
5.3 Periodic Function

A function f(x) is said to be periodic function if
f(x + T) = f(x), ∀ x
smallest such T is called the period of f(x).
For example sin (x + 2π) = sin x, i.e., 2π is period
cos (x + 2π) = cos x, i.e., 2π is period
sec (x + 2π) = sec x, i.e., 2π is period
cosec (x + 2π) = cosec x, i.e., 2π is period
cot (x + π) = cot x, i.e., π is period
tan (x + π) = tan x, i.e., π is period
 2π  2π
sin (nx + 2π) = sin n  x +  , i.e., is period .
 n  n
5.4 Even and Odd Function
Let the function f(x) defined in an interval I which is symmetric to origin, we
say that f(x) is an even function if
f(–x) = f(x), ∀x
y
x
0 About y-axis
5.4 Even and Odd Function 131
This implies the graph of any even function y = f(x) is symmetric with respect
to the y-axis. It follows from the interpretation of the integral as on area that
for even function we have
l l
f ( x ) dx = 2 f ( x ) dx for any l
∫ ∫ ...(5.1)
−l 0
x
0
About y-axis
Provide that f(x) is defined and integrable as interval [–l, l].

The function f(x) is odd if
f(–x) = –f(x), ∀ x
The graph of any odd function y = f(x) is symmetric with respect to the origin.
y
x
about the
0 origin
For odd function f ( x ) dx = 0

∫ ...(5.2)
−l
for any l provided that f(x) is defined and integrable on the interval [–l, l].
Properties
(a) The product for two even function or odd function is again an even
function.
Suppose f (x) and Ψ (x) are the functions, then we have
f(–x) = f (–x) Ψ(–x)
= f (x) Ψ (x)
= f(x)
while if f(x) and Ψ(x) are odd functions, then we have
f(-x) = f (–x) Ψ(–x)
= [–f (x)] [–Ψ(x)]
= f(x)
(b) The product of an even and an odd function is an odd function.
Suppose f(x) is even and Ψ(x) is odd function, then we have
f(–x) = f (–x) Ψ(–x)
= f (x) [–Ψ(x)]
= –f (x) Ψ(x)
= –f(x)
Note. In case of even function the graph of the curve is symmetrical about
y-axis whereas in case of odd function the graph of the curve is symmetrical
about origin.
5.5 Some Important Identities

π
1.
−π
∫ sin nπ dx = 0 (even function)
e ax
2.
∫ e ax sin bx dx =
a 2 + b2
(a cos bx – b sin bx)
e ax
3.
∫ e ax cos bx dx =
a 2 + b2
(a sin bx + b cos bx)
π π
4.
∫ ∫
cos nx dx = 2 cos nx dx
0
(even function)
−π
2π
5. ∫
0
sin nx dx = 0
2π
6. ∫
0
cos nx dx = 0
π π
7.
−π
∫ ∫
cos nx dx =2 cos nx dx
0
(even function)
π
 sin nx 
= 2 
 n 0
5.5 Some Important Identities 133
2
= [sin nπ – sin n.0]
n
2
= [0 – 0]
n
= 0
π π
8. ∫
−π
∫
cos mx cos nx dx = 2 cos mx cos nx dx (even function)
0
π
= ∫
0
2 cos mx cos nx dx
= ∫ [cos (m – n)x – cos(m + n)x] dx

0
π π
= cos( m – n)x dx – ∫ ∫ cos (m + n) x dx

0
0
π π
 sin ( m − n ) x   sin ( m + n ) x 
=   − 
 m−n 0  m + n 0
= 0 – 0
= 0.
π π
9.
∫ ∫
sin mx sin nx dx = 2 sin mx sin nx dx
0
−π
π
= ∫ [cos (m – n)x – cos (m + n)] dx

0
π π
= ∫
0
cos( m – n) x dx –
∫ cos (m + n) x dx
0
π π
 sin ( m − n ) x   sin ( m + n ) x 
=   − 
 m − n 0  m + n 0
= 0 – 0
= 0.
π π
10. ∫
−π
∫
cos2nx dx = 2 cos2nx dx (even function)
0
π
= ∫
0
2 cos2nx dx
= ∫ (1 + cos 2nx) dx
0
π π
= ∫ 1. dx + ∫ cos 2nx dx
0 0
π
 sin 2nx 
= [ x ]0 + 
x

 2n  0
= π – 0 + 0 – 0
= π.
π π
11. ∫
−π
sin2nx dx = 2 ∫ sin2nx dx (even function)
0
π
= ∫ 2 sin2nx dx
0
π
= ∫ (1 –cos 2nx) dx
0
π π
= ∫ 1. dx – ∫
0
cos 2nx dx
0
π
 sin 2nx 
= [ x ]0 + 
π

 2n  0
= π – 0 – 0 + 0
= π.
5.6 Euler Formulas for the Fourier Coefficients

Let f(x) can be expanded in the term of Fourier series
f(x)= a0 + a1cos x + a2 cos 2x + ………. + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x +…..… ...(5.3)
where a0, a1, a2,…. an, ……., b1, b2, …… are Fourier constants.
The above equation (5.3) can be written as in forms
∞
f ( x) =
a0 + ∑
( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) ...(5.4)
n =1
To find a0, integrating equation (5.4) both sides on the interval –π to π.

5.6 Euler Formulas for the Fourier Coefficients 135
π π ∞ π ∞ π
∫
−π
f(x) dx = ∫ a0 dx + ∑ ∫
−π
n =1 −π
an cos nx dx + ∑ ∫
n =1 −π
bn sin nx dx
π ∞ π ∞ π
= a0 ∫ 1. dx + ∑
n =1
an ∫ cos nx dx + ∑ n =1
bn ∫ sin nx dx
−π −π −π
∞ ∞
= a0. 2π + ∑
n =1
an . 0 + ∑
n =1
bn . 0
= 2π a0
π
1
a0 = f ( x ) dx
∫
2π −π
To find an multiplying by cos nx both sides of the equation (5.3) and integrating
in interval –π to π.
π π ∞ π
∫ f(x) cos nx dx = a0
∫ cos nx dx + ∑
n =1
an ∫ cos2nx dx
−π −π −π
∞ π
+ ∑ bn ∫ sin nx cos nx dx
n =1
−π
π ∞ π
= a0
∫ cos nx dx + ∑
−π
n =1
an ∫
0
2 cos2nx dx
∞ π
+ ∑ bn
∫ sin2 nx dx
n =1 2 −π
b
= a0 . 0 + an .π + n . 0
2
= π an
π
1
an = ∫f ( x ) cos nx dx
π −π
To find bn, multiplying by sin nx both sides of equation (5.3) and integrating
–π to π
π π π
∞
∫ f(x)sin nx dx = a0 ∫
−π
sin nx dx + ∑ ∫ sin nx cos nx dx
an
−π n =1 −π
∞ π
+ ∑
n =1
bn ∫ sin2nx dx
−π
∞ π ∞ π
= a0 . 0 + ∑ an
∫ sin 2nx dx + ∑ bn ∫ 2sin2nx dx
n +1 2 −π
n +1
0
∞
= a0. 0 + ∑ a2
n =1
n . 0 + bnπ
= πbn
π
1
bn = ∫f ( x ) sin nx dx
π −π
Hence the Fourier series is defined.
5.7 Some Assumptions and Definition for

Expansion of f(x) by Fourier Series
5.7.1 Assumption for Expansion of f(x) by Fourier Series

1. The Fourier function is assumed to be single valued continuous and
integrable in the given internals.
∞
2. The series f ( x ) =
a0 + ∑
( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) be integrating term
n =1
by term, the series should be uniformly converge.

3. The series converges to f(x) at every point where f(x) is continuous. At
the point of discontinuity in the interval (–π, π) the series converges to
1
[f ( x + 0) + f(x − 0)] .
2
1
At x =± π, the series converges to [f (–π + 0) + f (π – 0)] limit
2
exist.
Note. 1. If function is even then we find an, i.e., {bn = 0}.
2. If function is odd then we find bn , i.e., {an = 0}.
5.7 Some Assumptions and Definition for Expansion of f(x) by Fourier Series 137
5.7.2 Dirichlet’s Conditions
If a function f is bounded Riemann integration in the interval [–π, π] and if
it is possible to divide the interval [–π, π] into a finite number of subinterval
in each of which f(x) is monotonic, then the Fourier series corresponding to
f(x) converges for every x and if S(x) (sum function ) of the series is given as
follows:
1
S(x) =  f ( x + 0 ) + f ( x − 0 )  ( −π< x < π )
2
1
Also S(x) =  f ( −π + 0 ) + f ( π − 0 )  when x = ± p
2
5.7.3 Smooth and Piecewise Smooth Function

The function f(x) is said to be piecewise continuous on [a, b] if it has a
continuous derivative on [a, b].The graph of a smooth function is a smooth
curve without any corners (a point at which the curve has two distinct
tangents).A continuous or a discontinuous function f(x) which is defined on the
whole x-axis is said to be piecewise smooth if it is smooth on every interval on
finite length. The concept applies to periodic function every piecewise smooth
function is bounded and has a bounded derivative every pair except its corner
and points of discontinuity.
y = f(x)
smoot
smooth
h
x
0 a b
5.7.4 Jump Discontinuities

In this case Right Hand Limit (R.H.L.) and Left Hand Limit (L.H.L.) both
exist but not are equal to each other. We know that when R.H.L. and L.H.L.
of a given function at a point exist but are not equal then the function is said
to have the discontinuity of the first kind or a point of jumps discontinuities.
Also x0 is the point then f(x0 + 0) – f (x0 – 0) = δ is called the jumps of the
function x = x0.
− x3 for x <1

For example, f(x) =  0 x=1

 x x >1
At x = 1, L.H.L. f(1 – 0) = – 1
R.H.L. f (1 + 0) = 1
The function has 2 jumps at x = 1 which is the point of discontinuity,.
Note. In removal L.H.L. and R.H.L. exist and equal but not equal to function.
5.7.5 A criterion for the convergence of Fourier

Series
The Fourier of a piecewise smooth (continuous of discontinuous) function f(x)
of period 2π converge for all value of x the sum of the series equals f(x) at
every point of continuity and is
1
[f(x + 0) + f(x – 0)] at every point of discontinuity
2
{arithmetic mean of R. H.L. and L.H.L.}
If f(x) is continuous at everywhere then the series converges absolutely and
uniformly at end points of the interval (–π, π).
If f(–π) = f(π) then the function is continuous at the point ±π and the Fourier
series converge to f(x) at the end points of the closed interval –π to π.
If f(–π) ≠ f(π) then the function is discontinuous at the point ±π and its sum
 f ( −π ) + f ( π ) 
function  .
 2 
Solved Examples
Example 5.1: Find the Fourier series of the function f(x) = x2 in interval
(–π, π) and deduce that
π2 (ii) 1 1 1 1 π2
(i) 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ......... = = + + + + ......... =
12 22 32 42 6 12 22 32 42 12
Solved Examples 139
1 1 1 π2
(iii) − + − ......... =
22 42 62 48
1 1 1 1 π2
(iv)= + + + + ......... =
12 32 52 7 2 8
Expand f(x) = x2 (–π ≤ x ≤ π) in Fourier series.
Sol. We know that the Fourier series for f (x) is
∞
f (x) = a0 +
∑ (a
n =1
n cos nx + bn sin nx )
π
1
where a0 = f ( x ) dx ∫
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
x 2 dx ∫
π
2
=
2π 0
x 2 dx ∫ (even function)
π
1  x3 
=  
π  3 0
1 π3
=
π 3
π2
=

3
π
1
and an =
π ∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx
−π
π
1
=
π ∫
−π
x2cos nx dx
π
2
=
π0∫x2cos nx dx (even function)
2  2 sin nx    cos nx    –2sin nx  

π π π
=  x  –  2 x  –   +   
π 

n 0   n 2  0  n 2 0 
2 2π 
=  0 − 0 + 2 cos nπ – 0 + 0 
π n 
4
= cos nπ
n2
4
= ( −1)n .
n2
π
1
Also bn = f ( x ) sin nx dx
∫
π −π
π
1
=
π −π
x 2 sin nx dx ∫ (odd function)
Since the given function x2 is even function and sin nx is odd function, therefore
all bn will be zero. Now we have
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
∞
π2 4
2 (
−1) cos nx ∑
n
x2 =
or +
3 n =1 n
π2 4 4 4
x2 =
− 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos3 x + ..... ...(5.5)
3 1 2 3
(i) Put x =π in the equation (5.5), we get
π2 4 4 4 4
π2 = + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ....... ……
3 1 2 3 4
π2  1 1 1 1 
or 2 = 4  2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + .....
3  1 2 3 4 
π2 1 1 1 1
or = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + .... ...(5.6)
6 1 2 3 4
(ii) Putting x = 0 in the equation (5.5), we get
π2 4 4 4 4
0= − 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 − .......
3 1 2 3 4
π2  1 1 1 1 
or = 4  2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + .....
3 1 2 3 4 
Solved Examples 141
π2 1 1 1 1
or = 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 + .... ...(5.7)
12 1 2 3 4
π
(iii) Putting x = in the equation (5.5), we get
2
π2 π2  1 1 1 
= + 4 ( −1) . 0 − 2 − 2 .0 + 2 .1 + .........
4 3  2 3 4 
π2  1 1 1 
or − = 4  − 2 + 2 − 2 + .....
12  2 4 6 
π2  1 1 1 
or =  2 − 2 + 2 − ..... ...(5.8)
48 2 4 6 
(iv) Adding equations (5.6) and (5.7), we get
π2 π2 2 2 2
+ = 2 + 3 + 2 + ....
6 12 1 3 5
π2 1 1 1 
or = 2  2 + 2 − 2 + ......
4 1 3 5 
π2 1 1 1 1
or = 2 + 3 + 2 + 2 + ...................
8 1 3 5 7
Example 5.2: Expand f(x) by Fourier series where f(x) is defined
−1 if − π< x < 0

f(x) =  0 if x = 0
 1 if 0 < x < π

Sol. We know that the Fourier series for f(x) is
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
n cos nx + bn sin nx ) ...(5.9)
π
1
where a0 = f ( x ) dx
∫
2π −π
0 π
1 1
= ( –1) dx + 1. dx ∫ ∫
2π −π 2π 0
1 1
= [ − x ]0−π + [ x ]0π
2π 2π
1
[ − π + π]
= 2π

= 0
π
1
and an =
−π
1 
0 π
=  ( −1) cos nx dx + 1. cos nx dx 

∫ ∫
π  −π 0 
1  − sin nx   sin nx  
0 π
=   +   
π  n  −π  n 0 
1
= [ − 0 − 0 + 0 + 0]
π
= 0
π
1
Also bn = ∫f ( x ) sin nx dx
π −π
1 
0 π
=  ( −1) sin nx dx + 1. sin nx dx 

∫ ∫
π  −π 0 
1  cos nx   cos nx  
0 π
=   + −  
π  n  −π  n 0 
1
= [cos n.0 – cos n (–π) – cos nπ + cos n.0]
nπ
1
= [2cos n. 0 – 2 cos nπ]
nπ
2
= [1 – cos nπ]
nπ
If n is even, cos nπ = 1, then b2 = b4 = b6 = ….0
Solved Examples 143
4 4 4
If n is odd, cos nπ = –1, then, b1= , b3 = , b5 = , …..
π 3π 5π
Putting these values of a0 , an , bn in the equation (5.9), we get
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
= 0 + 0 + [b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + …]

4 4 4
= sin x + 0. sin 2x + sin 3x + 0. sin 4x + sin 5πx +…
π 3π 5π
4 1 1 
= sin x + 3 sin 3 x + 5 sin 5 x + ..... …(5.10)
π 
At x = π/2, 0 < x <π, it is given that f(x) = 1, so that form equation (5.10), we
get
4 1 1 1 
1= 1 − + − + ........
π 3 5 7 
π 1 1 1
or = 1 − + − + ........
4 3 5 7
Example 5.3: Expand f(x)= |x| by the Fourier series in the interval (–π, π).
π2 1 1 1
Also show that = 2 + 2 + 2 ...... .
8 1 3 5
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
π
1
where a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx for x ≥ 0
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
|x| dx ∫
π
2
= ∫
2π 0
|x| dx
π
1  x2 
=  
π  2 0
1 π2
= .
π 2
π
=
2
π
1
and an = f ( x ) cos nx dx ∫
π −π
π
1
=
π −π
| x | cos nx dx ∫
π
2
=
2π 0 ∫
x cos nx dx
2  x sin nx    cos nx   
π π
=   − 1  − 2   
π  n  0   n  0 

2 π cos nπ 1 
=  .0 − 0 + − 2
π n n2 n 
2
= [cos πn −1]
π n2
2 
2 (
−1) − 1
n
= 
πn
If n is given, n = 2, 4, 6, ….., we get a2= a4 = a6 = ……. = 0

2 4
2[
a1 = −1 −1] =− 2
π.1 π.1
2 4
2[
a3 = −1 −1] =− 2
π3 π3
4
a5 = – ,
π52
4
a5 = − , ......
π7 2
Since all bn’s will be zero because the given function f(x)= |x| is even function.
Solved Examples 145
Putting these values of a0 , an , bn in the equation (5.11), we get

π 4  cos x cos3 x cos5 x 
|x| = −  2 + 2
+ 2
+ ... ...(5.12)
2 π 1 3 5 
Now put x = 0 in the equation (5.12), we get
π 4  cos 0 cos 0 cos 0 
0 = −  2 + 2 + 2 + ...
2 π 1 3 5 
π 41 1 1 
or =  2 + 2 + 2 ...
2 π 1 3 5 
π2 1 1 1
or = 2 + 2 + 2 ...... .
8 1 3 5
Example 5.4: Show that an even function can have no sine term in its Fourier
expansion
= f ( x ) x sin x; [ −π, π] . Also show that
π 1 1 1 1 1
= + − + − + ......
4 2 1.3 3.5 5.7 7.9
Sol.We know that the Fourier series for f(x) is
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (an =1
π
1
∫
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
x sin x dx ∫
π
1
=
π −π
x sin x dx ∫
1
=
 ( − x cos x )0π − ( − sin x )0π 
π
1
= [ − π cos π + 0 + sin π − sin 0] [ cos π = − 1]
π
= –cos p
= 1
π
1
and an = f ( x ) cos nx dx
∫
π −π
π
1
= ∫
π −π
x sin x cos nx dx
π
2
=
π0 ∫
x sin x cos nx dx
π
1
=
π0 ∫
x 2sin x cos nx dx
π
1
= x ( 2cos nx sin x ) dx
∫
π0
π
1
= x {sin ( n + 1) x − sin ( n − 1) x} dx
∫
π0
π π
1
= ∫x sin ( n + 1) x dx − x sin ( n − 1) x dx
∫
π0 0
 π
 −1. sin ( n + 1) x  
π
1  − x cos ( n + 1) x 
=   −   
π  n+1 0  ( n + 1) 2  
 0 
 π
 −1. sin ( n − 1) x  
π
1  − x cos ( n − 1) x 
−   −   
π  n −1 0  ( )
n − 1
2  
 0 

1  π cos ( n + 1) π   π cos ( n − 1) π  
=  −  − 0 + 0 +   − 0 − 0

π  n +1   ( n − 1)  
cos ( n + 1) π cos ( n − 1) π
= − +
n +1 n −1
−
( −1)
n +1
+
( −1)
n −1
=
n +1 n −1
Solved Examples 147
( −1)n + 2 +
( −1)n −1
= , where n ≥ 2
n +1 n −1
Putting n = 2, 3, 4,……., we get
( −1)4 +
( −1) =
1
−1
a2 = ,
3 1 3
( −1)5 +
( −1)2 =1 1
− +
a3 =
4 2 4 2
π
1
and a1 =
π −π
x sin x cos x dx ∫
π
2
=
2π −π
x sin x cos x dx ∫
π
1
= x ( 2sin x cos x ) dx ∫
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
x sin 2 x dx ∫
π
1
=
π0
x sin 2 x dx ∫ (even function)
1  − x cos 2 x   −1.sin 2 x  
π π
=   −  
π  2 0  4 0 
1  −π cos 2π 
=   −0+0−0 
π  2 
cos 2π
= −
2
= ( −1) ( −1)2
2
1
= −
2
Since the given function f(x) is even therefore all bn’s are zero. Now putting
these values of a0 , an , bn in the equation (5.13), we get
1 1   1 1 1 1
x sin x = 1 − cos x +  − 1 cos 2 x +  − +  cos3 x +  −  cos 4 x + .......
2 3   4 2 5 3
...(5.14)
Put x = p/2 in the equation (5.14), we get
π π 1 1   1 1 1 1
sin = 1 − cos x +  − 1 cos 2 x +  − +  cos3 x +  −  cos 4 x + .......
2 2 2 3   4 2 5 3
π 1  1 1 1 1
or = 1 −  − 1 +  −  −  −  + .......
2 3  5 3  7 5
π 2 2 2
or = 1 + − + − .....................
2 3 3.5 5.7
π 1 1 1 1 
or = 2  + − + ........
2  2 1.3 3.5 5.7 
π 1 1 1 1 1
or = + − + − + ......
4 2 1.3 3.5 5.7 7.9
Example 5.5: Find the Fourier series for f(x) = x + x2 in (–π, π).
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (an =1
π
1
where a0 = ∫f ( x ) dx
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
x + x 2 dx ∫( )
π π
1 1
=
2π −π
x dx +
2π −π
x 2 dx ∫ ∫
π π
1  x2  1  x3 
=   +  
2π  2  −π 2π  3  −π
1 1  π3 π3 
 π2 − π2  +
=
2π   2π  3 + 3 
 
Solved Examples 149
2π2
= 0 +
6
π2
= .
3
π
1
and an = f ( x ) cos nx dx
∫
π −π
π
1
=
π −π
x + x 2 cos nx dx ∫( )
π π
1 1
=
π −π
x cos nx dx +
π −π ∫
x 2 cos nx dx ∫
1  x sin nx   −1.cos nx   2 2
π π π
= 
π  n  −π 
 − 
n2
  +
 −π  π 0
x cos nx dx ∫
1 cos nπ cos nπ 
=  0+ − 2 
π n2 n 
2  x 2 sin nx   −2 x cos nx   −2sin nx  

π π π
+   −   + 
π  n  −π  n2 0  n3 0 

1 2 2π cos nπ 
= [0] + 0 + 2
− 0 − 0 + 0
π π n 
2  2π cos nπ 
=
π  n 2 

4cos nπ
=
n2
4
2 (
−1)
n
=
n
π
1
∫
π −π
π
1
= ∫(
π −π
)
x + x 2 sin nx dx
π π
1 1
=
π −π
x sin nx dx + ∫
π −π
x 2 sin nx dx ∫
π π
2 1
=
π −π
x sin nx dx + ∫
π −π
x 2 sin nx dx ∫
2  x cos nx   −1.sin nx  
π π
=   −  
π  n 0  n2 0 
1  − x 2 cos nx   2cos nx  
π π π
 −2 x .sin nx 
+   −   +  
π  n  −π  n2  −π  n
3
 −π 

2  −π cos nπ 
=   − 0 + 0 
π  n 
1  −π2 cos nπ π2 cos nπ 2cos nπ 2cos nπ 
+  + +0 + −
π n n n3 n3 
−2cos nπ
= + 0 +0
n
−2 ( −1)
n
=
n
Now putting these values of a0 , an , bn in the equation (5.15), we get
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
4 ( −1)
∞ ∞ n
π2 2
=
= 3
+
n 1= n 2
cos nx − ∑
n 1 n
( −1)n sin nx ∑
∞
π2 n  cos nx sin nx 
or x + x2 =
3 n =1
∑
+ 4 ( −1)  2 −
 n 2n 
Solved Examples 151
π −x
Example 5.6: Find the Fourier series for f(x) = in [ 0, 2π] .
2
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
2π
1
where a0 =
2π ∫ f ( x ) dx
0
2π
1 1
=
2π ∫ 2 ( π − x ) dx
0
2π
1 1  x2 
=   πx − 
2π  2  2  
0
1 1  4 π2  
=   π.2π −  − 0
2π  2  2  
1
=  π2 − π2 
2π  
= 0
1 1 
2π
an =
and  ( π − x ) cos nx dx 
∫
π  0 2 
1  
2π 2π
=
2π  0∫
 π cos nx dx − ∫ x cos x nx dx 
0
1   sin nx  
2π 2π 2π
 x sin nx   −1. cos nx 
= π   −  +  
2π   n 0  n 0  n2 0 
1  cos 2n π 1 
=  −0 − 0 − + 2
2π  n2 n 
1  ( −1)
2n
1
= − + 
2π 
 n2 n 2 
1  1 1
=  − 2 + 2
2π  n n 
1
= [ 0]
2π
= 0
2π
1 1
Also bn =
π ∫ 2 ( π − x ) sin nx dx
0
1  
2π 2π
=
2π  0 ∫
 π sin nx dx − ∫
0
x cos nx dx 

1   − cos nx   −1. sin nx  

2π 2π 2π
 − x cos nx 
= π
   −   +   
2π   n 0  n 0  n2 0 
1  π 1 
= − ( cos 2nπ − cos 0 ) + 2π ( cos 2nπ − 0 ) + 0 
2π  n π 
1  π 2π 2n 
− ( −1) − 1 + ( −1) 
2n
=   
2π  n n 
1  2π 
= 0+
2π  n 
1
=
n
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
1 ∞ ∞
1
( π − x ) = 0 + 0. cos nx +
2 =n 1 =n 1 n
sin nx ∑ ∑
1
( π − x ) = 0 − 0 + sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3x + ........ ...(5.17)
2 1 2 3
Solved Examples 153
Put x = π / 2 in the equation (5.17), we get

π 1 1 1 1
= + 0 − + 0 + + 0 − + ......
4 1 3 5 7
π 1 1 1
or = 1 − + − + ...... .
4 3 5 7
Example 5.7: Find the Fourier series which converge to f(x) in
(–π < x < π) where f(x) = x + x2 and f(x) = π2 when x = ±π
Sol. For the given f(x)= x + x2 in [–π, π] (from example 5.5), we have
∞
π2 n  cos nx sin nx 
x + x2 =
3
∑
+ 4 ( −1)  2 −
n =1  n 2n 
It is given that when x = ±π then f (x) =π2.
Now we have
1
S(x) = f ( π − 0 ) + f ( −π + 0 ) 
2 
1
π − 0 + ( π − 0 ) + − π + ( −π ) 
2 2
=  
2
1
=  π + π2 − π + π2 
2 
= p2
At x = ±π, we have
∞
π2 n  cos nπ sin nx 
p2 =
3
∑
+ 4 ( −1)  2 −
n =1  n 2n 
π2  ( −1)n 
∑ ( −1)  2 − 0
n
= +4
3  n 
π2 ( −1)n
π 2
−
or = 4
3 ∑ n2
2π2  1 1 1 1 
or = 4  2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ............
3 1 2 3 4 
π2 1 1 1 1
or = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ............ .
6 1 2 3 4
Example 5.8: Find the Fourier series of a function
 x − π when − π < x < 0

f(x) =  .
π − x when 0 < x < π
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
π
1
∫
2π −π
0 π
1 1
= ( x − π ) dx + ( π − x ) dx
∫ ∫
2π −π 2π 0
0 π
1  x2  1  x2 
=  − πx  +  πx − 
2π  2  −π 2π  2 0
π
1  π2  1  π2 
= − − π2  +  π2 − 
2π  2  2π  2 0
1  π2 π2 
= − − π2 + π2 − 
2π  2 2
π2
= −
2π
π
= −
2
π
1
an =
and f ( x ) cos nx dx
∫
π −π
0 π
1 1
= ∫ ( x − π ) cos nx dx + ( π − x ) cos nx dx
∫
π −π π0
0 0 π
1 1 1
= x cos nx dx − ∫ π cos nx dx + ( π − x ) cos nx dx
∫ ∫
π −π π −π π0
Solved Examples 155
1   x sin nx   π. sin nx  
0 0 0
 cos nx 
=    −  − (1) .  +   
π   n  −π  n 2  −π  n  −π 
1  cos nx  
π π π
 sin nx   sin nx 
+  π  − x  +  −1  
π   n 0  n 0  n 2 0 

1 1 cos nπ  1 cos nπ 1
=  0+ 2 − 2
− 0 +  0 − 0 − 2
+ 2
π n n  π n n 
1  1 ( −1) ( −1)
n n
1
=  2 − − + 
π n
 n2 n2 n 2 
2 
1 − ( −1) 
n
= 2  
πn
2 
1 + ( −1) 
n +1
=
π n2  
π
1
bn =
Also f ( x ) sin nx dx
∫
π −π
0 π
1 1
= ( x − π ) sin nx dx + ( π − x ) sin nx dx
∫ ∫
π −π π0
1 cos nx  
0 0 0
 cos nx   sin nx  
=   − x  −  −1  −  − π  
π   n  −π  n 2  −π  n  −π 
1   cos nx   sin nx  
π π π
cos nx  
+   −π  − −x  +  −1.  
π   n 0  n 0  n 2 0 
1  π cos nπ π cos 0 π cos nπ 

=  − +0+ − 
π n n n 
1  π cos nπ π cos 0 π cos nπ 

+ − + − − 0 + 0
π n n n 
1
=  − 2π
( −1)
n
π π 
+ + 
π n n n 
 
1 ( −1)
n
2π 
= −2π + 
π n n 
 
2π 

( −1)n +1 +
1 

=
π  n n 
 
2
=  ( −1)n +1 +1
n
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
π ∞ ∞
= −
=
+ an cos nx +
2 n 1 =n 1
∑bn sin nx ∑
π 2 ∞ 1 + ( −1) 
n +1 ∞
1
∑ ( −1) + 1 sin nx ∑
n +1
= − +   cos nx + 2
= 2 π n 1=
 n 2
 n n 1 n
 
π 2  2cos x 2cos3 x 2cos 5 x 

= − +  2
+ 2
− 2
+ ........
2 π 1 3 5 
 2sin x 2sin 3 x sin 5 x 

+2  + − + ........
 1 3 5 
π 4  cos x cos3 x cos 5 x 

= − +  2 + 2 − 2
+ ........
2 π 1 3 5 
 sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x 

+4  + − + ........
 1 3 5 
Example 5.9: Expand f(x) by Fourier series where f(x) is defined by

f(x) = ex in [–π, π].
∞
f(x) = a0 + ∑ (a
n =1
Solved Examples 157
π
1
∫
2π −π
π
1
=
2π −π
e x dx ∫
1 x π
= e 
2π   −π
1  e π − e −π 
=  
π 2 
1
= sin h π
π
π
1
and an = ∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx
π −π
π
1
= ∫
π −π
e x cos nx dx
π
1  ex 
2 (
=  cos nx + n sin nx ) 
π 1 + n  −π
1 π
= e x ( cos nx + n sin nx ) 
(
π 1+ n 2
)   −π
1
= e π ( cos nπ + 0 ) − e −π ( cos nπ + 0 ) 
(
π 1+ n 2
)  
1
= e π − e −π  cos nπ
(
π 1+ n 2
)  
2. ( −1)  e π − e −π 
n
=  
π 1 + n2  2 ( )
2 ( −1) sin h π
n
2sin h π cos nπ
= or
(
π 1+ n 2
) (
π 1 + n2 )
e ax
Note: ∫ eaxcos bx dx =
a 2 + b2
(a cos bx+ b sin bx)
e ax
∫ eaxsin bx dx =
a 2 + b2
(a sin bx – b cos bx)
π
1
∫
π −π
π
1
=
π −π
e x sin nx dx ∫
π
1  ex 
2 (
=  sin nx − n cos nx ) 
π 1 + n  −π
1 π
= e x ( sin nx − n cos nx ) 
(
π 1+ n 2
)   −π
1
= e π ( 0 − n cos nπ ) − e −π ( 0 − n cos nπ ) 
(
π 1 + n2  ) 
1
=  −e π n cos nπ + e −π n cos nπ 
(
π 1+ n 2
)  
n cos nπ
= − (e π
− e −π )
(
π 1+ n 2
)
2n ( −1)  e π − e −π 
π
= − 2  
π (1 + n )  2 
2n ( −1)
π
2n cos nπ sin h π
= − or −
π (1 + n ) π ( n +1)
2 2
∞ 
2 ( −1) sin h π cos nx 2n ( −1) sin h π sin nx 
π 2
1
f(x) = sinh π +
π
∑
n =1

 π 1 (
+ n 2
−
) π 1 + n 2

 ( )
 
5.8 Half –Range Expansions 159
5.8 Half –Range Expansions

In Fourier series, periodic function defined in an interval 0 to 2T, (or C to
C + 2T or – π to π). Now we suppose that a Fourier series for a function f(x)
which is defined only in half-period say (0 < x <π). There are two cases arise:
(i) Fourier Sine series on 0 < x <π
Half-range Fourier sine series containing only sine terms. Let f(x) be an odd
function in
–π < x <π then the graph y = f(x) will be symmetrical about the origin, we
get
a0 = an = 0, since f(x) is odd.
π
1
and bn = f ( x ) sin nx dx ∫
π −π
π
2
= f ( x ) sin nx dx
∫
π0
Hence the Fourier sine series in 0 < x <π is given by
∞
f(x) = ∑b
n =1
n sin nx dx
(ii) Fourier Cosine Series in 0 < x < π

Half-range Fourier cosine series containing only cosine terms. Let f(x) be an
even function in –π < x <π then the graph y = f(x) will be symmetrical about
the y-axis, we get
bn = 0, since f(x) is even.
π
1
an = ∫f ( x ) cos nx dx
π −π
π
2
= f ( x ) cos nx dx ∫
π0
π
1
and a0 = f ( x ) dx ∫
π −π
π
2
= f ( x ) dx ∫
π0
Hence the Fourier cosine series in 0 < x <π is given by

∞
a0
f(x) = +
2 n =1
∑
an cos nx
Note. Here in next articles 5.9 to 5.12, we assume the Fourier series is in form
∞
a0
f(x) =
2 n =1
∑
+ ( a0 cos nx + bn sin nx ) .
5.9 Change of Interval
Generally we have considered only intervals of length of π or 2π, but in many
engineering problems the period of functions are different say: T or 2l. In such
cases, this interval must be converted to the length 2π. Let f(x) be a periodic
function defined in the interval – l < x < l. We introduce a new variable z. We
have
π l
z = x or x = z
l π
l 
Then f(x) = f  z  = F ( z )
π 
At x = – l, z = –p, and at x = l, z = p
Hence F(z) is defined in (–π, π)
Now let the Fourier series of F(z) defined in the interval (–π, π) with period 2π
∞
a0
F(z) = +
2 n =1
∑
( an cos nz + bn sin nz ) ...(5.20)
π
1
where a0 = ∫F ( z ) dz
π −π
π
1
an = ∫ F ( z ) cos nz dz ...(5.21)
π −π
π
1
bn = F ( z ) sin nz dz ∫
π −π
Now to find the Fourier series for f(x) in – l < x < l. Changing the variable
z to x, we get
5.10 Parseval’s Identity for Fourier Series 161
∞
a0  nπx nπx 
f(x) =
2 n =1 
∑
+  an cos
l
+ bn sin
l 

π
1  π 
where a0 = F ( z ) dz
∫  z = x 
π −π  l 
l
1 π
= f ( x ) dx ∫
π −l l
l
1
= ∫ f ( x ) dx
l −l
π
1
and an = F ( z ) cos nz dz
∫
π −π
l
1 nπx π
= ∫ f ( x ) cos . dx
π −l l l
l
1 nπx
= f ( x ) cos dx ∫
l −l l
l
1 nπx .
Similarly, bn =
∫ f ( x ) sin dx
l −l l
5.10 Parseval’s Identity for Fourier Series

∞
a0
Theorem. Let the Fourier series
2 n =1
∑
+ ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) converges
uniformly to f(x) at every points of (0, 2π) then show that

2π
1 a2 ∞
∑(a )
2
∫  f ( x )  dx = 0 + 2
n + bn2 .
π 0
2 n =1
Proof. We know that Fourier expansion of a function is given

∞
a0
f(x) =
2 n =1
∑
+ ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) ...(5.22)
Since the series uniformly converges term by term integration is justified.

2π
1
where an =
0
...(5.23)
2π
1
and bn =
π ∫ f ( x ) sin nx dx
0
...(5.24)
Equation (5.22) multiplying both sides by f(x) and integrating between limit
0 to 2π, we get
2π 2π 2π ∞
a0
∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ ∑(a cos nx + bn sin nx ) f ( x ) dx
2
∫  f ( x )
0
dx =
0
2 0 n =1
n
2π
2
or ∫  f ( x )
0
dx
2π ∞ ∞ 2π 2π
a
= 0 f ( x ) dx +
= 2 0 ∫ n 1=
∑ ∫
an f ( x ) cos nx dx +
n 1
bn ∑ ∫ f ( x)sin nx dx ...(5.25)
0 0
Put n = 0 in the equation (5.23), we get

2π 2π
1
a0 =
π ∫ f ( x ) dx
0
⇒ πa0 = f ( x ) dx .
∫
0
Also from the equations (5.23) and (5.24), we get

2π
pan = ∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx
0
2π
And pbn = ∫ f ( x ) sin nx dx

0

2π ∞ ∞
2 a0
∫  f ( x )  dx =
2
=
πa0 + ∑
an . πan +
n 1= n 1
bn . πbn ∑
0
2π
 2 ∞

 f ( x )  dx = π  a0 + ∑( )
2
∫ a02 + b02 
0  2 n =1 
2π
1 a2 ∞
∑(a )
2
Hence ∫  f ( x )  dx = 0 + 2
n + bn2
π 0
2 n =1
Solved Examples 163
Solved Examples
Example 5.10: Find the half-range sine series for x in the interval (0, 2).
Sol. It is given
f(x) = x in interval (0, 2) ...(5.26)
The Fourier series for f(x) over [–l, l,] will contain only sine terms given by
∞
nπx
f(x) = ∑b
n =1
n sin
l
...(5.27)
Here l = 2, so we have
l
1 nπx
bn = f ( x ) sin dx ∫
l −l l
2
1 nπx
= f ( x ) sin dx ∫
2 −2 2
2
nπx
=2 x.sin ∫
0
2
dx
2
  cos nπx / 2 

=  x −
( )  − 1. − cos ( nπx / 2 ) 
  
 

( nπ / 2 )   n 2 π2 / 4  ( ) 0
 2. ( − cos nπ ) sin nπ 
=  + 2 2 
 ( nπ / 2 )

n π /4 ( ) 

4
= − cos nπ
nπ
4
= − ( −1)n
nπ
Now putting these values of bn in equation (5.27), we get

∞
4 nπx
∑ − nπ ( −1)
n
f(x) = sin
n =1 2
4  πx 1 2πx 1 3πx 1 4πx 

= sin − sin + sin − sin + ....... 
π 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 
Example 5.11: Expand f(x) = sin x, 0 < x < π in a Fourier cosine series.
Sol. We know that the Fourier cosine series in 0 < x <π is given by
∞
a0
f(x) = +
2 n =1
∑
an cos nx ...(5.28)
π
2
Where a0 = f ( x ) dx
∫
π0
π
2
=
π0
sin x dx ∫
2
= [ − cos x ]0π
π
−2
= [cos π − cos 0]
π
2
= − ( −1) − 1
π
4
=
π
π
2
and an =
π0
sin x cos nx dx∫
π
1
=
π0
2cos nx sin x dx ∫
π
1
= sin ( n + 1) x − sin ( n − 1) x  dx
∫
π0
1  − cos ( n + 1) x   cos ( n − 1) x  
π π
=   −  −  
π  n +1   n − 1  
 0 0
1  − cos ( n + 1) π 1 cos ( n − 1) x 1 
=  + + − 
π n +1 n +1 n −1 n −1 
Solved Examples 165
1  − ( −1)n +1 + 1 + 1
 π ( n − 1) ( )
=  −1 n −1 − 1
π ( n + 1)  
1  ( −1) − 1 ( −1) − 1 
n +1 n −1
= –  −  , n ≥ 2n > 2.
π  n +1 n −1 
 
Note. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) – sin (A – B)

2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B)
π
2
Also a1 =
π0∫sin x cos x dx
π
1
=
π 0
sin 2x dx ∫
π
1  cos 2 x 
=  − 
π 2 0
1
= − ( cos 2π − cos 0 )
2π
1
= − (1 − 1)
2π
= 0
Now putting these values of a0, an in the equation (5.28), we get
∞
a0
f(x) = +∑
2 n =1
an cos nx
1  ( −1) − 1 ( −1) − 1 
∞ n +1 n −1
4
= −
π
∑ 
n=2 π  n +1
−
n −1 
 cos nx
 
4 1  −2 −2   −2 −2  
= −  −  cos 2 x +  −  cos 4 x + ...
π π  3 1   5 3  
4 1  −2   −2 2   −2 2  
= −  _ 2  cos 2 x +  +  cos 4 x + +  cos 6 x + .......
π π  3   5 3  5 5 
4 1 4 4 4 4 
= −  cos 2 x + cos 4 x + cos 4 x + cos 6 x + ....
π π 3 15 35 35 
4 4  cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 6 x 

or sin x = −  + + + ....
π π  1.3 3.5 5.7 
Example 5.12: Find the Fourier series for f(x) = x2 – 2 in –2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
Sol. It is given that f(x) = x2 – 2 ...(5.29)
Since given function is even function, so we have bn = 0.
Then the Fourier series for f(x) is
∞
a0 nπx
f(x) = +
2 n =1
an cos
l
∑ ...(5.30)
l
1
Where a0 = f ( x ) dx
∫
l −l
2
1
=
2 −2∫(
x 2 − 2 dx )
2
∫(x )
2
= − 2 dx
0
2
 x3 
=  − 2 x 
3 0
8
= −4
3
4
= −
3
l
1 nπx
and an = f ( x ) cos
∫ dx
l −l l
2
1 nπx
=
2 −2∫(
x 2 − 2 cos
2
dx )
2
nπx
∫(x )
2
= − 2 cos dx
0
2
Solved Examples 167
2
  sin ( nπx / 2 )   cos ( nπx / 2 )   sin ( nπx / 2 ) 
   
 2(
=  x −2 )   − ( 2x)   + ( 2 )  − 

 ( nπ / 2 )  (
2 2
 n π / 4  )  (
3 3
)
n π / 2 
 0
 sin nπ 4 sin nπ 
=  2. + 2 2 cos nπ − 2 3 3 
 ( nπ / 2 )
 (
n π /4 )
n π / 8

16
= cos nπ
n 2 π2
16
2 2 (
−1)
n
=
n π
2 ∞ nπx
f(x) = − + an cos
3 n =1 2
∑
2 ∞  16 nπx 
+  2 2 ( −1) cos ∑
n
= −
3 n =1  n π 2 
2 16  πx 1 1 3πx 
= − + 2 cos − cos πx + cos − ......
3 π  2 4 9 2 
Example. 5.13: Find the Fourier series for f(x) = e–x in (–l, l).
Sol. We know that the Fourier series for f(x) in interval (–l, l) is
∞
a0  nπx sin nπx 
f(x) =
2
+ ∑ a
n =1
n
l
+ bn
l 
...(5.31)
l
1
where a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
l −l
l
1 −x
=
l −l
e dx ∫
l
1  e− x 
=  
l  −1  −l
1
=  −e − l + el 
l 
1 l −l
= e − e 
l 
2
= sin hl
l
l
1 − x cos nπx
and an = ∫
l −l
e
l
dx
l
1 − x cos nπx
=
l −l
e
l∫ dx
 e ax 
2 (
=e ∫
ax
cos bx dx 2
a cos bx + b sin bx ) 
 a +b 

l
 

1 e −x
  nπx  nπ  nπx   
=   − cos   + sin   
l  n 2 π2   l  l  l  
1+ 2
 l −l
l
l  −x  nπx nπ nπx 
= 2 2 2 e − cos l + l sin l 
l +n π    −l
l  −l  nπ  l nπ 
= l 2 + n 2 π2 e  − cos nπ + l sin nπ  − e  − cos nπ − l sin nπ  
    
l
= 2 2 2 
l +n π
( )
 el − e −l cos nπ 

2l
= cos nπ .sin hl
l + n 2 π2
2
l
1 sin πx
Also bn = ∫ f ( x) dx
l −l l
l
1 −l n πx
=
l −l
e sin∫ l
dx
Solved Examples 169
l
 
1  e − x  nπx nπ nπx  
=   − sin − cos 
l  n 2 π2  l l l 
1+ 2
 l −l
 e ax 
2 (
=e ∫
ax
sin bx dx 2
a sin bx − b cos bx ) 
 a +b 

l  −l  nπ  l nπ 
= e  − sin nπ + l cos nπ  − e  sin nπ − l cos nπ  
l + n 2 π2
2
    
l  nπ 
= 2 2 2 
l +n π  l
(
cos nπ el − e −l 

)
2 nπ
= cos nπ.sinh l
l + n 2 π2
2

sin hl ∞  2l cos nπ .sin hl 2nπ cos nπ.sinh l 
f(x) =
l
+ ∑
n =1 
2 2 2
l +n π
.cos nx + 2
l +n π2 2
.sin nx 

∞
a  nπx nπx 
Example. 5.14: Find the Fourier series f(x) = 0 +
2
∑ a n cos
l
+ bn sin
l 
. n =1
Sol. We know that the Fourier series for f(x) in interval (–l, l) is
∞
a  nπx nπx 
f(x) = 0 +
2
∑ a
n =1
n cos
l
+ bn sin
l 
...(5.32)
l
1
where a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
l −l
Here l = 1/2, so we have
1/2
1
a0 = f ( x ) dx ∫
1 / 2 −1/2
0 1/2
1  1 
= 2 ∫
−1/2
 + x  dx + 2
2  ∫
0
 −
2
x  dx

0 −1/2
 x x2   x x2 
= 2  +  +2 − 
2 2  −1/2 2 2 0
−1/2
1 1 1 1
= 2  −  + 2  − 
4 8  4 8 0
1   1
= 2   + 2  
8   8
1
=
2
l
nπx
And an = ∫ f ( x ) cos
−l
l
dx
1/2
1 nπx
= f ( x ) cos
∫ dx
1 / 2 −1/2 1/ 2
0 π /2
1  1 
= 2 ∫
−1/2
 + x  cos 2 nπx dx + 2
2  ∫
0
 − x  cos 2 nπx dx
2 
0
 1  sin 2 nπx  cos 2nπx  
= 2  + x  dx −1 . − 2 2 
  2  2 nπ  2n π   −1/2
1/2
 1  sin 2 nπx  cos 2nπx  
+ 2  − x  −1( −1)  − 2 2 
  2  2 nπ  4n π   0
 1 cos 2 nπ   cos nπ 1 
= 2  2 2 − 2 2 
+ 2 − 2 2 + 
 4n π 4n π   4n π 4 n 2 π2 
=
1 ( −1)
− 2 2
n
2 2
n π n π
1  1 ( −1)n 
= 2 − 2 − 2 
π  n n 
Solved Examples 171
 2
 if n is odd
=  n 2 π2
 0 if n is even
l
1 nπx
Similarly, bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin dx
l −l l
1/2
1 nπx
= f ( x ) sin ∫ dx
1 / 2 −1/2 1/ 2
0 1/2
1  1 
= 2 ∫
−1/2
 + x  sin 2 nπx dx + 2
2  ∫
0
 − x  sin 2 nπx dx
2 
0
 1   cos 2 nπx   sin 2nπx  
= 2  + x  −  − (1)  − 2 2 
 2   2 n π   4n π   −1/2
1/2
 1   cos 2 nπx   sin 2nπx  
+ 2  − x  −  − ( −1)  − 2 2 
 2   2 n π   4n π   0
 1   1 
= −   + 
 2 nπ   2 nπ 
= 0
Now putting these values of a0, an and bn in the equation (5.32), we get
∞
1  2 nπx nπx 
f(x) =
4
+ ∑  n π
n =1
2 2
cos
l
+ 0 .sin
l 
1 2 ∞ 1 nπx 
= + 2
4 π  n =1 n
∑
2
. cos 
1/ 2
1 2  cos 2πx cos 6πx cos 10πx 

= + 2 2
+ 2
+ 2
+ .......
4 π  1 3 5 
Example 5.15. Find the Fourier series for f(x) = x2 in (–π, π). Also prove that
∞
1 π4
∑
n =1 n
4
=
90
using Perseval’s theorem.
Sol. Given that f(x)= x2

Since the given function is even so bn = 0 ...(5.33)
And the Fourier series for f(x) is

∞
a0
f(x) =
2 n =1
∑
+ an cos nx ...(5.34)
π
1
∫
π −π
π
1
=
π −π
x 2 dx ∫
π
2 2
=
π0 ∫
x dx
π
2  x3 
=  
π  3 0
2π2
=
3
π
1
and an = ∫f ( x ) cos nx dx
π −π
π
2 2
=
π0 ∫
x cos nx dx
π
2  x 2 sin nx 2 x .cos nx 2sin nx 
=  + − 
π n n2 n3  0
2  2π .cos nπ 
=
π  n2 

4
= ( −1)n .
n2
By equation (5.34), we have
π2 ∞
( −1) cos nx
n
f(x) =
3
+4 ∑
n =1 n
2
5.11 Harmonic Analysis 173
Now by Perseval’s theorem, we have

π
 a2 ∞ 2 
∑( )
2
∫  f ( x )  dx = π  0 + an + bn2 
−π  2 n =1 
π
 4 ∞

 f ( x )  dx = π  4.π +  16 + 0  
2
⇒ ∫ ∑ 4
−π  2.9 n =1  n 
π
 x5   2π4 ∞
16 
or  
 5  −π
= π
 9
+ 4
n =1 n 
∑
 π5 ( −π )5  2 π5 ∞
16
or  −
 5 5 
 =
9
+π
n =1 n
4 ∑

2 π5 2 π5 ∞
16
5
=
9
+π
n =1 n
∑
4
∞
2 π5 2 π5 16
or
5
−
9
= π ∑
n =1 n
4
∞
16π5 16
or
90
= π ∑
n =1 n
4
∞
16π5 16
or
90
= ∑
n =1 n4
∞
π4 1
90
= ∑
n =1 n4
.
5.11 Harmonic Analysis
Harmonic analysis is the theory of expanding functions in Fourier series. Let

f(x) be a function with period 2π defined in the interval [–π, π], then the Fourier
series of f(x) given by
a0 ∞
f(x) =
2 n =1
∑
+ ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) ...(5.35)
π
1
where a0 = ∫f ( x ) dx ,
π −π
π
1
an = f ( x ) cos nxdx
∫
π −π
π
1
bn = ∫f ( x ) sin nxdx
π −π
In many engineering and scientific problems, the function f(x) is in tabulated

form or in graphical form. In such cases, harmonic analysis deals with the
determination of the approximate value of the Fourier coefficient a0, an, bn.
Dividing the interval [–π, π] into m equal parts:
–π = x0, x1, x2, …………..xm–1, xm = π
π − ( −π ) 2π
and subinterval h = = .
m m
2π
Then xi = x0 + i (i = 1, 2, … m)
m
where x0 = –π and xm = π
π
1
a0 = f ( x ) dx ∫
π −π
1 ∞  1  ∞ 2π 
= 
=
h
π  i 1=
. f ( i ) = . 
x
 π i 1 m
∑
f ( xi ) 

∑
m
2
or a0 =
m
∑ f (x )
i =1
i
π
1
and an = f ( x ) cos nx dx ∫
π −π
1 m 
= ∑
 f ( xi ) cos nxi 
π  i =1 
m
2
=
m
∑ f ( x ) cos nx
i =1
i i
Solved Examples 175
m
2
Similarly, bn =
m
∑ f ( x ) sin nx
i =1
i i
Note. Mostly we choose m as a number divisible by 4 since the values of sine

and cosine are prepared in four quadrants.
Solved Examples
Example 5.16: Given that x is a function of θ° between θ° = 0 and θ° = 360° and
that the following experimental value of x and θ have been found.
0 30 60 90 120 150
T 298 356 373 337 254 155
180 210 240 270 300 330
T 80 60 93 147 221 2626
Sol. Here length of the interval is 12, say m.

We know that the Fourier series for f(x) is
∞
f(x) =
2 n =1 
∑
+  an cos
6
+ bn sin
6 
 ...(5.36)
According to question, the above equation (5.36) can be written as

a0 12  nθ nθ 
x = +  an cos
2 n =1 
∑6
+ bn sin 
6 
...(5.37)
m
2
Where a0 =
m
∑ f (x )
i =1
i
12
2
=
12
∑x
i =1
i
= (1/6)[298 + 356 + 373 + 337 + 254 + 155 +80

+ 51 + 60 + 93 + 147 +221]
= 404
m
2
an =
m
∑ f ( x ) cos θ
i =1
i i
12
2
=
12
∑ x cos nθ
i =1
i i
12
1
=
6
∑ x cos nθ
i =1
i i
x sin x sin x cos x cos x cos

q0 sin q sin 2q sin 3q cos q cos 2q cos 3q x x sin q
2q 3q q 2q 3q
0° 0 0 0 1 1 1 298 0 0 0 298 298 298
30° .5 .87 1 .87 .5 0 356 178 309.7 356 309.7 178 0
60° .87 .87 0 .5 -.5 -1 373 324.5 324.5 0 186.5 -186.5 -373
90° 1 0 -1 0 -1 0 337 337 0 -337 0 -337 0
120° .87 -.87 0 -.5 -.5 1 254 221 -221 0 -127 -127 254
150° .5 -.87 1 -.87 -.5 0 155 77.5 -135 155 -135 -77.5 0
180° 0 0 0 -1 1 -1 80 0 0 0 -80 80 -80
210° -.5 .87 -1 -.87 .5 0 51 -25.5 44.3 -51 -44.3 25.5 0
240° -.87 .87 0 -.5 -.5 1 60 -52.2 52.2 0 -30 -30 60
270° -1 0 1 0 -1 0 93 -93 0 93 0 -93 0
300° -.87 -.87 0 .5 -.5 -1 147 -128 -128 0 73.5 -73.5 -147
330° -.5 -.87 -1 .87 .5 0 221 -111.5 -192.3 -221 192.3 +111.5 0
727.8 54.4 -5 643.7 -231.5 12
12
1 1
a1 =
6
∑ x cos θ
i =1
1 i =
6
[643.7] = 107.28 ≈ 107
12
1 1
a2 =
6
∑ x cos 2θ = 6 [–231.5] = –38.58 ≈ –38
i =1
i i
12
1 1
a3 =
6
∑ x cos3θ
i =1
i i = [12] = 2
6
2 m 1 12
And bn =
=
f ( xi )sin nθi
=
m i 1= 6i1
∑ f ( xi )sin nθi ∑
12
1 1
b1 =
6
∑ f ( x )sin θ
i =1
i i = [728.8] = 121.25 ≈ 121
6
12
1 1
b2 =
6
∑ f ( x )sin 2 θ
i =1
i i = [54.4] = 9.0667 ≈ 9
6
12
1 1
b3 =
6
∑ f ( x )sin 3 θ
i =1
i i = [–5] = –.8333 ≈ –1
6
Solved Examples 177
Hence the Fourier series is given by

x ≈ 202 + 107 cos q – 38 cos 2θ + 2 cos 3θ+121 sin θ + 9 sin 2θ – sin θ.
Example 5.17: Find the constant term and coefficient of the first, second and
third sine and cosine terms in the Fourier series that represents as given in the
table
x 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
f(x) 9 18 24 28 26 20
Sol. Here length of the interval is 6, say m.
The Fourier series for is
a0 ∞  nπx nπx 
f(x) =
2 n =1 
∑
+  an cos
3
+ bn sin
3 

m
2
where a0 =
m
∑ f (x )
i =1
i
6
2 1
=
6
∑ f ( x ) = 3 [9 + 18 + 24 + 28 + 26 + 20] = 13 (125) = 41.666
i =1
i
2 m 2 6 1 m
=
an = =
m i 1=
∑
f ( xi ) cos nxi = f ( xi ) cos nxi
6 i 1= 3i1
∑
f ( x1 ) cos nxi ∑
x q° cos q cos 2q cos 3q f(x) f(x) cos q f(x) cos 2q f(x) cos 3q
0 0 1 1 1 9 9 9 9
1 60°
1 –1 -1 18 -9 -9 -18
2 2
2 120° –1 –1 1 24 -12 -12 24

2 2
3 180° -1 1 -1 28 -28 28 -28
4 240° –1 –1 1 26 -13 -13 26

2 2
5 300° –1 –1 -1 20 10 -10 -20

2 2
Total 125 -25 -7 -7
6
1 1
a1 =
3
∑ f ( x ) cos x
i =1
i i = [–25] = –8.333
3
6
1 1
a2 =
3
∑ f ( x ) cos 2 x
i =1
i i = [–7] = –2.333
3
6
1 1
a3 =
3
∑ f ( x ) cos3x
i =1
i i = [–7] = –2.333
3
2 m 2 6 1 6
Similarly, bn = =
= m i 1=
∑
f ( xi ) cos nxi = ∑
f ( xi ) cos nxi
6 i 1= 3i1
f ( xi ) cos nxi ∑
x q° sin q sin 2q sin 3q f(x) f(x) sin q f(x) sin 2q f(x) sin 3q
0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0
√3 √3
1 60° 0 18 9√3 9√3 0
2 2
√3 – √3
2 120° 0 24 12√3 –12√3 0
2 2
3 180° 0 0 0 28 0 0 0
4 240° – √3 – √3 0 26 –13√3 13√3 0

2 2
5 300° – √3 – √3 0 20 –10√3 –10√3 0

2 2
Total 125 –2√3 0 0
6
1 1
b1 =
3
∑ f (=
i =1
x ) cos x
i i =
3
–2 3  –1.1547
6
1 1
b2 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin=
i =1
i 2x i
3
=[0] 0
6
1 1
b3 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin=
i =1
i 3x i
3
=[0] 0
Example: 5.18: The turning moment T units of the crank shaft of a steam
engine is given for a series of values of the crank-angle in degrees.
q 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
T 0 5224 8097 7850 5499 2626 0
Find the first four terms in a series of sine to represent T. Also calculate T when
q = 75°.
Sol. Here length of interval is 6 say m. Since first and last angle value is same.
The Fourier series for is
Solved Examples 179
∞
f(x) =
2
+ ∑  a
i =1
0 cos
3
+ bn sin
3 

q° T sin q sin 2q sin 3q sin 4q

0° 0 0 0 0 0
1 √3 √3
30° 5224 2 1
2 2
√3 √3 – √3
60° 8097 0
2 2 2
90° 7850 1 -1
√3 – √3 – √3
120° 5499 0
2 2 2
1
150° 2626 2 – √3 1 – √3
2 2
2 m 1 m
=
bn =
m i 1=
∑
f ( xi )sin xi =
3i1
f ( xi )sin nxi ∑
6
1
b1 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin x
i =1
i i
1 1 3 3 1
= 5224 × + 8097 × + 7850 × 1 + 5499 × + 2626 × 
3 2 2 2 2
1 1
= = [ 23549=
[3925 + 11774 + 7850] ] 7850
3 3
6
1
b2 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin 2 x
i =1
i i
1 3 3  3  3 
= 5224 × + 8097 × + 7850 × 0 + 5499 ×  –  + 2626 ×  –  
3  2 2  2   2  
6
1
b3 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin 3x
i =1
i i
1
= [5224 × (1) + 8097 × ( 0 ) + 7850 × ( −1) + 5499 × ( 0 ) + 2626 × (1)]
3
1
= [0] = 0
3
6
1
b4 =
3
∑ f ( x )sin 4 x
i =1
i i
T = 7850 sin θ + 15 sin 2θ

for θ = 75°, T = 7850 sin 75° + 15 sin 150° = 7582 + 750 = 8332.
Example 5.19. Find the first three coefficients in the Fourier cosine series for
where
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f(x) 4 8 15 7 6 2
Sol. Here length of the interval is 6 say m. So we have one interval of length
600.
q0 cos q cos 2q cos 3q y y cos q y cos 2q y cos 3q
0° 1 1 1 4 4 4 4
1 –1
60° 2 2 -1 8 4 -4 -8
120° –1 –1 1 15 -7.5 -7.5 15

2 2
180° -1 1 -1 7 -7 7 -7
240° –1 –1 1 6 -3 -3 6
2 2
1 –1
300° 2 2 -1 2 1 -1 -2
Total -8.5 -4.5 8
The Fourier series for f(x) is

∞
f(x) =
2
+ ∑  a
i =1
n cos
3
+ bn sin
3 

m
2 1
where a0 =
m
∑=
f (x )
i =1
i
3
=[42] 14
2 m 1 6
an =
=m i 1=
∑
f ( xi ) cos nxi =
3i1
f ( xi ) cos nxi ∑
Exercise 5 181
6
1 1
a1 =
3
∑ f ( x )=
i =1
i cos x
i
3
=[–8.5] –2.8
6
1 1
a2 =
3
∑ f ( x ) cos
i =1
i = 2x i
3
=[–4.5] –1.5
6
1 1
a3 =
3
∑ f ( x ) cos3=
i =1
i x i
3
=[8] 2.7
Exercise 5
1. Find the Fourier series of the function f(x)= x – x2 in interval [-π, π]
2. Find the Fourier series for f(x)= e-x in the interval [0, 2π].
 0, when − π ≤ x ≤ 0
f ( x=)  2
3. Find the Fourier series of f(x) which is
 x , when 0 < x < π
assumed to be periodic with period 2π.
 0, when − π < x < 0

f ( x=) 
4. Find the Fourier series of f(x) and deduce
sin x, when 0 < x < π
π−2 1 1 1
the = − + + .....
4 1.3 1.5 5.7
 0, for 0 < x < π

5. Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) =  .
 2 π − x, for π ≤ x ≤ 2π
6. Find a Fourier series of the periodic function f(x) with period 2π which
is defined as follows: f ( x ) =  −1 for π ≤ x ≤0

1, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
7. Find the Fourier series of the function f(x)= |cos x| in the interval
(–π, π).
0 for − π≤ x ≤ 0
8. Find the Fourier of the function defined as f ( x ) =  πx
 4 for 0 < x ≤ π
9. Find the half-range sine series for ex in (0, 1).

10. Find the half-range cosine series for x in (0, 2).
sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π / 4
11. If f(x) =  . Expand f(x) in series of sine
 cos x for π / 4 ≤ x ≤ π / 2
terms.
1 1
 − x, if 0 < x <
12. Expand f(x) =  4 2 as the Fourier series of sine terms.
x− 3, 1
if < x <1
 4 2
13. Find the half-range sine series to represent f(x)= x(π – x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
 πx 0≤ x≤1
14. If f(x) =  .
π ( 2 − x ) 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
Show that in the interval (0, 2);
π 4  cos πx cos3πx cos5πx 
f(x) =
− + + + ....
2 π  12 32
5 2

15. Find the Fourier series for f(x)= x – x2 in (–1, 1).
 x, − 1≤ x ≤ 1
16. Find the Fourier series for f(x) =  and hence deduce
x + 2 0 ≤ x ≤1
1 1 1
the sum of the series 1 − + − + ....
3 5 7
17. In a machine the displacement f(x) of a given point is given for a certain
angle as follows:
q 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330°
f(x) 0.9 8 7.2 5.6 3.6 1.7 0.5 0.2 0.9 2.5 4.7 6.8

Find the coefficient of sin 2 in the Fourier series representing by f(x).
18. The following table gives the variation of periodic current over a
period.
(sec.) 0 T/6 T/3 T/2 2T/3 5T/6 T
A (amp.) 1.98 1.30 1.05 1.30 -0.88 -0.25 1.98
Show that there is a direct current part of 0.75 amp. in the variable
current and obtain the amplitude of the first harmonic.
19. The following values of f(x) give the displacement in inches of a certain
machine part for the rotation of the flywheel. Expand f(x) in term of
Fourier series.
x 0 p/6 2p/6 3p/6 4p/6 5p/6
f(x) 0 9.2 14.4 17.8 17.3 11.7
Answers 183
20. A function is defined by the following data.

x 0 p/3 2p/3 p 4p/3 5p/3
f(x) 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1
Expand f(x) in term of Fourier series.

21. The function is defined by the following data:
x 0 p/6 2p/6 3p/6 4p/6 5p/6
f(x) 0 9.2 14.4 17.8 17.3 11.7
Expand f(x) in terms of Fourier series up to the harmonic only.
Answers
2
1. − 2π + 4  cos x − cos 2 x + cos3 x − cos 4 x .......
3  12 22 32 42 
 
 sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x 
+2  − + − + ...
 1 2 3 4 
2. (1 − e ) 1 +  1 cos x + 1 cos 2 x + 1 cos3x + ....  +  1 sin x + 2 sin 2 x + 3 sin 3x + ...... 

−2 π
    
π  2 5 10  2 5 10 
π3 ∞
( −1) cos nx + ∞  π −1 n +1 + 2 [ −1 n − 1] sin nx.
n
=3
3.
+2
n 1= n2
∑  ( )
n 1 n πn3
( ) ∑


2 sin x 2  cos 2 x cos 4 x cos 6 x cos8 x 

4. + −  + + + + .......
π 2 π 3 15 35 63 
4 cos3 x cos5 x 
5. π − cos x + + 2 + ......
π 3 5 
4 sin 3 x sin 5 x sin ( 2n + 1) x 

6. sin x + + + ....... + + ............ .
π 3 5 2n + 1 
4 4  cos3 x cos 4 x 
7. + − + ......
π π  3 15 
π2 1  cos x cos3 x cos5 x 

8. −  2 + 2 + 2
+ .......
8 2 1 3 5 
π  sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x 
+  − + − ....
4 1 2 3 
 1+ e 2 (1 − e ) 3 (1 + e ) 
9. 2π  2
sin πx + 2
sin 2πx + 2
sin 3πx + ....
1 + π 1 + 4π 1 + 9π 
8  cos πx / 2 cos3πx / 2 cos5πx / 2 

10. 1 − + +
π2  12 32 52 

8 π  sin 2 x sin 6 x sin10 x 

11. cos  + + + ....
π 4  1.3 5.7 9.11 
1 4   1 4   1 4 
12.  − 2  sin πx +  + 2 2  sin 3 x +  − 2 2  sin 5 πx + ....
π π   3π 3 π   5π 5 π 
8 sin 3 x sin 5 x 
13.  sin x + 3 + 3
+ ..... 
π 3 5 
1 4  cos πx cos 2πx cos3πx 
15. − + 2  2 − 2
+ 2
− .... 
3 π  1 2 3 
2  sin πx sin 2πx sin 3πx 
+ − + − .... 
π  1 2 3 
2  1 1 1 1 1 
16. 1 +
π2 3sin πx − 2 sin πx + 3 , ( 3) sin 3πx − 4 sin 4πx + 5 ( 3) sin 5πx − 6 sin 6πx + ...
 
17. – 0.72 18. 1.072 19. 11.733+7.733

20. 0.75+(0.1) 21. 11.7335 – 1.205
Recapitulation
1. A French Mathematician Fourier, in 1807 introduced the Fourier
series.
∞
a0 + ∑ ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) , where a0, an, bn are
2. A series f ( x ) =
n =1
Fourier constants and interval (–π. π), (0, π) independent of x, is
called the trigonometric Fourier series.
3. A function f(x) is said to be periodic if f ( x + T ) =
f ( x ) ; for all real
x and some positive number T.
4. A function f(x) is said to be even if f ( − x ) =f ( x) .
5. A function f(x) is said to be odd if f ( − x ) =− f ( x) .

Recapitulation 185
6. The Fourier series for f(x) in [-π, π] is

∞
f ( x) =
a0 + ∑
( an cos nx + bn sin nx )
n =1
π π
1 1
where a0 = f ( x ) dx, an =
∫ ∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx and
2π −π π −π
π
1
bn = f ( x ) sin nx dx
∫
π −π

7. Let f(x) be an odd function in –π< x <π then the graph y = f(x) will
be symmetrical about the origin, then we get.
a0 = an = 0, since f(x) is odd.
π π
1 2
bn = f ( x ) sin nx dx =
∫ f ( x ) sin nx dx
∫
π −π π0
∞
The Fourier sine series in 0 < x <π is given by f(x) = ∑b
n =1
n sin nx dx
8. Let f(x) be an even function in –π< x <π then the graph y = f(x) will
be symmetrical about the y-axis, then we get
bn = 0, since f(x) is even
π π
1 2
an = f ( x ) cos nx dx =
∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx
∫
π −π π0
π π
1 2
and a0 = f ( x ) dx =
∫ f ( x ) dx
∫
π −π π0
The Fourier cosines series in 0 < x <π is given by

∞
a0
f ( x=
) +
2 n =1
∑
an cos nx .
9. Now to find the Fourier series for f(x) in – l < x < l. Changing the
variable z to x, we get
∞
f(x) = ∑
+  an cos
2 n =1  l
+ bn sin
l 

l
1  π 
where a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx  z = x
l −l  l 
l
1 nπx
an = ∫f ( x ) cos dx,
l −l l
l
1 nπx
Similarly, bn = ∫ f ( x ) sin dx
l −l l
∞
a0
10. The Fourier series f(x) = +
2 n =1
∑
(an cos nx + bn sin nx)
converges uniformly to f(x) at every points of (0, 2π) then

2π
1 a2 ∞
∑( )
2
∫  f ( x )  dx = 0 + an2 + bn2
π0 2 n =1
Exercise 5.1
∞
1. Fourier series for f ( x ) =
n =1
∑
a0 + ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) in [ −π, π] , the
value of a0 is equal to
π π
1 1
f ( x ) dx f ( x ) dx
∫
(a)
π −π ∫ (b)
2π 0
π
1
(c) f ( x ) dx
∫ (d) None of these
2π −π
2. If f ( x )= x + x in [ −π, π] , the value of a0 is equal to

2
2π2 2 π3
(a) (b)
3 3
2
(c) π (d) None of these
3
3. If f ( x ) = x cos x in [ −π, π] , the value of a0 is equal to
1 1
(a) (b)
3 2
(c) 0 (d) None of these
Exercise 5.1 187
π− x
4. If f ( x ) = in [ 0, 2π] , the value of an is equal to
2
1 1
(a) − (b)
2 2
5. The Fourier sine series in 0 < x <π is given by
∞ ∞
a0
(a) f ( x) = ∑n =1
bn sin nx dx (b) f ( x=
) +∑
2 n =1
an cos nx.
∞
(c) f ( x ) = ∑a
n =1
n cos nx. (d) None of these
State True or False

1. A function f(x) is said to be even if f ( − x ) =f ( x) .
2. Fourier series is an infinite series representation of periodic function in
terms of trigonometric sine and cosine functions.
3. For Fourier sine series on 0 < x < π; a0 ≠ 0 .
1
4. If f ( x ) = x in [ −π, π] , the value of a0 is equal to − .
2
2
5. The Fourier cosines series in 0 < x <π is given by
∞
a0
f ( x=
) +
2 n =1
∑
an cos nx .
Fill in the Blanks

1. A function f(x) is said to be odd if f ( − x ) =
......................
2. A function f(x) is said to be ……………… if f ( x + T ) =

f ( x ) ; for all
real x and some positive number T.
3. For Fourier sine series on 0 < x < π; the value of bn = ........................
a0 ∞
4. If the Fourier series f ( x ) = +
2 n =1
∑
( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) converges
2π
1 2
uniformly to f(x) at every points of (0, 2π) then
π ∫  f ( x )
0
dx =
.....
Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c)
4. (c) 5. (a)
State True or False

1. T 2. T 3. F
4. F 5. T
Fill in the Blanks

1. –f(x) 2. periodic
a02 ∞
3. 0 4.
2
+ ∑(a 2
n + bn2 )
n =1 qqq
6
Limit and Continuity of

Functions of two Variables
Learning Objectives

l understand the limit and continuity of function of two variables
l comprehend the partial derivatives
l explain the higher order partial derivatives
l discuss the homogeneous function
l understand the Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions
l explain the total differential coefficient
l discuss the implicit function
6.1 Introduction
In many science and engineering problems we come across a variable quantity
which depends for its value on two or more independent variables so we have
to be strong understanding of the method of partial differentiation. Partial
derivatives play an important role in science, management and engineering
problems such as in optimization techniques, operations research, electricity,
computer science, fluid dynamics, probability, statistics, economics, mechanical
and electronics etc. we deal with the function of two or more independent
variables, for examples, the area of a rectangular depends on two variables,
namely its length, breadth; and the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped
depends upon three variables namely its length, breadth and depth. Hence the
area of a rectangular is a function of two variables and volume of a rectangular
190 Chapter 6 Limit and Continuity of Functions of two Variables
parallelepiped is a function three variables. Hence there are a lot of engineering

problems which require a clear understanding of partial differentiation.
6.2 Limit of a function of two variables
Consider a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y, then lim f ( x, y ) exists

x → x0
y → y0
and equal to l, if for every e > 0, ∃ d > 0 such that |f(x, y) – l| < e, ∀ (x, y)
for |x – x0| < d and |y – y0| < d.
6.3 Continuity of a function of two variables
Consider a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y is said to be continuous at

the point (x0, y0) if xlim f ( x, y ) exists and equal to f (x0, y0).
→x 0
y → y0
or
Consider a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y is said to be continuous at
the point (x0, y0), if for every e > 0, ∃ d > 0 such that |f(x, y) – f(x0, y0)| < e,
∀ (x, y) whenever |x – x0| < d and |y – y0| < d.
Solved Example
x2 − y 2
Example 6.1: Show that the limit lim f ( x, y ) , where f ( x, y ) =
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x2 + y 2
does not exists.
x2 − y 2
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) = .
x2 + y 2
Consider (x, y) → (0, 0) along the path y = mx, where m ∈ R.
As (x → 0), from y = mx, we have y → 0.
We have
x2 − y 2
lim f ( x, y ) = lim
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) ( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x 2 + y 2
Putting y = mx, then we have

Solved Example 191
1 − m2
lim f ( x, mx ) = , which depend upon m.
x →0 1 + m2
Therefore the lim f ( x, mx ) is not unique. Thus the lim f ( x, y ) does not
x →0 ( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
exists.
1 1
Example 6.2: If f(x, y) = y sin   + x sin   where x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 , then prove
 x  y
that f(x, y) → 0 as (x, y) → (0, 0).
1 1
f ( x, y ) y sin   + x sin   .
Sol. The given function is =
 x  y
Consider e is any given arbitrary small positive number i.e., e > 0 and assume
d = e. Also consider | x − 0 | < ε / 2,| y − 0 | < ε / 2
We have
( x, y ) − ( 0,0 ) = ( x − 0)
2
+ ( y − 0)
2

≤ x−0 + y−0
<ε / 2 + ε / 2 = e

Now we have
1 1
f ( x, y ) − 0 = y sin   + x sin  
 x  y
1 1
≤ y sin   + x sin  

 x  y
(Using By triangle inequality)
1 1
≤ y sin   + x sin  

 x  y
 1 1 
 sin   ≤ 1 and ≤ y+ x sin   ≤ 1
  x  y  
ε ε
< + =e

2 2
Thus f ( x, y ) − 0 << e.
Hence lim f ( x, y ) = 0.
( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
 xy
 2 2
, ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
Example 6.3: If f(x, y) =  x + y , then prove that,
0, ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )

lim f ( x, y ) does not exists.
( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
 xy
 2 2
, ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
Sol. The given function is f(x, y) =  x + y .
0, ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )

Suppose, if the lim f ( x, y ) exists, then this limit is independent of the

( x , y ) →( x0 , y0 )
path along which we approach the point (x0, y0).
Consider (x, y) → (0,0) along the path y = mx, where m ∈ R. As (x → 0), from
y = mx we have y → 0.
We have
xy
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) ( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x + y2
2

x mx
( x , mx ) →( 0,0 ) x →0 x + m2 x 2
2
mx 2
= lim
x →0 x 2 (1 + m 2 )
m
= lim
x →0 1 + m2
m
= ,which depend upon m.
1 + m2
Hence the lim f ( x, y ) does not exist.

( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
xy 3
Example 6.4: Show that the function f ( =
x, y ) , x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 and
x2 + y6
f(0, 0) = 0 is not continuous at (0, 0) in (x, y).
xy 3
Sol. The given function is f (=
x, y ) , x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 .
x2 + y6
Solved Example 193
Here it is also given f(0, 0) = 0.

Let us consider (x, y) → (0, 0) through the curve x = y3, so we get
y6
lim f ( x, y ) lim
= y →0 y 6 + y 6
( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
1
=
2
Now we have (x, y) → (0,0) through the line x = y, so we get
3
lim f ( x, y ) = lim x . x
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x →0 x 2 + x 6
x2
= lim
x →0 1 + x 4
= 0.
Here the limit found by two different approaches are changed thus the
lim f ( x, y ) does not exists. Hence the given function is not continuous.
( ) ( )
x , y → 0,0
 xy ( x 2 − y 2 )
 , ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
Example 6.5: Show that the function f ( x, y ) =  x 2 + y 2
is continuous at (0,0). 
0, otherwise
 xy ( x 2 − y 2 )
 , ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) =  x 2 + y 2

0, otherwise
Consider e > 0 and assume x − 0 < ε and y − 0 < ε .
xy ( x 2 − y 2 )
Consider, f ( x, y ) − f ( 0,0 ) = −0
x2 + y 2
x2 − y 2
= xy
x2 + y 2
 2 2 2
2
2 x − y
2

≤ | xy |
 x − y ≤ x + y 2 2
≤ 1
 x +y 
⇒ f ( x, y ) − f ( 0,0 ) ≤ x y
⇒ f ( x, y ) − f ( 0,0 ) < ε . ε
⇒ f ( x, y ) − f ( 0,0 ) < ε
Hence, we have lim f ( x, y ) exists and equal to f (0, 0).

( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
2 x3 − y 3
Example 6.6: Show that lim =0
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x 2 + y 2
2x 3 − y 3
Sol. Let f(x, y) = , then we have
x2 + y 2
lim f ( x, y ) 2 x3 − y 3
= lim
y →0 (
x2 + y 2 )
x →0 x →0
y →0

2 x 3 − m3 x 3
= lim
x →0
( x 2 + m2 x 2 )
x 3 ( 2 − m3 )
= lim
x →0 x 2 (1 + m 2 )
x ( 2 − m3 )
= lim
x →0
(1 + m ) 2
= 0
Hence lim f ( x, y ) = 0.
x →0
y →0
 xy
 , when ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
Example 6.7: Let f(x, y) =  x 2 + y 2 . Show that
0, when ( x, y ) = ( 0, 0 )

f(x, y) is continuous at (0, 0)
 xy
 2 , when ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) =  x + y
2
.
0, when ( x, y ) = ( 0, 0 )

Solved Example 195
If the simultaneous limit, lim f ( x, y ) exists and is equal to f (0, 0), then f(x, y)
x →0
y →0
will be continuous at (0, 0).

Now we have
lim f ( x, y )  xy 
x →0 = lim  
x →0  
y →0
y →0  x2 + y 2 
mx 2
= lim
x →0
x 2 + m2 x 2
[Taking the limit along the line y = mx]
mx
= lim = 0.
x →0
1 + m2
Thus lim f ( x, y ) exists and is equal to f (0, 0). Hence f(x, y) is continuous
x →0
y →0
at (0, 0).
2x − y
Example 6.8: Show that lim does not exists.
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x2 + y 2
Sol. Let y = mx, then we have
 2x − y  2 x − mx
lim  2  = lim
x →0 x + y 2 x →0 x 2 + m 2 x 2
y →0  
2−m
= lim
x →0 x (1 + m 2 )
= ∞
2x − y
Hence the lim = ∞ does not exists.
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x2 + y 2
1, if x isirrational
Example 6.9: Let f : R 2 → R be defined as f(x, y) =  .
0, if x is rational
Show that for any point (a, b), lim f ( x, y ) does not exists.
( x , y ) →( a ,b )
Sol. Consider a be a rational number. Then we have

lim f ( x, y ) = lim ( 0 ) [ f ( x, y ) = 0 if x is rational]
x→a x→a
y →b y →b
= 0.
Now if a is a irrational number, then we have
lim f ( x, y ) = lim (1) [ f ( x, y ) = 1 if x is irrational]
x→a x→a
y →b y →b
= 1.
Therefore lim f ( x, y ) is not unique.
( x , y ) →( a ,b )
Hence the lim f ( x, y ) does not exists.

( x , y ) →( a ,b )
Example 6.10: Show that the function f(x, y) be defined as

 x2 − y 2
 2 , if x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0
f ( x, y ) =  x + y 2 is discontinuous at the point (0, 0).
0, if x= y= 0

 x2 − y 2
 2 , if x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) =  x + y
2
0, if x= y= 0

The simultaneous limit of (x, y) at (0, 0) is given by
x2 − y 2
x →0
y →0
x →0
y →0
x2 + y 2
x2 − m2 x 2
= lim
x →0 x 2 + m2 x 2
(taking the limit along the line y = mx)
1 − m2
= lim
x →0 1 + m 2
2
1 − m
1 + m2
Thus the lim f ( x, y ) depends upon m.
x →0
y →0
6.4 Partial Derivatives 197
Hence lim f ( x, y ) does not exists and hence f(x, y) is discontinuous.

( x , y ) →( a 0,0 )
 1
 x sin   , if y ≠ 0
Example 6.11: Let f ( x, y ) =   y . Show that
0,
 if ( ) ( )
x , y = 0,0
f(x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
 1
 x sin   , if y ≠ 0
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) =   y .
0, if ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )

The simultaneous limit of f(x, y) at (0, 0) is
1
lim f ( x, y ) = lim x sin
x →0
y →0
x →0
y →0
y
1
= lim x sin   [Taking the limit along y = x]
x →0
 x
 1 
= 0 × (a finite number)  −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
 
= 0
Thus the lim f ( x, y ) exists and it is equal to f(0, 0) i.e., f(0, 0) = 0.
x →0
y →0
Hence f(x, y) is continuous at (0, 0).
6.4 Partial Derivatives
Partial differentiation is the process of finding the partial derivatives. The
ordinary derivative of a function of several variables with respect to one of
independent variables, when all the other independent variables are constant,
is called the partial derivative of the function of the function with respect to the
variables. Suppose u = f(x, y) be the function of two independent variables x and

∂u ∂f ∂u ∂f
y, and is denoted by , or , or fx, or ux, or fx(x, y) and , or , or fy, or
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
∂f f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x , y )
uy, or fy(x, y) etc. Thus we have = lim provided that
∂x h → 0 h
∂f f ( x, y + k ) − f ( x, y )
this limit exist and unique. Similarly, we have = k lim
∂y h →0 k
provided that this limit exist and unique.
6.5 Higher order partial derivatives
∂f
Let us consider u = f(x, y) then ∂u , or , or fx be the partial derivatives of
∂x ∂x
∂u ∂f
function of x and y. The partial derivatives of or or fx with respect to x
∂x ∂x
∂ 2u ∂2 f ∂u
are denoted by 2 or or fxx . Similarly, the partial derivatives of or
∂x ∂x 2
∂y
∂f ∂ 2u ∂2 f
or fy with respect to y are denoted by 2 or or fyy .
∂y ’ ∂y ∂y 2
∂  ∂f  ∂2 f
  = = f xy
∂x  ∂y  ∂x∂y
∂  ∂f  ∂2 f
and   = = f yx
∂y  ∂x  ∂y∂x
∂2 f ∂2 f
If fxy and fyx are continuous, then we have = = f yx .
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
In limit format the derivative of the second order are defined as
∂2 f f ( x0 + 2h, y0 ) − 2 f ( x0 + h, y0 ) + f ( x0 , y0 )
2
= lim
∂x h →0 h2
∂2 f f ( x0 , y0 + 2k ) − 2 f ( x0 , y0 + k ) + f ( x0 , y0 )
2 = lim
∂y k →0 k2
∂2 f f ( x0 + h, y0 + k ) − f ( x0 , y0 + k ) − f ( x0 + h, y0 ) + f ( x0 , y0 )
= lim lim
∂y∂x k →0 h →0 hk
∂2 f f ( x0 + h, y0 + k ) − f ( x0 + h, y0 ) − f ( x0 , y0 + k ) + f ( x0 , y0 )
and = lim lim
∂x∂y h →0 k →0 hk
Solved Example 199
Solved Example
1 2
 ( x + y ) log ( x + y ) , when ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
2 2 2
Example 6.12: Let f ( x, y ) =  4

0
 , when ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )
Show that fxy = fyx at all points (x, y). Also, show that none of the derivatives
is continuous in (x, y) at the origin.
Sol. The given function is
1 2
 ( x + y ) log ( x + y ) , when ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
2 2 2
f(x, y) =  4
0
 , when ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )
For x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 , we have
1
fx =
2
(
x 1 + log ( x 2 + y 2 ) )
1
fy =
2
(
y 1 + log ( x 2 + y 2 ) )
and fxy = fyx = xy
x2 + y 2
For x = 0, y = 0, we have f=
x y=
y f=
xy f=
yx 0
Hence, fxy = fyx at every point.
Now, we show that fxy = fyx is not continuous at (0, 0).
xy
Since lim does not exist. If we put y = mx, then the limit of the
( x , y ) →( 0,0 ) x + y 2
2
function, depends upon m. Hence the limit does not exists. It follows that
fxy = fyx is not continuous at the origin.
x2 y
Example 6.13: Let f ( x, y ) = for x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 and f(0, 0) = 0.
x4 + y 2
Show that the partial derivatives fx, fy exist everywhere in the region
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1 , although f(x, y) is discontinuous in (x, y) at the origin.
x2 y
,(
x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 )
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y ) =
x4 + y 2
y 2 − x2
We have fx = 2 xy. , ( x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 )
(x + y2 )
4 2
x4 − y 2
and
2
fy = x . , ( x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 )
(x + y2 )
4 2
Also for x = y = 0, we get

h .0
fx = lim = 0 and fy = 0.
h →0 h4 + 0
Similarly, the following results can be prove
fx (x, y) = 0 for x = 0, y ≠ 0
fx (x, y) = 0 for x ≠ 0, y = 0
fy (x, y) = 0 for x = 0, y ≠ 0
1
fy (x, y) = 2 for x ≠ 0, y = 0
x
Therefore the partial derivative fx, fy exists at all points of the given region.
Now we shall check the continuity of the given function. The limiting value of
f (x, y), along the line y = 0, given by
x 2 (0)
lim =0
h →0 x 4 + (0) 2
And the limiting value of f (x, y) along the line y = x2 is given by
x4 1
lim 4 4
=
x →0 x +x 2
Here the limit obtained by two different approaches is different. Hence the
f (x, y) is discontinuous in (x, y) at the origin.
Example 6.14: Let f (x, y) be a function which is defined as
1
f (x, y) = x sin 1 + y sin 1 , x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 ; f (0, y) = y sin , y ≠ 0;
x y y
1
f (x, 0) = x sin , x ≠ 0; f(0, 0) = 0. Examine the existence of fx and fyx at
x
x = 0, y = 0.
1 1
Sol. The given function is f ( x, y =
) x sin + y sin , x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0.
x y
We have
Solved Example 201
f ( h,0 ) − f ( 0,0 )
fx (0, 0) = lim
h →0 h
1
h sin −0
= lim h
h →0 h
1
= lim sin
h →0 h
Since the limit does not exists, therefore f x(0, 0) does not exists.
f ( h, k ) − f ( 0, k ) − f ( h,0 ) + f ( 0,0 )
Now fyx = lim lim
k →0 h →0 hk
1 1 1 1
h sin   + k sin   − k sin   − h sin  
= h k k h
lim lim
k →0 h →0 hk
0
= lim lim = 0.
k → 0 h → 0 hk
In spite of the fact that limit is zero, the derivative fyx(0, 0) cannot be said to
exists, since f x(0, 0) does not exists.
∂u ∂u
Example 6.15: Find the first order partial derivatives and when
∂x ∂y
y x2 y 2
(a) u = tan −1 (b) u = + −1 (c)
= u log( x 2 + y 2 )
x a 2 b2
y
Sol. (a) We have u = tan −1 …(6.1)
x
Differentiating partially equation (6.1) with respect to x taking y as a constant,
we get
1 ∂  y
∂u 2  
=  y  ∂x  x 
∂x 1 +  
x
x2  y 
= 2
. − 2
2 
x +y  x 
y
= −
x + y2
2
Now again differentiating partially equation (6.1) with respect to y taking x as

a constant, we get
1 ∂  y
∂u 2  
∂y
=  y  ∂y  x 
1+  
x
x2 1
= 2
. 
2 
x + y  x
x
=
x + y2
2
x2 y 2
(b) We have u = + −1 …(6.2)
a 2 b2
we get
∂u 2x
= 2
∂x a
a constant, we get
∂u 2y
= 2
∂x b
(c) We have u = log (x2 + y2) … (6.3)
we get
1 ∂
∂u
= 2 2
. ( x2 + y 2 )
∂x x + y ∂x
2x
=
x + y2
2

a constant, we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Example 6.16: Verify that = , if u =ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 .
∂x∂y ∂y ∂x
Solved Example 203
Sol. We have u =ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 . …(6.4)
Differentiating partially equation (6.4) with respect to x we get
∂u
= 2ax + 2hy …(6.5)
∂x
Differentiating partially equation (6.5) with respect to y we get
∂ 2u
= 2h …(6.6)
∂y∂x
Now differentiating partially equation (6.4) with respect to y we get
∂u
= 2hx + 2by …(6.7)
∂y
Again differentiating partially equation (6.7) with respect to x we get
∂ 2u
= 2h … (6.8)
∂x∂y
Using equations (6.6) and (6.8), we conclude that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
= .
∂y∂x ∂x∂y
 y ∂u ∂u
Example 6.17: If u = f   , then show that x + y 0.
=
x ∂x ∂y
 y
Sol. We have u = f   … (6.9)
x
Differentiating partially equation (6.9) with respect to x we get

∂u  y ∂  y
= f ' .  
∂x  x  ∂x  x 
 y   −y 
= f '   .  2 
x  x 
−y  y 
= f ' 
x2  x 
∂u −y  y 
or x = f '  . … (6.10)
∂x x x
Now differentiating partially equation (6.9) with respect to y we get
∂u  y ∂  y
= f ' .  
∂y  x  ∂y  x 
 y 1
= f '   .
x x
1  y
= f ' 
x x
∂u y  y
or y = f '  . … (6.11)
∂y x x
Adding equations (6.10) and (6.11), we get

∂u ∂u
x +y = 0.
∂x ∂y
Example 6.18: If u ( x, y , =
z ) log( x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ) then show that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
2
+ 2 + 2 = −3( x + y + z ) −2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z
3 3 3
Sol. Given that u = log( x + y + z − 3 xyz ) … (6.12)
Differentiating partially equation (6.12) with respect to x, y and z respectively,
we get
∂u 3 x 2 − 3 yz
= 3 … (6.13)
∂x x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u 3 y 2 − 3 zx
= 3 … (6.14)
∂y x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u 3 z 2 − 3 xy
= 3 … (6.15)
∂z x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
Solved Example 205
From equations (6.13), (6.14) and (6.15), we get

∂u ∂u ∂u 3
+ + = … (6.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z x+ y+z
 x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz = ( x + y + z )( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx) 
Now again differentiate partially equations (6.13), (6.14) and (6.15), with
respect to x, y and z respectively, we get
 4 
∂ 2u  x − 2 xy 3 − 2 xz 3 + 3 y 2 z 2 
= −3 … (6.17)
 ( ) 
∂x 2  x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz 2 
∂ 2u  
 −2 x3 y − y 4 + 2 yz 3 − 3 z 2 x 2 
= 3 … (6.18)
∂y 2 
( ) 
3 3 3 2
 x + y + z − 3 xyz 
 3 
∂ 2u  2 x z − z 4 − 2 y 3 z − 3x 2 y 2 
= 3 … (6.19)
 ( ) 
∂z 2  x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz 2 
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 3
+ 2+ 2 = − 2 .
∂x 2
∂y ∂z ( x + y + z)
2
x2 + y 2  ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
Example 6.19: If u = ’ then show that  −  = 4 1 − − 
x+ y  ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
x2 + y 2
Sol. Given that u = … (6.20)
x+ y
Differentiating partially equation (6.20) with respect to x and y respectively,
we get
∂u
= ( x + y )( 2 x ) − ( x 2 + y 2 ) .1
∂x
( x + y)
2
x 2 + 2 xy − y 2
=
( x + y)2
∂u ( x + y )( 2 y ) − ( x 2 + y 2 ) .1
and =
( x + y)
2
∂y
y 2 + 2 xy − x 2
=
( x + y)2
2
2  x 2 + 2 xy − y 2 y 2 + 2 xy − x 2 
 ∂u ∂u  −
We have  −  =  ( x + y )2 ( x + y ) 
2

 ∂x ∂y  
2
 2 x2 − 2 y 2 
=  
 ( x + y ) 
2
4( x + y) ( x − y)
2 2
=
( x + y)
4
4( x − y)
2
= … (6.21)
( x + y)
2
Now we have
 ∂u ∂u   x 2 + 2 xy − y 2 y 2 + 2 xy − x 2 
4 1 − −  = 4 1 − − 
( x + y)
2
 ∂x ∂y   ( x + y ) 2 
 x 2 + y 2 + 2 xy − x 2 − 2 xy + y 2 − y 2 − 2 xy + x 2 
4
=  
( x + y)
2
 
4.
(x 2
+ y 2 − 2 xy )
=
( x + y)
2
( x − y)
2
= 4. … (6.22)
( x + y)
2
Hence by equations (6.21) and (6.22), we have

2
 ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
 −  = 4 1 − ∂x − ∂y  .
 ∂x ∂y   
∂2 z
= − ( x log ex ) .
x y z −1
Example 6.20: If x y z = c , then show that at x = y = z ,
∂x∂y
x y z
Sol. Given that x y z = c … (6.23)
Solved Example 207
Taking log both sides of equation (6.23), we get

x log x + y log y + z log z = log c … (6.24)
Differentiating partially equation (6.24) with respect to x, we get
 1   1  ∂z
 x  x  + log x.1 + 0 +  z.  z  + log z  ∂x = 0
       
∂z 1 + log x
or = − … (6.25)
∂x 1 + log z
∂z 1 + log y
Similarly, we get = − … (6.26)
∂y 1 + log z
∂2 z ∂  ∂z  ∂  1 + log y 
∂x∂y
=  =  − 
∂x  ∂y  ∂x  1 + log z 
∂  1 
= − (1 + log y ) .  
∂x  1 + log z 
 −2 1 ∂z 
= − (1 + log y ) . ( −1)(1 + log z ) . 
 z ∂x 
(1 + log y ) . ∂z

=
z (1 + log z ) ∂x
2
(1 + log y ) . − 1 + log x 
= 2  
z (1 + log z )  1 + log z 
(1 + log y )(1 + log x )

= − … (6.27)
z (1 + log z )
3
At x = y = z, from equation (6.27), we have
(1 + log x )
2
∂2 z
= −
∂x∂y x (1 + log x )
3
1
= −
x (1 + log x )
1
= −
x ( log e + log x )
1
= −
x log ex
= − [ x.log ex ]
−1

Example 6.21: If u = f(r), 2

r= x2 + y 2 , then show that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 1
+ = f '(r ) + f "(r ) .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 r
2
Sol. Given that r= x 2 + y 2 … (6.28)
∂r
2r = 2x
∂x
∂r x
or =
∂x r
∂r y
Similarly, we have =
∂y r
It is also given that
u = f(r) … (6.29)
∂u ∂r
= f '(r )
∂x ∂x
x
= f '(r ) … (6.30)
r
Again differentiating partially equation (6.30) with respect to x, we get
∂ 2u ∂  ∂u  ∂  x
= .   =  f '(r ). 
∂x 2 ∂x  ∂x  ∂x  r
 ∂r  ∂r
r  f '(r ) + x 2 f "(r )  − xf '(r )
∂x  ∂x
=  2
r
6.6 Homogeneous Function 209
1  2 x2 
=  rf '( r ) + x f "( r ) − f '(r )  … (6.31)
r2  r 
Similarly, we get
∂ 2u 1  2 y2 
= 2  rf '( r ) + y f "( r ) − f '(r )  … (6.32)
∂y 2 r  r 
Adding equation (6.31) and (6.32), we have
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 1  2 2 ( x2 + y 2 ) 
+ = 2 
2 rf '( r ) + ( x + y ) f "( r ) − f '(r ) 
∂x 2
∂y 2
r  r 
1
=  2rf '(r ) + r 2 f "(r ) − rf '(r ) 
r2 
1
=  rf '(r ) + r 2 f "(r ) 
r2 
1
= f '(r ) + f "(r )
r
6.6 Homogeneous Function

A function u(x, y) is said to be a homogenous function if all its terms are of the
same degree. Let
n n −1 n−2 2 n −1 n
f(x, y) = a0 x + a1 x y + a2 x y + ...... + an −1 xy + an y … (6.33)
be a function of x and y of degree n.

The equation (6.33) can be written as
n  y  y
2
 y
n −1
 y 
n
f(x, y) = x  a0 + a1   + a2   + ....... + an −1   + an   
 x x x  x  
n  y
= x φ  
x
 y2   y2 
x 2 1 − 1 −
2
x −y 2
 x 2  
x2

=
For example, 1. Here u = = x 
x+ y 
x 1 +
y  1+ y 
 
 x   x 
is a homogeneous function of order 1.
 y y
x 1 +  1+
x y  x  x  y
2. Here u = 2 = = x
−3/ 2
2 =
x −3/ 2 φ  
x +y 2
  y 2
 y x
x 2 1 +    1+  
  x   x
3
is a homogeneous function of order − .
2
6.7 Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous Functions
If u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n, then we have
∂u ∂u
x
+ y = nu.
∂x ∂y
Proof: Since u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n, therefore it
can be written as
n  y
u = x φ  … (6.34)
x
∂u n −1  y  n  y ∂  y
= nx φ   + x φ '   .  
∂x x  x  ∂x  x 
n −1  y  n  y  y 
= nx φ   + x φ '   .  − 2 
x x  x 
∂u n  y n −1  y 
or x = nx φ   − yx φ '   … (6.35)
∂x x x
Again differentiating partially (6.34) with respect to y, we get
∂u n  y ∂  y
= x φ '   
∂y  x  ∂x  x 
n  y 1
= x φ '   .
x x
∂u n −1  y 
or y = y x φ '  … (6.36)
∂y x
6.8 Some Deductions from Euler’s Theorem 211
∂u ∂u  y
x +y n
= nx φ '   =nu
∂x ∂y x
∂u ∂u
Hence x +y = nu.
∂x ∂y
6.8 Some Deductions from Euler’s Theorem
 y 2 2 2
If u = x n φ   then x 2 ∂ u2 + 2 xy ∂ u + y 2 ∂ u2 =
n(n − 1)u .
x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
 y
Sol. If u = x n φ   , then we know that by Euler’s theorem, we have
x  
∂u ∂u
x +y = nu … (6.37)
∂x ∂y
we have
∂ 2u ∂u ∂ 2u ∂u
x + +y = n … (6.38)
∂x 2
∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u ∂u
and x +y 2 + = n … (6.39)
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
Multiply equation (6.38) by x and equation (6.39) by y and adding them, we

get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u  ∂u ∂u   ∂u ∂u 
x2 2
+ 2 xy + y 2
+  x + y  = n x + y 
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y  ∂x ∂y   ∂x ∂y 
Using equation (6.37), we have
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
x2 2
+ 2 xy + y 2 + nu =
n 2u .
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
or x2 + 2 xy + y = n(n − 1)u
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
Note: If u be a homogeneous function of x1 , x2 ,....., xm of degree n, then we
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
have x1 + x2 + x3 + ....... + xm = nu.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xm
Solved Example
−1
 x+ y  ∂u ∂u 1
Example 6.22: If u = cos  x + y  then prove that x + y − cot u.
=
  ∂x ∂y 2
−1
 x+ y 
Sol. Given that u = cos   …..(6.40)
 x+ y
The above equation (6.40) can be written as
x+ y
cos u = …..(6.41)
x+ y
x+ y
Now consider V = ….. (6.42)
x+ y
Here V is a homogenous function of x and y of degree (1/2). Therefore by

Euler’s theorem, we have
∂V ∂V 1
x +y = V …. (6.43)
∂x ∂y 2
From equations (6.41) and (6.42), we have
V = cos u …. (6.44)
Now differentiating partially equation (6.44) with respect to x and y respectively,
we get
∂V ∂u
= − sin u
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂u
and = − sin u
∂y ∂y
Solved Example 213
∂V ∂V
Putting these values of and in equation (6.43), we get
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1
− x sin u − y sin u = cos u
∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1
or x +y = − cot u .
∂x ∂y 2
 x1 / 4 + y 1 / 4 
Example 6.23: If u = sin  1 / 5 1 / 5 
−1
then prove that
x +y 
∂u ∂u 1
x +y = tan u .
∂x ∂y 20
−1  x + y1/ 4 
1/ 4
Sol. Given that u= sin  1/5 1/5  ….. (6.45)

x +y 
The above equation (6.45) can be written as
x1/ 4 + y1/ 4
sin u = 1/5 ….. (6.46)
x + y1/5
x1/ 4 + y1/ 4
Now consider V = ….. (6.47)
x1/5 + y1/5
Here V is a homogenous function of x and y of degree (1/20). Therefore by

∂V ∂V 1
x +y = V … (6.48)
∂x ∂y 20
V = sin u …(6.49)
Now differentiating partially equation (6.49) with respect to x and y
respectively, we get
∂V = cos u ∂u
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂u
and = cos u ∂y
∂y
∂V ∂V
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1
x cos u + y cos u = sin u
∂x ∂y 20
∂u ∂u 1
or x +y = tan u .
∂x ∂y 20
 x2 + y 2  ∂u ∂u
sin −1   x +y tan u
=
 x+ y  ∂x ∂y
Example 6.24: If u = , show that ,
 x2 + y 2 
Sol. Given that u = sin–1   …(6.50)
 x+ y 
x2 + y 2
We have sin u = …(6.51)
x+ y
x2 + y 2
Now consider V = …(6.52)
x+ y
Here V is a homogenous function of x and y of degree 1. Therefore by Euler’s
theorem, we have
∂V ∂V
x +y =V …(6.53)
∂x ∂y

V = sin u …(6.54)
∂V ∂u
= cos u
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂u
and = cos u
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂V
∂x ∂y
Solved Example 215
∂u ∂u
x cos u + y cos u = sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
or x +y = tan u.
∂x ∂y
x ( x3 − y 3 )
Example 6.25: Verify Euler’s theorem when u = .
x3 + y 3
x ( x3 − y 3 )
Sol. Given that u = …(6.55)
x3 + y 3
Here u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree 1. Therefore by Euler’s
theorem, we have
∂u ∂u
x +y =u ….(6.56)
∂x ∂y
Taking log in equation (6.55) both sides, we have

3 3 3 3
log u = log x + log( x − y ) − log( x + y ) ….(6.57)
Differentiating partially equation (6.57) with respect to x and y, we get
1 ∂u 1 3x 2 3x 2
= + 3 3− 3 3
u ∂x x x −y x +y
3 3
x ∂u 3x 3x
or = 1 + x3 − y 3 − x3 + y 3 ….(6.58)
u ∂x
2 2
1 ∂u 3y 3y
and = − 3 3− 3 3
u ∂y x − y x +y
3 3
y ∂u 3y 3y
or = − x3 − y 3 − x3 + y 3 ….(6.59)
u ∂y
x ∂u y ∂u 3 ( x3 − y 3 ) 3 ( x3 + y 3 )
+ = 1+ 3 3 − 3 3
u ∂x u ∂y x −y x +y
x ∂u y ∂u
or + =1+3–3=1
u ∂x u ∂y
∂u ∂u
Hence x +y = u.
∂x ∂y
−1  x + y 
3 3
∂u ∂u
Example 6.26: If u = tan   , then show that x + y = sin 2u.
 x+ y  ∂x ∂y
−1  x + y 
3 3
Sol. Given that u= tan   …(6.60)

 x+ y 
 x3 + y 3 
We have tan u =   …(6.61)
 x+ y 
x3 + y 3
Now consider V= …(6.62)
x+ y
Here V is a homogenous function of x and y of degree 2. Therefore by Euler’s

theorem, we have
∂V ∂V
x +y = 2V …(6.63)
∂x ∂y
V = tan u …(6.64)
∂V ∂u
= sec 2 u
∂x ∂x
∂V 2 ∂u
and = sec u
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂V
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x sec 2 u + y sec 2 u = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
Solved Example 217
∂u ∂u tan u
or x +y = 2 2
∂x ∂y sec u
∂u ∂u
or x +y = 2sin u cos u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
or x +y = 2 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
Hence x +y = sin 2 u.
∂x ∂y
Example 6.27: If V is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n and

∂u ∂u f (u )
V = f(u) then x +y n
= .
∂x ∂y f '(u )
Sol. Given that V = f(u) …(6.65)

It is given that V is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n, then by then
by Euler’s theorem, we have
∂V ∂V
x +y = nV …(6.66)
∂x ∂y
we have
∂V ∂u
= f '(u )
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂u
and = f '(u )
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂V
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
xf '(u ) + yf '(u ) = nf(u)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u f (u )
or x +y = n
∂x ∂y f '(u )
∂u ∂u f (u )
Hence x +y = n .
∂x ∂y f '(u )
x1/ 4 + y1/ 4
Example 6.28: Verify Euler’s theorem for the function f ( x, y ) = .
x1/5 + y1/5
x1/ 4 + y1/ 4
Sol. Given that f(x, y) = …(6.67)
x1/5 + y1/5
Here f(x, y) is a homogenous function of x and y of degree (1/20). Therefore by
∂f ∂f 1
x +y = f … (6.68)
∂x ∂y 20
Now verify to Euler theorem, we have
1  1 
∂f
(x1/5
+ y1/5 )  x −3/ 4  − ( x1/ 4 + y1/ 4 )  x −4/5 
4  5 
= … (6.69)
(x + y1/5 )
2
∂x 1/5
1  1 
∂f
(x1/5
+ y1/5 )  y −3/ 4  − ( x1/ 4 + y1/ 4 )  y −4/5 
4  5 
and = … (6.70)
(x + y1/5 )
2
∂y 1/5
Multiply equation (6.69) by x and equation (6.70) by y and adding them, we

get
∂f ∂f 1
x +y = f
∂x ∂y 20
Hence Euler’s theorem is verified.
−1  y 
Example 6.29: If u = x sin   then prove that
x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
x2 + 2 xy + y 0.
=
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
−1  y 
Sol. Given that u = x sin   ...(6.71)
x
6.9 Total Differential Coefficient 219

we have
∂u 1 y  −1  y 
= x  − 2  + sin  
∂x y  x 
2
x
1− 2
x
∂u − xy  y
or x = + x sin −1   ...(6.72)
∂x 2
x −y 2
x
Similarly, we get
∂u xy
y = ...(6.73)
∂y x − y2
2

∂u ∂u −1  y 
x +y = x sin   …(6.74)
∂x ∂y x
we have
∂ 2u ∂u ∂ 2u −y  y
x + + y = + sin −1   … (6.75)
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x∂y 2
x −y 2
x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u x
and x +y 2 + = … (6.76)
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y x − y2
2
Multiply equation (6.75) by x and equation (6.76) by y and adding them, we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u  ∂u ∂u   y
x2 2
+ 2 xy + y2 2 +  x + y  = x sin −1  
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y  ∂x ∂y  x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
x2 + 2 xy + y = 0.
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
6.9 Total Differential Coefficient

Suppose u = f(x, y) … (6.77)
where x = f(t), y = (t) … (6.78)
then u can be expressed as a function of a single variables t, if we put for x and

y and in u = f(x, y) and then the derivative of u with respect to t, is the ordinary
du du
differential coefficient . This is called the total derivative of u with
dt dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
respect to t is known as the total derivative of u is given by= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
=
If u = f(x, y, z) and x x=
(t ), y y=
(t ), z z (t ) then the total derivative of u is
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz
= + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
Suppose u = f(x, y, z) and let y and z are the function of x, u is a function of one
independent variable x, we have
= + +
dx ∂x dx ∂y dx ∂z dx
or du = ∂u + ∂u dy + ∂u dz .
dx ∂x ∂y dx ∂z dx
6.10 Implicit Function

Let us consider the implicit function f(x, y) = 0.
Here y is some function of x.
Consider u = f(x, y) , where u = 0, then we have
du ∂u dx ∂u du dy
0
= ∂x dx + ∂y dy + dx =
dx
∂u ∂u dy
or + + =0
∂x ∂y dx
dy −∂u / ∂x
or = … (6.79)
dx ∂u / ∂y
Now if z = f(x, y)=

and x x= (u , v), y y (u , v), ie., x, y are function of u and v,
more than one variable. Then we have
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= . + =
and . + … (6.80)
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
Solved Example 221
Note 1: If f(x, y, z) = 0 i.e., if z is an implicit function of x and y then by

equation (6.80), we have
∂f ∂f ∂z ∂f ∂f ∂z
+ . = 0 and + . =0
∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y
∂z ∂f / ∂x ∂z ∂f / ∂y
Hence =
− and =
− .
∂x ∂f / ∂z ∂y ∂f / ∂z
dy ∂f / ∂x
Note 2: If f(x, y) = 0 then we have = − .
dx ∂f / ∂y
Differentiating again with respect to x, we get
∂f  ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f dy  ∂f  ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f dy 
 + . −  + . 
d2y ∂y  ∂x 2 ∂y∂x dx  ∂x  ∂x∂y ∂y 2 dx 
= − 2
dx 2  ∂f 
 
 ∂y 
2
∂ 2 f  ∂f  ∂ 2 f ∂f ∂f ∂ 2 f  ∂f 
  − 2 . . +  
∂x 2  ∂y  ∂x∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y 2  ∂x 
= − 3
.
 ∂f 
 
 ∂y 
Solved Example
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Example 6.30: Prove that + = + , where
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂ξ2 ∂η2
x = ξ cos a − η sin a, y = ξ sin a + η cos a.
Sol. Let u = f(x, y) … (6.81)
Given that x = ξ cos a − η sin a, y = ξ sin a + η cos a.

∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= +
∂ξ ∂x ∂ξ ∂y ∂ξ
∂u ∂u
or = (cos a) + (sin a) … (6.82)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
and = +
∂η ∂x ∂η ∂y ∂η
∂u ∂u
or = (− sin a) + (cos a) … (6.83)
∂x ∂y
Differentiating partially equations (6.82) and (6.83) with respect to x and y

∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂x ∂ 2u ∂y
= cos a + sin a
∂ξ2 ∂x 2 ∂ξ ∂y 2 ∂ξ
2 ∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2u
= cos a + sin a … (6.84)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂x ∂ 2u ∂y
and = − sin a 2
+ cos a
∂η2 ∂x ∂η ∂y 2 ∂η
2 ∂ 2u 2 ∂ 2u
= sin a + cos a …(6.85)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
From equations (6.84) and (6.85), we get + = + .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂ξ2 ∂η2
Exercise 6
y
1. Show that lim tan −1 does not exists.
( x , y ) →( 0,1) x
2. Show that lim

( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
(x 2
+ y2 ) =
0.
3. Show that lim f ( x, y ) does not exists, where

( x , y ) →( 0,0 )
xy 2
, ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
x2 + y 4 .
4. Give an example to show that the order of iterated limits can be
interchanged although the simultaneous limit does not exist.
5. Show that the function f ( x, y ) = x y is continuous at (0, 0).

Exercise 6 223
6. Show that lim xy exists and the function f(x, y) = xy is continuous

( x , y ) →( 2,3)
at (2, 3).
7. If f : R 2 → R be a function defined by
 xy 2 + x 2 y
 if ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
f ( x, y ) =  x 3 + y 3 is not continuous at (0, 0).
0 if ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )

 2 2 1
 x y cos , for all values of y so long as x ≠ 0
8. Let (
f x , y ) 
= x . Show that
0, for x = 0
(i) fxy = fyx at all points (x, y).

(ii) neither fxy nor fyx is continuous in x at x = 0, if y ≠ 0
(iii) both fxy and fyx are continuous in (x, y), together at the origin.
 xy
 2 , x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0
9. If f ( x, y ) =  x + y
2
then show that fx, fy exist at (0, 0)
0 =, x 0,
= y 0

and examine the continuity of fx, fy with respect to x and y and (x, y)
together.
10. Let f(x, y) be a function defined by

 x2 − y 2
 xy for ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0,0 )
f ( x, y ) =  x 2 + y 2
0 for ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 )

Show that
(i) f, fx, fy are continuous in (x, y)
(ii) fxy and fyx exist at every point (x, y) and are continuous except
at (0, 0)
(iii) fxy (0, 0) = 1 and fyx (0, 0) = –1.
−1 x y ∂u ∂u
If u sin
11.= + tan −1 ’ then show that x + y 0.
=
y x ∂x ∂y
−1 xy ∂ 2u 1
12. If u = tan then show that =
1 + x2 + y 2 ∂x∂y (1 + x + y 2 )3/ 2
2
u log( x3 + y 3 − x 2 y − xy 2 ) , then show that

13. If =
∂u ∂u 2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 4
(i) + = (ii) + 2 + 2 = − .
∂x ∂y ( x + y ) ∂x 2
∂x∂y ∂y ( x + y)
2
∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
14. If u = f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) then show that = a .
∂y 2 ∂x 2
∂ 3u
15. If u = exyz, then show that (1 3 xyz + x 2 y 2 z 2 )e xyz
=+
∂x∂y∂z
x2 y2 z2
16. If + + 1 then show that
=
a 2 + u b2 + u c2 + u
2 2 2
 ∂u   ∂u   ∂u   ∂u ∂u ∂u 
      = 2  x ∂x + y ∂y + z ∂z  .
+ +
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z   
1 ∂ 2u 1 ∂ 2u
17. Find the value of + + when a 2 x 2 + b 2 y 2 =
c2 z 2 .
a 2 ∂x 2 b 2 ∂y 2
−(r
2 1 ∂  2 ∂θ  ∂θ
18. If θ =t n e 4t , find the value of n which will make 2  r
)
=
r ∂r  ∂r  ∂t
2 −1 y x ∂ 2u x 2 − y 2
19. If u x tan
= − y 2 tan −1 , then show that = .
x y ∂y∂x x 2 + y 2
∂u ∂u ∂u
20. If u = x 2 y + y 2 z + z 2 x , then show that + + = ( x + y + z )2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z
21. Verify the Euler’s theorem in the following cases:

n
(i) u = axy + byz + czx (ii) u = x log( y / x)
(iii) u = ax 2 + by 2 + 2hxy (iv) u = x n sin( y / x) .
2 2 4
(v) u = 3 x yz + 5 xy z + 4 z .
x− y ∂u ∂u
22. If u = sin −1 ’ then show that x +y 0.
=
x+ y ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
23. If u = xyf ( y / x) , then show that x +y 2u .
=
∂x ∂y
x− y ∂u ∂u 1
24. If u = sin −1 ’ then show that x +y = tan u .
x+ y ∂x ∂y 2
Recapitulation 225
2
x2 + y 2 2 ∂ u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
25. If u = tan −1 ’ then show that x + 2 xy + y 0.
=
x− y ∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
x2 y 2 ∂u ∂u
26. If sin u = , then show that x + y 3tan u.
=
x+ y ∂x ∂y
x4 + y 4 ∂u ∂u
27. If u = log , then show that x + y 3.
=
x+ y ∂x ∂y
x3 + y 3 ∂u ∂u
28. If u = log , then show that x + y 2.
=
x+ y ∂x ∂y
 x3 + y 3  ∂u ∂u
29. If u = sec −1   , then show that x + y 2cot u .
=
 x+ y  ∂x ∂y
30. If u be a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n, then show that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u
(i) x 2
+ y (n − 1)
= .
∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂u
(ii) x + y 2 =−(n 1)
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
2 ∂ u
(iii) x 2 + 2 xy + y =n ( n − 1) u
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
∂u ∂u ∂u
31. If u = f ( y − z , z − x, x − y ) then show that + + = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
y
32. If x + y =
x
a b ’ then show that dy = 0 .
dx
dy 1 − y2
33. If 1 − x 2
+ 1 − y 2
= a ( x − y ) ’ then show that = .
dx 1 − x2
Recapitulation
1. Consider a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y, then
lim f ( x, y ) exists and equal to l, if for every e > 0 ∃, d > 0 such that
x → x0
y → y0
f ( x, y ) − l < ε, ∀ ( x, y ) for x − x0 < δ and y − y0 < δ .

2. Consider a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y is said to be
continuous at the point (x0, y0) if lim f ( x, y ) exists and equal to
x → x0
f (x0, y0). y → y0
3. Partial differentiation is the process of finding the partial derivatives.
4. If u = f(x, y) be the function of two independent variables

∂f f ( x + h, y ) − f ( x , y )
x and y, then we have = lim and
∂x h → 0 h
∂f f ( x, y + k ) − f ( x, y ) provided that these limits are exist
= lim
∂y h →0 k
and unique.
∂2 f ∂2 f
5. If fxy and fyx are continuous, then we have = = f yx .
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
6. A function u(x, y) is said to be a homogenous function if all its terms
are of the same degree.
7. If u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n, then we have
∂u ∂u
x +y =nu .
∂x ∂y
=
8. If u = f ( x, y, z ) and x x=
(t ), y y=
(t ), z z (t ) then the total
derivative of u is = + + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
9. Suppose u = u(f, y, z) and let y and z are the function of x, u is a function

of one independent variable x, we have = + +
. dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
Exercises 6.1
∂2 z ∂2 z
6.1 The second order partial derivatives = are
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
(a) always equal (b) may or may not be equal
(c) never equal
(d) equal only when these are continuous
∂2 z
6.2 If z = f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) then the value of is
∂x 2
∂2 z ∂2 z
(a) (b) a 2
∂y 2 ∂y 2
1 ∂2 z
(c) (d) None of these.
a 2 ∂x 2
Exercises 6.1 227
6.3 If u is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n then the value of

∂u ∂u
x +y is
∂x ∂y
(a) n (b) n(n – 1)
(c) nu (d) None of these
∂ 2u
6.4 If u = exyz then the value of is
∂y∂z
(a) uy + ux 2 yz (b) ux + ux 2 yz
(c) ux + uxyz (d) None of these.

x1/ 4 + y1/ 4 ∂u ∂u
6.5 If u = 1/5 1/5 then the value of
x +y is
x +y ∂x ∂y
1 1
(a) u (b) − u
10 10
1
(c) u (d) None of these.
20
6.6 sin–1(y/x) is a homogeneous function of degree
(a) 1 (b) 2
−1  x  −1  y  ∂u ∂u
6.7 If u sin   + tan   then the value of x + y
= is
 y x ∂x ∂y
(a) 0 (b) 1
State True or False

∂u  ∂u 
6.1 If u = f(y/x) then x   + y   = nu .
 ∂x   ∂y 
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
6.2 If u = emy, cos mx then + 0.
=
∂x 2 ∂y 2
6.3 An expression in which every term is of same degree is called

homogeneous function.
∂u ∂u
6.4 If u is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n, then and
∂x ∂y
are also homogeneous function of degree n.
6.5 If f(x, y) = 0 be an implicit function of x and y, and

∂f ∂f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
= p = ,q = ,r = , s , t = 2 ’ then we have
∂x ∂y ∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y
d2y
2
=− ( q 2 r − 2 pqs + p 2t ) / q 3 .
dx
−1  x + y 
2 2
∂f ∂f
6.6 If f = sin   then the value of x + y is cot f.
 x + y  ∂x dy
1 ∂u ∂u
6.7 If u = then x +y −u.
=
2
x +y 2
∂x ∂y
Fill in the Blanks

6.1 A function is said to be homogeneous if every term is of…………
x
6.2 cos −1 is a homogeneous function of degree ………………
y
∂u ∂u ∂u
6.3 If u= (x 2
+ y 2 + z 2 ) then x
∂x
+y +z
∂y ∂z
...................
=
du ∂u dx
6.4 If u = f(x, y), where x = g(t) and y = φ(t), then
= . + ........................
dt ∂x dt
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
6.5 If u = tan–1 y/x then the value of + is ……........…
∂x 2 ∂y 2
 x2 + y 2  ∂u ∂u
6.6 If u = sin −1   then the value of x ∂x + y ∂y is
 x+ y 
Answers
6.1 (d) 6.2 (b) 6.3 (c) 6.4 (b)
6.5 (c) 6.6 (c) 6.7 (a)
State True or False
6.1 F 6.2 T 6.3 T 6.4 F
6.5 T 6.6 F 6.7 T
Fill in the Blanks
∂u dy
6.1 same degree 6.2 1 6.3 u 6.4 .
∂y dt
6.5 0 6.6 tan u
qqq
7
Maxima and Minima
Learning Objectives
After going through this chapter, the reader will be able to understands the
l maxima and Minima of function of two variables
l stationary, Extreme and Saddle points
l maxima and Minima of a function of three variables
l lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers
7.1 Introduction
Today’s women in the house make the food according to maximum or minimum
intake by each person. In real life conditions, an engineer, an economist, a
scientist or a doctor etc., will be interested to find such techniques for generating
maximum power, maximum profit, minimum lost or minimum costs. When
dealing for costs first to know about minimum but with profit always want
to maximum. These are known as optimal values because they are the best
possible case for the problem. The concept of maxima and minima in their
daily lives without even knowing about the concept of maxima and minima,
this phenomenon is start from the life. The doctors used to best minimum and
maximum sign of any disease, cooks used to evaluation the maximum and
minimum quantity of food, the businessmen used to estimation maximum and
minimum profit or loss in any business.
230 Chapter 7 Maxima and Minima
7.2 Maxima and Minima of Function of Two

Variables
Suppose f (x, y) be a function of two independent variables x and y and
f (x, y) is continuous and finite for all values of x and y in the
neighbourhood of their values a and b respectively. Then f (a, b) is said
to be a maximum or a minimum of f (x, y) according to f (a + h, b + k)
is less than or greater than f (a, b) for all sufficiently small independent
values of h and k, positive or negative, provided that both are not equal
to zero. From Taylor’s Theorem, we have
 ∂f ∂f 
f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) +  h +k 
 ∂x ∂y  ( a , b )
1  2 ∂2 f ∂2 f 2 ∂ f 
2
+  h + 2 hk + k  + .........
2!  ∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2  ( a , b )
 ∂f ∂f 
or f (a + h, b + k) – f (a, b) =  h ∂x + k ∂y 
 ( a, b)
+ second and higher order terms in h and k ...(7.1)
Neglecting the higher order terms of h2, k2, hk etc. because h and k are
very small, by using equation (7.1), we have
D = f (a + h, b + k) – f (a, b)
 ∂f ∂f 
=  h ∂x + k ∂y 
 ( a, b)
= hf x ( a, b ) + kf y ( a, b )
The necessary condition that D has the same sign (positive or negative)
are
 ∂f   ∂f 
  = 0 and   = 0 ...(7.2)
 ∂x ( a , b )  ∂y ( a , b )
By equation (7.2) and equation (7.1), neglecting the higher order terms
h3 , k 3 , h 2 k , hk 2 etc., we have
1  2 ∂2 f ∂2 f 2 ∂ f 
2
f ( a + h, b + k ) − f ( a , b ) = h + 2 hk + k 
2!  ∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2  ( a , b )
7.3 Procedure to Find Extreme Points of Functions of Two Variables 231
1 2
or D =  h f xx ( a, b ) + 2hkf xy ( a, b ) + k 2 f yy ( a, b ) 
2!  
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
Here we denoting the terms as r = 2 , s = and t = 2
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
1 2
Therefore we have D =  h r + 2hk s + k 2 t  ...(7.3)
2!  
Using equation (7.3) we have seen that the nature of D depends on the
nature of ( h 2 r + 2hk s + k 2 t ) .
Now we see that the
Sign of D = ( h 2 r + 2hk s + k 2 t )
=
(h 2
r 2 + 2hk rs + k 2 r t )
r
 ( h r + ks )2 + k 2 ( rt − s 2 ) 
=  
r
 
Here are following cases:
Case I: If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (x, y) is maximum at (a, b).
Case II: If rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then f (x, y) is minimum at (a, b).
Case III: If rt – s2 > 0 then f (x, y) is neither a maximum nor a minimum
values at (a, b) i.e.,saddle point.
Case IV: If rt – s2 = 0, then case is doubtful i.e., we cannot say whether
f (x, y) is maximum or minimum and further investigation is needed to
determine the maxima or minima of f (x, y) at (a, b).
7.3 Procedure to Find Extreme Points of

Functions of Two Variables
Consider the function f (x, y) with two variable x and y....(7.4)
Step 1: Differentiate partially equation (7.4) with respect to x and y,
we get
∂f ∂f
and
∂x ∂y
Step 2: For stationary points, we have

∂f ∂f
= 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
Solving these equations we get some points as ( a, b ) , ( c, d ) , ( e, f ) ,....
etc.
Step 3: Now again differentiate partially and we get
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
r=
= 2
,s = and t
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 2
Step 4: At point (a, b), calculate r and rt – s2.

Here are following cases for f (x, y) to be maximum or minimum at
(a, b).
Case I: If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (x, y) is maximum at (a, b).
Case II: If rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then f (x, y) is minimum at (a, b).
Case III: If rt – s2 < 0 then f (x, y) is neither a maximum nor a minimum
values at (a, b) i.e. Saddle point.
Case IV: If rt – s2 = 0, then case is doubtful i.e., we cannot say whether
f (x, y) is maximum or minimum and further investigation is needed to
determine the nature of f (x, y) at (a, b).
7.4 Stationary, Extreme and Saddle Points

A point (a, b) is said to be a stationary point, if both the first order
partial derivatives of function f (x, y) is zero at that point. A stationary
point which is either a maximum or minima is called an extreme point
and the value of the function at that point is called an extreme values.
A stationary point is not necessarily being an extreme point. A point
at which function is neither maximum nor minimum is called a saddle
point.
7.5 Maxima and Minima of a Function of Three

Variables
Let us consider f (x, y, z) be the function of three independent variables.
...(7.5)
Solved Examples 233
Step 1: Differentiate partially equation (7.5) with respect to x, y and z,

we get
∂f ∂f ∂f
, and
∂x ∂y
∂z
Step 2: The necessary conditions for maxima and minima are

∂f ∂f ∂f
= 0,= 0,= 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
By solving above these equations, we get the values of x, y, z which is called
stationary values. Let one of them is (a, b, c).
Step 3: Now again differentiate partially and we get
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
=A = , B = , C = , F = , G = , H .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂y∂z ∂zy∂x ∂x∂y
Step 4: At point (a, b, c), we see that the following cases will arise:
A H G
A H
Case I: If A, , H B F are alternately negative and positive,
H B
G F C
then f (x, y, z) is maximum at (a, b, c).
A H G
A H
Case II: If A, , H B F all are positive, then f (x, y, z) is
H B
G F C
minimum at (a, b, c).
If these conditions are not satisfied, then we have neither a maximum
nor a minimum.
Solved Examples
Example 7.1: Find the maximum and minima values of
f (x, y) = x3 + 3 xy 2 − 15 x 2 − 15 y 2 + 72 x
f (x, y) = x3 + 3 xy 2 − 15 x 2 − 15 y 2 + 72 x ...(7.6)
Differentiate partially equation (7.6) with respect to x and y, we have
∂f
= 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 − 30 x + 72
∂x
∂f
and = 6 xy − 30 y
∂y
For maxima and minima, we have ∂f = 0 and ∂f = 0 .

∂x ∂y
∂f
=0 ⇒ 0 ...(7.7)
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 − 30 x + 72 =
∂x
∂f
=0 ⇒ 6 xy − 30 y =
0 ...(7.8)
∂y
Solving the equations (7.7) and (7.8), we get the points (4, 0), (6, 0), (5, 1),
(5, –1).
∂2 f
Now we find r = = 6 x − 30 ,
∂x 2
∂2 f
s = = 6y
∂x∂y
∂2 f
and t= = 6 x − 30
∂y 2
At point (4, 0), we have rt − s 2 =(−6)(−6) − 0 > 0, r =−6 < 0 . Therefore f

is maximum at (4, 0) and maximum value of f at (4, 0) is 112.
At point (6, 0), we have rt − s 2 = (6)(6) − 0 > 0, r = 6 > 0 . Therefore f is
minimum at (6, 0) and minimum value of f at (6, 0) is 108.
At point (5, 1), we have rt − s=
2
(0)(0) − (6) 2 < 0 . Therefore f has neither
a maximum nor a minimum value at (5, 1).
s 2 (0)(0) − (−6) 2 < 0 . Therefore f has

At point (5, –1), we have rt −=
neither a maximum nor a minimum value at (5, –1).
a3 a3
Example 7.2: Show that the minimum values of u = xy + + is 3a2.
x y
a3 a3
u = xy + + ...(7.9)
x y
Solved Examples 235

∂u a3
= y− 2
∂x x
∂u a3
and = x− 2
∂y y
∂u ∂u
For maxima and minima, we have = 0 and = 0.
∂x ∂y
∂u a3
= 0 ⇒ y − 2= 0
∂x x ...(7.10)
∂u a3
= 0 ⇒ x− = 0 ...(7.11)
∂y y2
Solving the equations (7.10) and (7.11), we get the point (a, a).
∂ 2 u 2a 3
Now we find r = = 3 ,
∂x 2 x
∂ 2u
s = =1
∂x∂y
∂ 2 u 2a 3
and t= = 3 .
∂y 2 y
At point (a, a), we have rt – s2 = (2) (2) – (1)2 > 0, r = 2 > 0. Therefore u is
a3 a3
minimum at (a, a). The minimum value of u = a · a + + = 3a2.
a a
Example. 7.3: Find the maximum and minima values of x3y2(1 – x – y).
u = x3 y 2 (1 − x − y=
) x3 y 2 − x 4 y 2 − x3 y 3 ...(7.12)
Differentiate partially (7.12) with respect to x and y, we have
∂u
= 3x 2 y 2 − 4 x3 y 2 − 3x 2 y 3
∂x
∂u
and = 2 x3 y − 2 x 4 y − 3x3 y 2
∂y
∂u
For maxima and minima, we have ∂u = 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
∂u
=0 ⇒ 3 x 2 y 2 − 4 x3 y 2 − 3 x 2 y 3 = 0 ...(7.13)
∂x
∂u
= 0 ⇒ 2 x3 y − 2 x 4 y − 3 x3 y 2 = 0 ...(7.14)
∂y
1 1
Solving the equations (7.13) and (7.14), we get the points ( 0, 0 ) ,  ,  .
 2 3
∂ 2u
Now we find r = 2 =6 xy 2 − 12 x 2 y 2 − 6 xy 3 ,
∂x
∂ 2u
s= = 6 x 2 y − 8 x3 y − 9 x 2 y 2
∂x∂y
∂ 2u
t= 2
= 2 x 2 − 2 x 4 − 6 x3 y
and ∂y
At point (0, 0), we have rt – s2 = 0 i.e., doubtful case.

2
1 1  1  1   1 
Now at  ,  , we have rt – s2 =  −  −  −  −  > 0 (positive) and
 2 3  9  8   12 
1 1
r < 0, . Therefore u is maximum at  ,  .
 2 3
Example 7.4: Find the maximum and minimum values of xy(a – x – y).
u = xy(a – x – y)...(7.15)
∂u
=ay − 2 xy − y 2
∂x
∂u
and = ax – x2 – 2xy
∂y
∂u ∂u
For maxima and minima, we have = 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
∂u
= 0 ⇒ ay − 2 xy − y 2 = 0 ...(7.16)
∂x
Solved Examples 237
∂u
= 0 ⇒ ax − x 2 − 2 xy = 0 ...(7.17)
∂y
Solving equations (7.16) and (7.17), we get the stationary points are (0, 0)
(a, 0) (0, a)  a , a  .
3 3
∂ 2u
Now we find r = = −2 y ,
∂x 2
∂ 2u
s= =a − 2 x − 2 y
∂x∂y
∂ 2u
and t= = −2 x
∂y 2
At point (0, 0), we get r = 0, s = a, t = 0 ⇒ rt – s2 < 0. Thus u is neither maxima
and nor minima at (0, 0).
At point (a, 0), we get r = 0, s = –a, t = –2a ⇒ rt – s2 < 0. Thus u is neither
maxima nor minima at (a, 0).
At point (0, a), we get r = –2a, s = –a, t = 0 ⇒ rt – s2 < 0. Thus u is neither
maxima nor minima at (a, 0).
2
At point  a , a  , we get r = − a , s = − a , t = − 2 a
  3 3
3 3 3
2
4 2 a
⇒ rt − s 2= a − >0
9 9
a a
Since rt2 – s2 > 0, then u has an extreme value at  ,  .
3 3
⇒ u is minimum if r is positive i.e., a is negative; and u is maximum if r is
negative i.e., a is positive.
Example. 7.5: Find the maximum and minima values of
x 4 + y 4 − 2 x 2 + 4 xy − 2 y 2 .
u = x 4 + y 4 − 2 x 2 + 4 xy − 2 y 2 ...(7.18)
∂u ∂u
= 4 x3 − 4 x + 4 y and = 4 y3 + 4 x − 4 y
∂x ∂y
∂u
For maxima and minima, we have ∂u = 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
∂u
= 0 ⇒ 4 x3 − 4 x + 4 y = 0 ...(7.19)
∂x
∂u
= 0 ⇒ 4 y 3 + 4 x − 4 y = 0 ...(7.20)
∂y
Solving equations (7.19) and (7.20), we get
0 ⇒ x +y =
4 x3 + 4 y 3 =
3 3
0 ⇒ ( x + y ) ( x 2 + y 2 − xy ) =
0
( x + y) 0
Either = or (=
x + y − xy )
2 2
0 ...(7.21)
Now we have ( x + y ) =
0 ⇒ y=
−x
Put y = –x in the equation (7.19), we get
(
0 ⇒ x x2 − 2 =
4 x3 − 8 x = 0 ⇒ x 0,
= ) 2, − 2 .
Then y 0, − 2,
= 2.
Also from equation (7.21), we

= have x 0=
and y 0 .
(
Hence the stationary points of u are ( 0, 0 ) , ± 2, ± 2 . )
∂ 2u
Now we find=r = 2
12 x 2 − 4,
∂x
∂ 2u
=s = 4
∂x∂y
and ∂ 2u
=t = 12 y 2 − 4
∂y 2
At point (0, 0), we have rt – s2 = 0 i.e., doubtful case.
Now at point (± )
2, ± 2 , we have rt − s 2 = ( 20 )( 20 ) − ( 4 )2 = 384 > 0
Since rt − s 2 > 0 and r > 0. Hence u have minimum values at (± 2, ± 2 . )

Example 7.6: Find the maximum and minimum value of u, where
=u sin x sin y sin ( x + y ) .
Solved Examples 239

=u sin x sin y sin ( x + y )
...(7.22)
Differentiate partially equation (7.22) with respect of x and y, we get
∂u
= sin y sin x cos ( x + y ) + cos x sin ( x + y ) 
∂x
∂u
and = sin x sin y cos ( x + y ) + cos y sin ( x + y ) 
∂y
∂u
For maxima and minima, we have ∂u = 0 and =0.
∂x ∂y
∂u
= 0 ⇒ sin y sin x cos ( x + y ) + cos x sin ( x + y )=
 0 ...(7.23)
∂x
∂u
= 0 ⇒ sin x sin y cos ( x + y ) + cos y sin ( x + y )=
 0 ...(7.24)
∂y
Using equations (7.23) and (7.24), we get
tan( x + y ) =
− tan x ...(7.25)
tan( x + y ) =
− tan y ...(7.26)
⇒ x tan y ⇒ =
tan= x y
Now from equations (7.25) and (7.26), we have
tan 2 x = − tan x = tan ( π − x )
⇒ 2x = π − x
π
⇒ x= = y
3
From ∂u
= 0 ⇒ sin y = 0 ⇒ y =0 .
∂x
∂u
and = 0 ⇒ sin x = 0 ⇒ x =0.
∂y
Thus the stationary points are (0, 0), ( π / 3, π / 3) .
∂ 2u
Now we find=r = 2sin y cos ( 2 x + y )
∂x 2
∂ 2u
=s = sin 2 ( x + y )
∂x∂y
and ∂ 2u
=t = 2sin x cos ( 2 y + x ) .
∂y 2
At point (0, 0), we get r = 0, s = 0, t = 0 ⇒ rt – s2 = 0. Thus case is doubtful
and need further investigation.
Now at point  π , π  , we get

 
3 3
π  4π  π 3
r = 2sin .cos π = − 3, s =
sin   = − sin =−
3  3  3 2
π 9
and t = 2sin cos π = − 3 . So we get rt − s 2 = > 0 and r < 0.
3 4
π π
Therefore u is maximum at  ,  .
3 3
Example 7.7: Find the maximum value of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 when ax + by + cz =
p.
u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ...(7.27)
Also given that ax + by + cz =

p
p − ax − by
⇒ z = ...(7.28)
c
2
p − ax − by 
u = x 2 + y 2 +   ...(7.29)
 c 
∂u 2a
= 2 x − 2 ( p − ax − by )
∂x c
∂u 2b
and = 2 y − 2 ( p − ax − by )
∂y c
∂u ∂u
For maxima and minima, we have = 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
Solved Examples 241
∂u 2a
= 0 ⇒ 2 x − 2 ( p − ax − by ) = 0 ...(7.30)
∂x c
∂u 2b
= 0 ⇒ 2 y − 2 ( p − ax − by ) = 0 ...(7.31)
∂y c
ap bp .
=x =2 2 2
and y
a +b +c a + b2 + c2
2
2 2
Now we find r= ∂ u= 2 + 2a ,
∂x 2 c2
∂ 2u 2ab
=s =
∂x∂y c 2
∂ 2u 2b 2
and t= = 2 +
∂y 2 c2
ap bp
At point x = 2 2 2
,y= 2 , we have
a +b +c a + b2 + c2
 a 2  b 2  4a 2b 2  a 2 b2 
rt − s 2 = 4 1 + 2 1 + 2  − 4 = 4 1 + 2 + 2  > 0 (i.e., positive)
 c  c  c  c c 
 ap bp 
Since rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then u is minimum at  2 2 2
, 
a +b +c a + b2 + c2 
2
ap bp p2
The minimum value of u at  2 2 2
, 2
2
 is
2 
.
a +b +c a +b +c  a 2 + b2 + c2
Example 7.8: Divide ‘a’ into three parts such that the continued product of the
first, square of second and cube of third part, is maximum.
Sol. Suppose the three parts of a be x, y and z, then
a = x + y + z ...(7.32)
and also f = xy2z3 ...(7.33)
f = (a – y – z)y2z3 ...(7.34)
Differentiate partially (7.34) with respect to y and z, we have

∂f
= 2 yz 3 ( a − y − z ) − y 2 z 3 ....( 7.35)
∂y
∂f
and = 3 y2 z 2 ( a − y − z ) − z3 y2 ....( 7.36)
∂z
∂f
For maxima and minima, we have = 0 and ∂f = 0
∂y ∂z
∂f
= 0 ⇒ 2 yz 3 ( a − y − z ) − y 2 z 3 =….(7.37)
0
∂y
∂f
= 0 ⇒ 3 y2 z 2 ( a − y − z ) − z3 y2 =0 ….(7.38)
∂z
a a
Solving equations (7.37) and (7.38), we get  ,  .
3 2
∂2 f
Now we find =
r = 2 z 3 ( a − y − z ) − 4 yz 3 ,
∂y 2
∂2 f
s
= = 6 yz 2 ( a − y − z ) − 3 y 2 z 2 − 2 yz 3
∂y∂z
and ∂2 f
t
= = 6 y2 z ( a − y − z ) − 6 y2 z2
∂z 2
2
 a 4  a 4   a 4 
Now at point  a , a  , we have rt − s 2 =  −  −  −  −  > 0
3 2  9  9   8 
(positive)
a a
Since rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f is maximum at  ,  .
3 2
a
Therefore by equation (7.32), we get x = .
6
a a a
Hence the maximum value at  , ,  of f is
6 3 2
2 3
 a  a   a  a6 .
=f =    
 6  3   2  432
Solved Examples 243
Example 7.9: Find the points on z2 = xy + 1 nearest to the origin.

Sol. Suppose P(x, y, z) is any point, which is nearest to the origin. Consider d
is the distance between O(0, 0, 0) and P(x, y, z). Then we have
d = x2 + y 2 + z 2
⇒ d2 = x2 + y2 + z2 ...(7.39)
Given that z2 = xy + 1 ...(7.40)
f = d 2 = x 2 + y 2 + xy + 1 ...(7.41)
∂f
= 2x + y
∂x ...(7.42)
∂f
and = 2 y + x ...(7.43)
∂y
∂f
For maxima and minima, we have ∂f = 0 and =0
∂x ∂y
∂f
=0 ⇒ 2x + y =
0 ….(7.44)
∂x
∂f
=0 ⇒ 2y + x =0 ….(7.45)
∂y
Solving equations (7.44) and (7.45), we get (0, 0)
Put x = 0 and y = 0 in equation (7.40), we get z 2 =
0.0 + 1 ⇒ ±1 .
z=
Therefore (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, –1) are the stationary points.
∂2 f
Now we find=r = 2,
∂x 2
∂2 f
=s = 1
∂x∂y
and ∂2 f .
=t = 2
2
∂y
Now at point (0, 0, 1), we have rt − s 2 =( 2 )( 2 ) − (1)2 =3 > 0 (positive)

Since rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then f is minimum at (0, 0, 1).
Now at point (0, 0, –1), we have rt − s 2 =( 2 )( 2 ) − (1)2 =3 > 0 (positive)
Since rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0, then f is minimum at (0, 0, –1).

Hence the points (0, 0, 1) and (0, 0, –1) on z2 = xy + 1, which are nearest to
the origin.
Example 7.10: Find the maxima and minima of u, where

u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + x − 2 z − xy .
u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + x − 2 z − xy ...(7.46)
Differentiate partially equation (7.46) with respect to x, y and z, we have
∂u
= 2x − y + 1
∂x
∂u
=− x + 2 y
∂y
∂u
and = 2z − 2
∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
For maxima and minima, we have= 0,= 0 and =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u
= 0 ⇒ 2 x − y + 1= 0 ...(7.47)
∂x
∂u
= 0 ⇒ − x + 2 y = 0 ...(7.48)
∂y
∂u
= 0 ⇒ 2 z − 2= 0 ...(7.49)
∂z
Solving equations (7.47), (7.48) and (7.49), we get the stationary point is
 2 1 .
 − , − ,1
 3 3 
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
New we find =
A = 2 ,=
B = 2 , C
= = 2, =F = 0,
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x∂z
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
G = 0
= and H = = −1 .
∂z∂x ∂x∂y
Solved Examples 245
2 1
At point  − , − ,1 we get
 3 3 
A = 2,
A H  2 −1
= = 3
H B  −1 2 
A H G 2 −1 0
and H B F =
−1 2 0 =6
G F C 0 0 2
A H G
Since all these expressions A, A H
, H B F are positive, therefore u
H B
G F C
2 1
is minimum at  − , − ,1 .
 3 3 
Example 7.11: Find the maximum value of

xyz
u=
( a + x )( x + y )( y + z )( z + b ) .
xyz
u = ….(7.50)
( a + x )( x + y )( y + z )( z + b )
Taking log both sides of equation (7.50), we have
log u= log x + log y + log z − log ( a + x ) − log ( x + y ) − log ( y + z ) − log ( z + b )
...(7.51)
Differentiate partially equation (7.51) with respect to x, y and z, we get
1 ∂u 1 1 1 ay − x 2
=− − =
u ∂x x a + x x + y x ( a + x )( x + y )
⇒ ∂u
=
(
ay − x 2 u )
∂x x ( a + x )( x + y )
Similarly
∂u
=
(
xz − y 2 u)
∂y y ( x + y )( y + z )
and
∂u
=
( )
by − z 2 u
∂z z ( y + z )( z + b )
∂u ∂u
= 0,= 0 and ∂u = 0
For maxima and minima, we have
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u
= 0 ⇒ ay − x 2 = 0 ...(7.52)
∂x
∂u
= 0 ⇒ xz − y 2 = 0
∂y ...(7.53)
∂u
= 0 ⇒ by − z 2 = 0
and ∂z ...(7.54)
Using equations (7.52), (7.53) and (7.54), we observe that a, x, y, z and b are
in Geometrical Progression (G.P.).
Let r be the common ration of this G.P., then we have
1/4
4 b
=ar b=
or r  
a
2
Also =x ar=
, y ar
= , z ar 3
Substituting these values of a, x, y, z and b in the equation (7.50), we get

ar. ar 2 . ar 3
u=
a (1 + r ) . ar (1 + r ) . ar 2 (1 + r ) . ar 3 (1 + r )
1
=
a (1 + r )
4
1
4
=   b 1/4 
a 1 +   
  a  
1
=
(a 1/4
+ b1/4 ).
Solved Examples 247
This is the stationary value of u. Now to check this value of u is maximum or a

minimum. We find the second order partial derivative of u such that
∂ 2u −2ux 2 ∂
 u 
∂x 2
=
x ( a + x )( x + y )
+ ay − x(  ) 
∂x  x ( a + x )( x + y ) 
−2ux
=
x ( a + x )( x + y )
{using equation (7.52), ay − x 2 =
0 }
At
= x ar
= 2
, y ar= , z ar 3 , we have
∂ 2u 2aru
2 =
−
∂x ar.a (1 + r ) . ar (1 + r )
−2u
= <0
a 2 r (1 + r )
2
Hence =
at x ar
= 2
, y ar= , z ar 3 , u is maximum.
Example 7.12: Find a point inside a triangle such that the sum of the square of
distance of it from vertices is minimum.
Sol. Let us consider P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and R ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) are the
vertices of a triangle PQR and A is any point inside the triangle PQR such that
A(x, y, x) Now define a function f such that
f = AP 2 + AQ 2 + AR 2
= ( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 + ( z − z1 )2 + ( x − x2 )2 + ( y − y2 )2 + ( z − z2 )2 ...(7.55)
+ ( x − x3 ) + ( y − y3 ) + ( z − z3 )
2 2 2
Differentiate partially equation (7.55) with respect to x, y and z, we get

∂f
= 2 ( x − x1 ) + 2 ( x − x2 ) + 2 ( x − x3 )= 2 ( 3 x − x1 − x2 − x3 )
∂x
∂f
= 2 ( y − y1 ) + 2 ( y − y2 ) + 2 ( y − y3 )= 2 ( 3 y − y1 − y2 − y3 )
∂y
∂f
and = 2 ( z − z1 ) + 2 ( z − z2 ) + 2 ( z − z3 )= 2 ( 3 z − z1 − z2 − z3 )
∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
= 0,= 0 and
For maxima and minima, we have = 0.
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f x1 + x2 + x3
=0 ⇒ x= ….(7.56)
∂x 3
∂f y1 + y2 + y3
=0 ⇒ y= ….(7.57)
∂y 3
∂f z1 + z2 + z3
=0 ⇒ z= ….(7.58)
∂z 3
Solving equations (7.56), (7.57) and (7.59), we get a stationary point
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3  .
 , , 
 3 3 3 
∂2 f
New we find=A = 6,
∂x 2
∂2 f
B
= = 6,
∂y 2
∂2 f 2
f 2
f ∂2 f
C
= = 6=, F ∂= 0=, G ∂= 0 H = 0.
and=
∂z 2 ∂x∂z ∂z∂x ∂x∂y
At point  x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 , z1 + z2 + z3  ,we get

 3 3 3 
A = 6,
A H 6 0
= = 36
H B 0 6
A H G 6 0 0
and H B F
= 0 6 0 216
=
G F C 0 0 6
A H G
A H
Since all these expressions A, , H B F are positive,
H B
G F C
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3 
therefore f is minimum at  , , .
 3 3 3 
7.6 Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined Multipliers 249
7.6 Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined

Multipliers
Let f (x, y, z) be the function of three independent variables x, y, z and where
x, y, z are related by a constraints
g(x, y, z) = 0
...(7.60)
For stationary point, we have
∂f ∂f ∂f
= 0,= 0,= 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
⇒ dx + dy + dz =
0 ...(7.61)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Differentiating equation (7.60), we get
∂g ∂g ∂g
dx + dy + dz =
0 ...(7.62)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Multiplying equation (7.62) by l and adding to equation (7.61), we get
 ∂f ∂g   ∂f ∂g   ∂f ∂f  ...(7.63)
 + λ  dx +  + λ  dy +  + λ  dz =0
 ∂x ∂x   ∂y ∂y   ∂z ∂z 
Since x, y, z are independent variables, then by equation (7.63), we have
∂f ∂g
+λ =0 ...(7.64)
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂g
+λ =0 ...(7.65)
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂g
+λ =0 ...(7.66)
∂z ∂z
Solving the equations (7.60), (7.64), (7.65) and (7.66) for x, y, z and l, we get
the required stationary points of f (x, y, z).
Note: Lagrange’s method cannot determine the nature of stationary points.
Solved Examples
Example 7.13: The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is T = 400xyz2.
Find the highest temperature at the surface of a unit sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =
1.
Sol. The temperature T at any point (x, y, z) in space is
T = 400xyz2...(7.67)
Subject to the condition

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 ....(7.68)
dT = 0
2 2
⇒ 400 yz dx + 400 xz dy + 800 xyzdz = 0
⇒ yz 2 dx + xz 2 dy + 2 xyzdz = 0 ...(7.69)
Differentiate partially equation (7.68), we get
2 xdx + 2 ydy + 2 zdz = 0
⇒ xdx + ydy + zdz = 0 ...(7.70)
Multiply equation (7.69) by 1; equation (7.70) by l and adding them, we get
yz 2 dx + xz 2 dy + 2 xyzdz + λ ( xdx + ydy + zdz ) =0
⇒ ( yz 2
) ( )
+ λx dx + xz 2 + λy dy + ( 2 xyz + λz ) dz =0
Now equating the coefficients of dx, dy and dz to zero, we have
yz 2 + λx = 0 ...(7.71)
xz 2 + λy = 0 ...(7.72)
2xyz + λz = 0 ...(7.73)
Multiply equation (7.71) by x, equation (7.72) by y, equation (7.73) by z and
adding them, we get
(
xyz 2 + xyz 2 + 2 xyz 2 + λ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0 )
⇒ 4 xyz 2 + λ (1) =0 [∴ using equation (7.68)]
⇒ λ = −4xyz 2
Substituting this value of l in equations (7.71), (7.72) and (7.73), we get

1 1 1
x=
± ,y= ± .
± ,z=
2 2 2
Putting these values of x, y and z in equation (7.67), we get
2
T = 400 × 1 × 1 ×  1  = .
  25
2 2 2
Example 7.14: A rectangular box, open at the top, is to have a volume of 32
cubic meters. Find its dimensions so that the total surface is minimum.
Solved Examples 251
Sol. Let x, y, z be the edges of the rectangle box and S be its surface.
Then S = xy + 2 yz + 2 zx ...(7.74)
and volume V = xyz = 32 ...(7.75)
dS = 0
( y + 2 z ) dx + ( x + 2 z ) dy + 2 ( x + y ) dz = 0
⇒ ...(7.76)
yzdx + zxdy + xydz =
0 ...( 7.77)
(y + 2z ) dx + ( x + 2 z ) dy + 2( x + y )dz + λ ( yzdx + zxdy + xydz ) =0

( y + 2 z ) + λyz = 0
...(7.78)
( x + 2 z ) + λzx = 0
...(7.79)
2( x + y ) + λxy = 0
...(7.80)
Multiply equation (7.78) by x, equation (7.79) by y and subtracting, we get
2zx – 2zy = 0
⇒ x = y[∴ z ≠ 0, because depth of box]
y = 2z
y
y. y. = 32
2
⇒ y =4
Therefore, we get x = y = 2z = 4 i.e., x = 4, y = 4, z = 2.
Now let us z = f (x, y) and using equation (7.74), we get
∂S ∂z ∂z
= y + 2 y + 2 z + 2 x
∂x ∂x ∂x
Again differentiate partially equation (7.75) with respect to x taking y as a
constant, we get
∂z
yz + xy
=0
∂x
∂z z
⇒ = −
∂x x
∂S 2 yz 2 yz
\ = y− + 2 z − 2 z =y −
∂x x x
∂2S 2 yz 2 y ∂z 2 yz 2 yz
and 2 =
− . =2 + 2 .
∂x x2 x ∂x x x
∂2S
when x = 4, y = 4, z = 2, >0
∂x 2
Thus S is minimum at x = 4, y = 4, z = 2.
Hence the dimensions of the rectangle box for minimum surface are x = 4,
y = 4, z = 2.
Example 7.15: Find the maxima and minima of x 2 + y 2 + z 2 subject to the

1 and lx + my + nz =
conditions: ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 = 0.
Sol. We have u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ...(7.81)
Connected by the relations

1 ...(7.82)
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 =
and lx + my + nz =
0 ...(7.83)
du = 0
2 x dx + 2 y dy + 2 z dz = 0
⇒
⇒ x dx + y dy + z dz = 0 ...(7.84)
2ax dx + 2by dy + 2cz dz = 0

ax dx + by dy + cz dz = 0
i.e., ...(7.85)
and ldx + m dy + n dz = 0 ...(7.86)
Multiplying in equation (7.84) by 1, (7.85) by l1 and (7.86) by l2, and adding,
we get
( x dx + y dy + z dz ) + λ1 ( ax dx + by dy + cz dz ) + λ 2 ( l dx + m dy + n dz ) =0
⇒ ( x + aλ1 x + l λ 2 ) dx + ( y + bλ1 x + mλ 2 ) dy + ( z + cλ1 z + nλ 2 ) dz = 0

x + λ1ax + λ 2l = 0
...(7.87)
Solved Examples 253
y + λ1by + λ 2 m = 0
...(7.88)
and z + λ1cz + λ 2 n = 0 ...(7.89)

Now multiplying equation (7.87) by x; equation (7.88) by y and equation (7.89)
by z and adding them, we get
( )
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + λ1 ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + λ 2 ( lx + my + nz ) = 0
or u + λ1.1 + λ 2 .0 =0 {Using equation (7.81), (7.82) and (7.83)}

or l1 = –u
Substituting this value of l1 in equations (7.87), (7.88) and (7.89), we get
2 λl λ2m λ2n
x= = , y = , z
au − 1 bu − 1 cu − 1
Putting these values of x, y, z in the equation (7.83), we get
λ 2l 2 λ m2 λ 2 n2
+ 2 + = 0
au − 1 bu − 1 cu − 1
l2 m2 n2
or + + =0
au − 1 bu − 1 cu − 1
which is the maximum and minimum values of u = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .
Example 7.16: Find the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped that
x2 y 2 z 2
can be inscribed in the ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1.
a b c
Sol. Let (2x), (2y), (2z) be the length, breath and height of the rectangular
parallelepiped and V be the volume of the largest rectangular parallelepiped,
then
V = (2x) (2y) (2z) = 8xyz...(7.90)
x2 y 2 z 2
2 + 2 + 2 = 1 ...(7.91)
a b c
For stationary point, we have dV = 0
8 yz dx + 8 zx dy + 8 xy dz = 0
⇒
i.e., yz dx + zx dy + xy dz = 0 ...(7.92)
2x 2y 2z x y z
0 i.e., 2 dx + 2 dy + 2 dz =
dx + 2 dy + 2 dz = 0 ...(7.93)
a 2
b c a b c
x y z 
( yz dx + zx dy + xy dz ) + λ  2
dx + 2 dy + 2 dz  =0
a b c 
 λx   λy   λz 
⇒  yz + 2  dx +  zx + 2  dy +  xy + 2  dz =
0
 a   b   c 

λx
yz + 2 = 0
...(7.94)
a
λy
zx + 2 = 0
...(7.95)
b
λz
xy + 2 = 0
...(7.96)
c
Solving equations (7.94), (7.95) and (7.96), we get
x yz y zx z xy
= − , 2 = − , 2 = −
a 2
λ b λ c λ
⇒ x2 y 2 z 2
= = =
(x 2
) ( ) ( )
/ a 2 + y 2 / b2 + z 2 / c2
=
1
a 2 b2 c2 3 3
{Using equation (7.91)}
a b c
⇒ x= , y= , z=
3 3 3
Thus V is stationary at x = a , y = b and z = c . Now to show that the

3 3 3
stationary point is maximum let us z = f (x, y) and using equation (7.90), we get
∂V ∂z
= 8 yz + 8 xy
∂x ∂x
Again differentiate partially equation (7.91) with respect to x taking y as a
constant, we get
Solved Examples 255
2 x 2 z ∂z ∂z c2 x
+ 0
=⇒ =
− 2
a 2 c 2 ∂x ∂x a z
∂z 8c 2 x 2 y
= 8 yz −
\ ∂x a2 z
∂ 2V ∂z 16c 2 xy 8c 2 x 2 y ∂z
and 2 = 8 y − 2 + 2 2 .
∂x ∂x a z a z ∂x
(8 y ) ( c2 x ) 16c 2 xy 8c 2 x 2 y c 2 x
= − − − 2 2 . 2
a2 z a2 z a z a z
when a , b , c , ∂ 2V
x= y= z= <0
3 3 3 ∂x 2
a b c
Hence V is maximum at x = , y= , z=
3 3 3
8abc
The maximum value of V = .
3 3
Example 7.17: Divide a number p into three points x, y, z such that
ayz + bzx + cxy shall have maximum or minimum which it is.
u = ayz + bzx + cxy ...(7.97)

x + y + z = p...(7.98)

du = 0
⇒ ( bz + cy ) dx + ( az + cx ) dy + ( ay + bx ) dz =
0 ...(7.99)
Differentiate partially equation (7.98), we have

dx + dy + dz = 0
...(7.100)
Multiplying in equation (7.99) by 1, (7.100) by l, and adding them, we get
( bz + cy ) dx + ( az + cx ) dy + ( ay + bx ) dz + λ ( dx + dy + dz ) =
0
⇒ ( bz + cy + λ ) dx + ( az + cx + λ ) dy + ( ay + bx + λ ) dz =0

bz + cy + λ = 0 ...(7.101)
az + cx + λ = 0
...(7.102)
and ay + bx + λ = 0 ...(7.103)
Now multiplying equation (7.101) by x; equation (7.102) by y and equation
(7.103) by z and adding them, we get
2 ( ayz + bzx + cxy ) + λ ( x + y + z ) =0
or 2u + λ. p =0 {Using equations (7.97) and (7.98)}
2u
or λ=−
p
Substituting this value of l in equations (7.101), (7.102) and (7.103),
we get
2u
bz + cy −
=0
p
2u
az + cx −
=0
p
2u
ay + bx −
=0
p
2u
or 0.x + bz + cy = ...(7.104)
p
2u
cx + 0. y + az =
...(7.105)
p
2u
bx + ay + 0.z =
...(7.106)
p
Now eliminating x, y, z between the equations (7.98), (7.104), (7.105) and
(7.106), we get
Exercise 7 257
2u
0 b c
p
2u
c 0 a
p = 0 ...(7.107)
2u
b a 0
p
1 1 1 p
Thus the stationary values of u are given by equation (7.107).
Exercise 7
Find the maxima and minima of the following functions:
1. u = x3 + y 3 − 3axy .
1 1
2.
= u 2sin ( x + y ) cos ( x − y ) + cos ( x + y ) .
2 2
3. u = x 2 y 2 − 5 x 2 − 8 xy − 5 y 2 .
4. Investigate the maxima and minima of 2 ( x − y ) − x − y leaving a
2 4 4
side any doubtful case that may arise.

5. Find the maxima and minima of sin x + sin y + sin ( x + y ) .
6. Find the points (x, y) where the function xy (1 − x − y ) is maximum or
minimum.
7. Show that u = ( x + y + z ) − 3 ( x + y + z ) − 24 ( xyz ) + a 3 has minimum
3
at (1, 1, 1) and maximum of ( –1, –1, –1).

8. Discuss the maxima and minima of the function
2 2
u = x2 + y 2 + + .
x y
9. Find the maximum and minimum value of
u= 6 xy + ( 47 − x − y )( 4 x + 3 y ) .
10. Find the maxima and minima value of the function
u = sin x sin y sin z , where x, y and z are the vertex angles of a triangle.

2 2 4 5
11. Find the maximum and minimum values of u =y + 2 z − 5 x + 4 x
12. Find the maximum or minimum values of u, where
u = axy 2 z 3 − x 2 y 2 z 2 − xy 3 z 3 − xy 2 z 4 .

2 2 2
13. Find the maximum and minimum values of x + y + z , where
x 2
y 2
z 2 a 4 b4 c4
lx + my + nz =
0 and + + 1.
=
a 2 b2 c2
u x 2 + y 2 subject to the
14. Find the maximum and minimum values of =
condition ax 2 + by 2 + 2hxy =
1.
15. Find the minimum and maximum values of u = x + y + z subject to the
a b c
condition + + =1.
x y z
p q r
16. Find the extreme values of x y z subject to the condition
a b c
+ + = 1.
x y z
17. Prove that of all rectangular parallelepipeds of the same volume, the
cubes have the least surface.
18. Find the triangle of maximum area inscribed in a circle.
19. If two variables x and y are connected by the relation ax 2 + by 2 = ab
, show that the maximum and minimum values of the function
u = x 2 + y 2 + xy will be the roots of the equation 4 ( u − a )( u − b ) =
ab .
20. In a plane triangle ABC. Find the maximum value of

u = cos A cos B cos C .
21. Find the maximum value of u = x m y n z p subject to the condition
x + y + z =.
a
Answers
1. At (a, a), function is maximum or a minimum according to a is negative
or positive
π
2. Maximum when x = y = nπ + ( −1)n and minimum when
6
π
x= y= 2nπ − .
2
3. Maximum at x = y = 0.
4. Maximum when x = ± 2, y =
 2.
5. Maximum at x= y= 2nπ ± π .
3
1 1
6. Maximum at  , 
3 3
7. Minimum at (1, 1).
Recapitulation 259
8. Maximum at (21, 20), the maximum value = 3384.
9. Maximum at  π , π , π  .
3 3 3
10. Maximum at (1, 0, 0).
 a 2a 3a  108a 7
11. Maximum at  , ,  , maximum value = .
7 7 7  77
12. l 2a4 m 2b 4 n2c4

+ +
a 2u 1− 1 b 2u − 1 c 2u − 1
a− h
13. u
=0.
1
h b−
u
( )
2
14. u = a+ b+ c
p q r
15. a b c ( p + q + r ) p + q + r
p p qq r r
15. 1 .
8
m n r
16.  am   an   ap 
     
m+n+ p m+n+ p m+n+ p
Recapitulation
1. A point (a, b) is said to be a stationary point, if both the first order
partial derivatives of function f (x, y) is zero at that point.
2. A stationary point which is either a maximum or minima is called an
extreme point and the value of the function at that point is called an
extreme values.
3. A stationary point is not necessarily being an extreme point.
4. A point at which function is neither maximum nor minimum is called
a saddle point.
5. The necessary conditions of the function f (x, y, z) , to be maxima and
minima are
∂f ∂f ∂f
= 0,= 0,= 0
∂
x ∂y ∂z
6. For the function f (x, y) at (a, b), the following cases arise:
Case I: If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0 then f (x, y) is maximum at (a, b).
Case II: If rt – s2 > 0 and r < 0, then f (x, y) is minimum at (a, b).

Case III: If rt – s2 < 0 then f (x, y) is neither a maximum nor a
minimum values at (a, b).
Case IV: If rt – s2 = 0, then case is doubtful i.e., we cannot say
whether f (x, y) is maximum and further investigation is needed to
determine the maxima of f (x, y) at (a, b).
7. For the function f (x, y, z) at (a, b, c), we see that the following cases
will arise:
A H G
A H
Case I: If A, , H B F are alternately negative and
H B
G F C
positive, then f (x, y, z) is maximum at (a, b, c).
A H G
A H
Case II: If A, , H B F all are positive, then
H B
G F C
f (x, y, z) is minimum at (a, b, c).
If these conditions are not satisfied, then we have neither a maximum
nor a minimum.
Exercises 7.1
1. The stationary value is:
(a) always maximum
(b) always minimum
(c) either maximum or minimum
(d) neither maximum nor minimum
2. The value of any function f at extreme point is known as
(a) minimum value (b) maximum value
(c) extreme value (d) None of these.
3. If rt – s2 < 0, then the function is
(a) always maximum
Exercises 7.1 261
(b) always minimum

(c) either maximum or minimum
(d) neither maximum nor minimum
4. In any triangle ABC, the maximum value of cos A cos B cos C is
1
(a) (b) p
8
5. For the maxima and minima of a function f, it is necessary that
(a) df ≠ 0 (b) df = 0
(c) df > 0 (d) None of these.
State True or False

1. A point is said to be stationary point, if all order partial derivative of
the function vanish at that point.
2. The value of the function f at extreme point is known as extreme value.
3. For a function f (x, y) to be a maximum or minimum, it is not necessary
∂f ∂f
that = 0 and = 0.
∂x ∂y
4. If these conditions rt – s2 > 0 and r > 0 are satisfied by the function f (x,
y) then the function f (x, y) is minimum.
5. A point at which function is neither maximum nor minimum is called
a saddle point.
Fill in the Blanks

1. The stationary point can be determined by solving the simultaneous
equations ..........................
2. A stationary point which is either a maximum or a minimum is known
as ..........................
3. If rt – s2 < 0, then the function is ..........................
4. If rt – s2 > 0, then the function is always ..........................
5. The Lagrange’s method of undetermined multipliers ..........................
applied to determine the extreme values of the given function.
Answers
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d)
4. (a) 5. (b)
State True or False

1. T 2. T 3. F
4. F 5. T
Fill in the Blanks

∂f
1.= ∂f ∂f
0,= 0,= 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
2. extreme point
3. neither maximum nor minimum
4. either maximum or minimum
5. can be.
qqq
8
Multiple Integrals and its
Applications
Learning Objectives

l understand the Double integrals
l comprehend the Calculation of Double integrals
l explain the properties of Double integrals
l understand the applications of Double integrals in cartesian form
l discuss the Double Integral in Polar Coordinates
l understand the applications of Double integrals in polar form
l explain the change of order of integration
l discuss the mass and centre of gravity
l understand the triple integral and its applications
8.1 Introduction
Double integrals have a great importance for finding the area of a region,
the volume under a surface, and the average value of a function of two
variables over a rectangular region. Sometimes we get difficulties in solving
double integral then we change the order of integration and solve the double
integral easily. The triple integral can be used to find a number of physical
quantities. The mass and Centre of gravity both are very useful reference point
for calculations in engineering fields like as in physics and mechanics that
involve masses distributed in space, such as the linear and angular momentum
of planetary bodies and rigid body dynamics. In a single rigid body case, the
264 Chapter 8 Multiple Integrals and its Applications
center of mass is fixed in relation to the body, and if the body has uniform
density, it will be located at the centroid. The center of mass may be located
outside the physical body, as is sometimes the case for hollow or open-shaped
objects, such as a horseshoe.
8.2 Double Integral
Double integral is an extension of the concept of a definite integral in two
dimensional spaces. Let us consider a function f(x, y) of the two independent
variables x and y defined in the finite region A of xy-plane. Divide the region A
into n sub-region. A1, A2, ....... An of areas dA1, dA2, ....... dAn.
Y
f(xr) f(xn)
f(x1) f(x2)
y1 y2 y3 yr yn
O X
x1 x2 x3 xr xn
Then we have
∫∫ A
f ( x=
, y )dA = lim[ f ( x1 , y1 )dA1 + f ( x2 , y2 )dA2 + ..... f ( xn , yn )dAn ]
n →∞
dA→ 0
The integral ∫∫ A
f ( x, y )dA is written as ∫∫ A
f ( x, y )dxdy and called the double
integral of f(x, y) over the region A.
8.3 Calculation of a Double Integral

1. If the region A be given by the inequalities f(x, y) a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d ,
then the double integral of f(x, y) over the region A is given by
b d
 d f ( x, y )dy dx b
∫∫A ∫a ∫c
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫a  ∫c
f ( x, y )dy dx =

∫∫A f ( x, y)dx dy = ∫c  ∫a f ( x, y)dx  dy = ∫c  ∫a f ( x, y)dx  dy
d b d b
or
b
If first we calculate ∫ f ( x, y )dx , then we take y as a constant and if we
a
b
calculate first ∫a
f ( x, y )dy , then we take x is as a constant.
2. If the region A is bounded by the curves = y f= 1 ( x ), y f=
2 ( x ), x a
y = f1 ( x), y = f 2 ( x), x = a to x = b, then the double integral of f(x, y)
over the region A is given by
8.4 Properties of a Double Integral 265
b f2 ( x )
f ( x, y )dy  dx ∫  ∫
b f2 ( x )
∫∫A f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫a ∫ f1 ( x ) f ( x, y )dy dx =
 a f1 ( x )
where the integration with respect to y and x treated as a constant.

x f1 ( y ),=
3. If the region A is bounded by the curves= x f 2 ( y ),=
y c=
,y d
we have
d f2 ( y )
∫∫A f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫c f ( x, y )dx  dy ∫  ∫
d f2 ( y )
∫ f1 ( y )
f ( x, y )dx dy =
 c f1 ( y )
where the integration with respect to x and y treated as a constant.
NOTE: In the evaluation of the double integrals, we integrate first with respect
to the integrand having variable limit (taking other variable as constant) and
then integrate with respect to the integrand with constant limit.
8.4 Properties of a Double Integral

1. Suppose if the region A is partitioned into two parts, say A1 and A2,
then
∫∫ f ( x, y )dx dy = ∫∫A f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫∫A f ( x, y )dx dy

A 1 2
Similarly, the region A divide into three or more parts.

2. A constant factor may be taken outside the integral sign. Thus
∫∫ mf ( x, y )dx dy = m ∫∫A f ( x, y )dx dy

A
where m is a constant.
3. The double integral of the algebraic sum of a fixed number of functions
is equal to the algebraic sum of double integrals taken for each term
separately. Thus
∫∫A
[ f1 ( x, y ) + f 2 ( x, y ) + .....]dx dy
= ∫∫ f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫∫ f 2 ( x, y )dx dy + ......

A 1 A
8.5 Application of Double Integral

(Cartesian Form)
1. Area by double integration
If the region A is bounded by the curves y = f1(x), y = f2(x), x = a to
x = b then the area of f(x, y) over the region A is given by
b f2 ( x )
∫∫ A
dA = ∫∫ a f1 ( x )
dy dx [choosing f(x, y) = 1]
2. Volume of solid of revolution

b
We know that, V= ∫ py 2 dx being the volume of a solid obtained by
a
revolving about the x-axis and the area under the curve y = f(x), from
x = a to x = b.
b f ( x)
The total volume generated by the given area is ∫∫
a 0
2py dy dx .
3. Volume under a surface

The volume under the surface z = f(x, y) bounded by the area A in y
plane is given by
V= ∫∫ A
z dA = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dA
A
= ∫∫ A
f ( x, y )dx dy
8.6 Double Integral in Polar Coordinates

Let f(r, q) be a function of (r, q) defined for every point in a certain region A.
The region A is divided into n elementary areas dA1 , dA2 ,...dAn . Let (r2, q2) be
any point in the elementary region dA2 as shown in figure.
Then the sum
f (r1 , q1 )dA1 + f (r2 , q2 )dA2 + ..... + f (rn , qn )dAn
or ∑ f (r , q
λ=1
λ λ )dAλ ….(8.1)
8.7 Application of Double Integral (Polar form) 267
The double integral of f(r, q) over the region A is written as
∫∫ A
f (r , q)dA
Hence, suppose if A is a region bounded by the curves

r = f1 (q) to r = f 2 (q), q = q1 to q = q2 then
n
∫∫ f (r , q)dA = lim ∑ f (rλ , qλ )dAλ

A n →∞
λ=1
dA→ 0
∫  ∫ f (r , q)r dr d q
q2 f2 ( q)
= …..(8.2)
q1 f1 ( q ) 
8.7 Application of Double Integral (Polar form)

1. Area by double integration
If A is a region bounded by the curves
r = f1 (q) to r = f 2 (q), q = q1 to q = q2 then the area (choosing f(r, q)
= 1) is given by
q2 f2 ( q)
∫∫ A
dA = ∫ ∫ q1 f1 ( q )
r dr d q
2. Volume of solid of revolution

The volume obtained by revolution of the area between the curve
r = f(q) and the radii vectors q = q1 to q = q2 is given by
q2 f ( q)
V= ∫ ∫ q1 0
(2pr sin q) r dr d q .
8.8 Change from cartesian to polar coordinates

The double integral in cartesian coordinates of f(x, y) over the region A is given
by
∫∫ A
f ( x, y ) dA = ∫∫ f ( x, y)dx dy …(8.3)
To change the double integral Cartesian form to polar form replace x by
r cos q, y by r sin q and dx dy by r dr dq by equation (8.3), we have
∫∫ A
f ( x, y ) dA = ∫∫ f (r cos q, r sin q)r dr d q
The limits of integration have also got to be changed accordingly. If the given
limit of integration in cartesian form then we can find from these limits the
region of integration. We shall convert this region in term of polar coordinates
and from if we can write down the limits of integration for r, q.
Solved Examples
1 2
Example 8.1: Evaluate ∫∫
0 0
dx dy .
Sol. We have
1 2 1
∫ ( x)
2
∫∫ 0 0
dx dy =
0 0
dy
1
∫ ( x ) dy
2
= 0
0
1
= ∫ 2 dy
0
1
= 2 ∫ dy
0
= 2 ( y )0
1
= 2
a b dy dx
1 1 xy
.
Sol. We have
a b dy dx a  b dy  1
∫∫ 1 1 xy
= ∫  ∫
1 1 y  x
dx
1 a
∫ x [log y ]
b
= 1
dx
1
a  log b − log1 
= ∫1 
 x
 dx

log b a
=
1 x
dx ∫
a dx
= log b ∫
1 x
= log b [ log x ]1
a
= log b [ log a − log1]

= log b log a
Example 8.3: Show that
1 1 x− y 1 1 x− y
∫ dx ∫
0 0 ( x + y )3
dy ≠ ∫ dy ∫
0 0 ( x + y )3
dx
Sol. We have first L.H.S.

1 1 x− y 1 1 2 x − ( x + y)
∫ dx ∫
0 0 ( x + y )3
dy = ∫ dx ∫
0 0 ( x + y )3
dy
Solved Examples 269
1 1  2x 1 
= ∫ dx ∫  ( x + y)
0 0 3
−
( x + y ) 2 
dy
1
 −x 1  1
= ∫0  + dx
 ( x + y)
2
( x + y )  0
1  −x 1 1 1
= ∫  ( x + 1)
0 2
+ + − dx
x 1+ x x 
1 dx
= ∫0 ( x + 1) 2
1
 1 
=  − 
 1 + x 0
1
= − + 1
2
1
=
2
Now we have R.H.S.
x− y 1 1  ( x + y) − 2 y 
∫ dy ∫ 
1 1
dx
∫0
dy ∫
0 ( x + y )3
dx = 0 0 ( x + y )3 
1 1  1 2y 
= ∫ dy ∫  ( x + y)
0 0 2
−
( x + y )3 
dx
1
 1 y  1
= ∫0  − + 2 
dy
 ( x + y) ( x + y) 0
1  1 1 y 1
= ∫ − 1 + y + y + (1 + y)
0 2
−  dy
y
1 dy
= − ∫0
(1 + y ) 2
1
 1 
=  
1 + y  0
1
= −1
2
1
= −
2
1 1+ x 2 dydx
0 0 1 + x2 + y 2
Sol. We have
1 1+ x 2 dydx  1+ x2 dydx 
1
∫∫
0 0 1 + x2 + y 2
= ∫0  ∫0 1 + x 2 + y 2  dx
1+ x 2
1 1  −1 y 
= ∫0 2
1+ x 
 tan 
1 + x2 0
dx
p 1 dx
4 ∫0 1 + x 2
=
=
p
4 
{
log x + 1 + x 2  10
 }
p
=
4
(
log 1 + 2 )
1 x2
0 0
e y / x dydx .
Sol. We have
x2  x y/ x 
2
1 1
∫∫
0 0
e y / x dydx = ∫0  ∫0 e dy  dx
1 x2
= ∫0  xe  0 dx
y/ x
1
∫  xe − xe0/ x dx
x2 / x
= 0 
∫ ( xe − x )dx
1
x
=
0
1
x 1
1  x2 
=  xe  0 − ∫0 e dx −  
x
 2 0
1 1
= e − e x  0 −
2
1
= e − (e − 1) −
2
1 1
= 1 − =
2 2
1
=
2
Solved Examples 271
x2 y 2
Example 8.6: Find the area of the ellipse + 1.
=
a 2 b2
Sol. The required area of the ellipse
= 4 × (Area of first quadrant of the ellipse)
b 2 2 Y
a a −x
= 4 ∫0 ∫ 0
a
dy dx
a 
b
a2 − x2
= 4 ∫0  ∫0a dy dx
b
  X′ X
O a
a b 2
= 4 ∫0 a − x 2 dx
a
4b a 2
=
a ∫0
a − x 2 dx
Y′
a
4b  1 2 2 1 2 −1 x 
=  x a − x + a sin 
a 2 2 a 0
4b  1 1 
= .0 + a 2 sin −1 1
a  2 2 
2b 2 p
= .a . = pab
a 2
= pab
Example 8.7: Evaluate ∫∫ xy dy dx over the region in the positive quadrant for
which x + y < 1.
Sol. The region of integration is the area bounded by the lines x = 0, y = 0 and
x + y = 1.
∫∫ xy dy dx
The integral Y
1 1− x
= ∫ ∫ 0 0
xy dy dx
x ∫ y dy dx
1 1− x
= ∫0  0  x+y=1
x=0
1− x
 y2  1
= ∫0 x   dx
 2 0 X
1 1 O
2 ∫0
y=0
= x(1 − x) 2 dx
1 1
2 ∫0
= x(1 − 2 x + x 2 )dx
1
1  x 2 2 x3 x 4 
=  − + 
2 2 3 4 0
1 1 2 1
= − +
2  2 3 4 
1
=
24
3x
Example 8.8: Find by double integration the area between y = 2 and
x +2
4y = x2.
3x
Sol. We have 4y = x2, y = 2
x +2
12 x
⇒ 4y = 2 [4y = x2]
x +2
12 x
⇒ x2 =
x2 + 2
⇒ x4 + 2x2 – 12x = 0
⇒ x(x3 + 2x – 12) = 0
⇒ x = 0, 2 (real roots)
2 3 x /( x 2 + 2)
The required area = ∫ ∫ 0 x2 / 4
dy dx
2 3 x /( x 2 + 2)
= ∫0
[ y] x2 / 4
dx
 3x
2 x2 
= ∫0  x 2 + 2 4 dx
−
3 2 2 xdx 1 2 2
2 ∫0 x 2 + 2 4 ∫0
= − x dx
2
2 1x 
3
3
= log ( x + 2 )  −  
2
2 0 4  3 0
3 1
= [log 6 − log 2] − (8 − 0)
2 12
3 2
= log 3 −
2 3
Solved Examples 273
Example 8.9: Find by double integration the area of the region bounded by
circle x2 + y2 = a2.
Sol. The area of a small element at any point (x, y) is dx dy. To find the area
bounded by the circle x2 + y2 = a2, the region of integration A can be expressed
Y
2 2 2 2
as − a < x < a, − a − x ≤ y ≤ a − x
The required area = ∫∫ A

dx dy
a a2 − x2 X′ O a X
= ∫ ∫
− a − a2 − x 2
dy dx
a  a2 − x2 
= ∫− a  ∫0 dy  dx
2 Y′
a
= 2 ∫− a [ y ]0
2
a − x2
dx
a
= 2 ∫− a a − x dx
2 2
a
= 4 ∫0 a − x dx
2 2
a
 2 2 2 
= 4  x a − x + a sin −1 x 
 2 2 a 
0
 a2 
= 4 0 + sin −1 1
 2 
1 p
= 4. a 2 .
2 2
= pa 2
Example 8.10: Find the volume in the first octant bounded by z = x2 + y2 and
y = 1 – x2.
Sol. We know that, V = ∫∫ z dy dx
∫ ∫ (x + y 2 ) dy dx
1 1− x 2
2
= 0 0
 1− x 2 
∫0  ∫0 ( x + y ) dy  dx
2
1
2
=
2
3 1− x
1 y 
= ∫0  x y +  dx
2
 3 0
1 (1 − x 2 )3 
= ∫0 
2 2
x (1 − x ) + dx
 3 
Putting x = sin q and dx = cos q dq , we have

 2 1 6 
p/ 2
∫
2
=  sin q cos q + cos q  cos q d q
 3  0
p/ 2  1 
= ∫0  sin q cos q + cos q  d q
2 3 7
 3 
3 1
Γ   Γ ( 2) Γ   Γ ( 4)
2 1 2
= +
7 3 9
2.Γ   2.Γ  
2 2
1
p .1
1 2 1 p .3.2
= . + .
2 5 . 3 . 1 p 3 2. 7 . 5 . 3 . 1 p
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 16 2
= + =
15 105 7
p/ 2 2 a cos q
Example 8.11: Evaluate ∫0 ∫
0
r 2 sin q cos qdr d q .
Sol. We have
p/ 2 2 a cos q p/ 2
 2 a cos q r 2 dr  sin q cos qd q
∫0 ∫
0
r 2 sin q cos qdr d q = ∫ 0  ∫0 
2 a cos q
p/ 2  r3 
= ∫ 0  
 3 0
sin q cos qd q
1 p/ 2
( 2a cos q ) sin q cos q d q
3
=
3 ∫0
8a 3 p/ 2
=
3 ∫0
sin q cos 4 q d q
  5 
 Γ (1) .Γ    3
8a   2   (by Gamma formula)
= . 
3  7 
2Γ  
  2  
3 1
. p
8a 3
= . 2 2
3 2. 5 . 3 . 1 p
2 2 2
8 3
= a
15
Solved Examples 275
∞ ∞
Example 8.12: Evaluate the integral I = ∫ ∫
2
+ y2 )
e−( x dxdy by changing to
0 0
polar coordinates.
Sol. Given x = 0 to ∞ and y = 0 to ∞ so the region of the given integration is
the first quadrant. Hence the limit is q = 0 to p/2 and r = 0 to ∞. To change
the integral into polar form we put x = r cos q and y = r sin q. The required
integral is
∞ ∞
∫ ∫
2
+ y2 )
I = e−( x dxdy
0 0
p/ 2 ∞
∫ ∫
2
= e − r rdrd q
0 0
= ∫
0
p/ 2
(∫ e ∞
0
−r2
rdr d q )
2 2 2 du
Putting e − r = u ⇒ − 2re − r dr = du ⇒ re − r dr = , we have
−2
p/ 2  0 du 
= ∫
0  ∫1
 −2 
 dq
1 p/ 2 0
( u )1 d q
2 ∫0
= −
1 p/ 2
2 ∫0
= dq
1 p/ 2
= [ q]
2 0
p
= .
4
2 2 x − x2 x dy dx
Example 8.13: Transform the integral ∫∫
0 0
x2 + y 2
dx
by changing to
polar coordinates and hence evaluate it.
Sol. Given limit y = 0,=y 2 x − x 2 and x = 0, x = 2.

Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, then we have
y = 2x − x2 ⇒ y 2 = 2x − x2 ⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0
⇒ r 2 (cos 2 q + sin 2 q) − 2r cos q = 0 ⇒ r = 2cos q, r = 0
Note that at the point P of the circle q = 0 and at point O, r = 0 and from
r = 2 cos q, we get q = p/2 at O.
The required integral is

p/ 2 r cos q
2cos q
= ∫ ∫ 0 0 r
r dr d q
cos q  ∫ r dr  d q
p/ 2 2cos q Y
= ∫ 0  0 
2cos q r = 2 cos q
 r2 
p/ 2
= ∫ cos q   dq x=0
0
 2 0 x=2
p/ 2 1
q = p/2
= ∫0 cos q.4cos 2 q d q q=0
2 X
p/ 2 O y=0
= 2 ∫0
3
cos q d q
1
Γ   .(Γ 2)
2
= 2. (by Gamma formula)
5
2.Γ  
2
p .1
=
3 1
. . p
2 2
4
= .
3
Example 8.14: Evaluate the following integral by changing to polar
1 2 x − x2
coordinates x 2 + y 2 dxdy by changing to polar coordinates and
∫∫
0 x
hence evaluate.
1 2 x − x2
Sol. Let I =
∫∫
0 x
x 2 + y 2 dxdy
Given y = x and y = 2x − x 2
Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, then we have
y = 2 x − x2 ⇒ y2 =
2 x − x2
⇒ x2 + y2 – 2x = 0
⇒ r 2 (cos 2 q + sin 2 q) − 2r cos q = 0
⇒ r = 2 cos q, r = 0
Note that x = 0 to 1, here y = x ⇒ tan q = 1 ⇒ q = p/4 and when r =0, q = p/2.
p/ 2 2cos q
The required integral = ∫ ∫
p/ 4 0
r.r dr d q
8.9 Change of Order of Integration 277
p/ 2 2cos q
= ∫ ∫ p/ 4 0
r 2 dr d q
2cos q
 r3  p/ 2
= ∫p / 4   dq
 3 0
8 p/ 2 3
3 ∫p / 4
= cos qd q
8 p/ 2
3 ∫p / 4
= (1 − sin 2 q) cos qd q
Putting sin q = t ⇒ cos q dq = dt, we have

8 1
=
3 ∫1/ 2
(1 − t 2 )dt
1
8  t3 
=  t − 
3 3 1/ 2
2
=
9
(
8−5 2 . )
8.9 Change of Order of Integration
Some integrals cannot be solved directly. In such cases if we interchange
the order of integration, they solved easily. Suppose in a double integral the
limits of integrations are constants such as in the region of integration being
a rectangle, then the change in the order of integration does not require the
change of the limits of integration. Thus we have
d b
∫ dy ∫ f ( x, y )dx
b d
∫a
dx ∫ f ( x, y )dy =
c c a ….(8.4)
But, if the given limit is variable, then in changing the order of integration a
corresponding change to be made in the limits of integration as
b y2 ( x ) d x2 ( y )
∫a
dx ∫
y1 ( x )
f ( x, y )dy = ∫
c
dy ∫
x1 ( y )
f ( x, y )dx
Y
X
O a b
To changing the order of integration required to split up the region of integration

and the new integral is expressed as a sum of a number of double integrals. In
changing the order of integration, it is convenient to draw rough sketch of the
region of integration, which will help to fix up the new limits of integration.
Solved Examples
1 2− x2 x
Example 8.15: Evaluate ∫∫ 0 0
x + y2
2
dx dy by changing the order of
integration.
y
Sol. Given limits are x = 0, x = 1 and y = 0 , = 2 − x2
y
Putting x = 0 and x = 1 in = 2 − x2
Then we get y = 2 and y = 1.
y
The strips start from x = 0 and up to the curve = 2 − x 2 i.e., =
x 2 − y2 .
Hence by change the order of integration, we have
Y
x2 + y2 = 2
x=1
x=0
y=1
X
O
y= 2
1 2
1 2− x2 x 1 x 2− y2 x
∫ ∫0 0
x2 + y 2
dx dy = ∫∫
0
0
x2 + y 2
dy dx + ∫∫
1
0
x2 + y 2
dy dx
1 1 2 2− y2
 x 2 + y 2  dy +  x2 + y 2 
= ∫
0
  ∫
1
 0
dy
0
1 2
= ∫
0
 1 + y 2 − y  dy +
  ∫(
1
2 − y dy )
Solved Examples 279
 2 1 1
=  2 + 2 log 1 + 2 − 2  ( )
 
 1
+  (2 − 1) − 2 + 
 2
 2 1 1
=  + log 1 + 2 −  ( )
 2 2 2
 1
+  (2 − 1) − 2 + 
 2
1 1
= (
log 1 + 2 − ) .
2 ( 2+2 )
1 e dy dx
Example 8.16: Change the order of integration and evaluate ∫∫
0 ex log y
.
Sol. Given limits are x = 0, x = 1 and y = ex, y = e
Putting x = 0 and x = 1 in y = ex, then we get y = 1 and y = e.
So P(0, 1) and Q(1, e) are the points on this curve.
The strips starts from x = 0 and up to the curve y = ex i.e., x = log y. Hence by
change the order of integration, we have
1 e dy dx e log y dx dy
∫∫
0 e x
log y
.= ∫∫
1 0 log y
e 1
[ x ]0 dy
log y
= ∫
1 log y
y=e
Q(1, e)
A B
P(0, 1)
X
O
e 1
= ∫ ( log y − 0 ) dy
1 log y
e
∫ dy = [ y ]1 = e – 1
e
= 1
∞ ∞ e− y
Example 8.17: Change the order of integration in ∫ ∫
0 x y
dy dx and hence
find its value.
Sol. The given region of integration is bounded by y = x and x = 0 i.e., y-axis
and an infinite boundary. Now consider the strips parallel to axis of x whose
extremities lie on x = 0 and y = x so that the limits of x are 0 to y and these of
y are 0 to ∞ .
Y
y=x
X
O
Hence by changing the order of integration, we have

e− y e− y ∞ y
∫0 ∫0 y dx dy
∞ ∞
∫0 ∫x y
dy dx =
−y
∞ y e
= ∫0 [ x ] dy
0
y
∞
= ∫
0
e − y dy
∞
 e− y 
=   =1
 −1  0

=1
Example 8.18: Change the order of integration in the double integral

2a 2 ax
∫ ∫
0 2 ax − x 2
dy dx .
, y
Sol. Given limits are x = 0, x = 2a and y = 2ax = 2a − x 2
We have y2 = 2ax – x2
Solved Examples 281
⇒ x2 + y2 – 2ax = 0
⇒ (x – a)2 + y2= a2
i.e., circle of radius a and the centre (a, 0).
Y
(2a, 2a)
y 2 = 2ax
y=a
E D
C
(x = 2a)
(x – a)2 + y2 = a2
O X
A
The area of integration is OAB changing the order of integration first we have
to integrate with respect to x. The area of integration has three position BCE,
ODE and ACD. Hence by change the order of integration, we have
2a 2 ax a a + a2 − y2
∫ ∫ dx dy + ∫ ∫
2a 2 ax
dx dy
∫ ∫
0 2 ax − x 2
dy dx = 0 y2 / 2a 0 y2 / 2a
a 2a
= ∫∫0 a + a2 − y2
dx dy
Example 8.19: Evaluate the following integral by changing the order of
integration
2a
∫ ∫
0 0
2 ax − x 2
{a − }
a 2 − y 2 dy dx .
=
Sol. Given limits are x = 0, x = 2a and y 0,=y 2ax − x 2
Y
(a, a)
x=0
X
O y = 0 (a, 0) x = 2a
⇒ y2 = 2ax – x2
⇒ x2 + y2 – 2ax = 0
⇒ (x – a)2 + y2 = a2
⇒ (x – a)2 = a2 – y2
2 2
x–a = ± a − y ⇒ x = a± a − y
2 2
⇒
This strips are taken parallel to x-axis and y varies from 0 to a. Hence by
changing the order of integration, we have
∫ ∫
2a
0 0
2 ax − x 2
{a − }
a 2 − y 2 dy dx = ∫∫
a
0
a + a2 − y2
a − a2 − y2 (a − a 2 − y 2 dx dy .)
8.10 Triple Integral
Consider V be the region of the three dimensional space. Suppose
f(x, y, z) is a single–valued function of the independent variables x, y, z defined
at every point in V. Divide the region V into n elementary sub region dV1, dV2,
dV3, ...... dVn; and suppose P(xr, yr, zr) is any point on the boundary or inside
the rth subdivision dVr. Now form the sum
n
∑ f ( xr , yr , zr ) dVr

r =1
….(8.5)
If the limit of this sum (8.5), as n tends to infinity and the dimension of each
subdivision tend to zero is known as the triple integral of function f(x, y, z)
over the region V and is denoted by ∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dV v
Note:
(i) Suppose if the region V be indicated by the inequalities a < x < b,
c < y < d, e < z < f, then the triple integral
b d f
∫∫∫V f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz
a c e
b d f
= ∫ dx ∫ dy ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dz
a x e
Here first we integrate with respect to z taking x and y as constant and

then the remaining integration is done in the case of double integrals.
(ii) Suppose if the limits of z are the function of x and y, and y as a function
x and x takes the constant limits say from x = a to x = b, then we have
b y2 ( x ) z2 ( x , y )

∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫
V a
dx ∫
y1 ( x )
dy ∫
z1 ( x , y )
f ( x, y, z ) dz
.
Here we integrate with respect to z performed first regarding x and y as
constant then integrate with respect to y regarding x as a constant and
then integrate with respect to z.
Solved Examples 283
Solved Examples
1 2 2
Example 8.20: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫
=x 0=y 0=z 1
x 2 yz dx dy dz
Solution. The given triple integral is
1 2 2
I = = ∫ ∫ ∫
x 0=y 0=z 1
x 2 yz dx dy dz
x 2 y  ∫ z dz  dx dy
1 2 2
= = ∫ ∫
x 0=y 0 =z 1 
2
1 2  z2 
∫ ∫
2
= x y   dx dy
=x 0=y 0
 2 1
3 1 2 2
== ∫ x ∫ y dy  dx
2 x 0=  y 0 
2
3 1 2  y2 
= ∫x = 0 x   dx
2  2 0
3 1 2
2 ∫x = 0
= 2 x dx
1
 x3 
3
=  
 3 0
= 1
1 1 1− x
Example 8.21: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫
0 y2 0
x dy dx dz

1 1 1− x
I = ∫ ∫ ∫
0 y2 0
x dy dx dz
1 1
∫ ∫ ( z)
1− x
= 0
x dy dx
0 y2
1 1
= ∫ ∫ x (1 − x ) dy dx
0 y2
∫ ∫ ( x − x ) dy dx
1 1
2
= 0 y2
1
1 2 1 3  1
= ∫0  x − x  dy
2 3  y2
 1 1 3   1 2 2 1 2 3 
(1)  −  ( y ) − ( y )  dy
1
∫  2 (1)
2
= −
0 3  2 3 
1  1 1 1 1 
∫  2 − 3  −  2 y
4
= − y 6   dy
0 3 
1 1 1 1 6
∫  6 − 2 y
4
= + y  dy
0 3 
1
1 1 5 1 7
=  y − y + y 
6 10 21 0
1 1 1 4
= − + =.
6 10 21 35
1 1− x 2 1− x 2 − y 2
=∫ ∫
x 0=y 0 ∫
=z 0
xyz dx dy dz

1− x 2 − y 2
1 1− x 2 1 
I = ∫ ∫
=x 0=y 0
xy  z 2 
 2 0
dx dy
1 1
xy (1 − x 2 − y 2 ) dx dy
1− x 2
= ∫x
2= ∫
0=y 0
1 1
x  y (1 − x 2 ) − y 3  dx dy
1− x 2
= ∫x
2= ∫
0=y 0
1− x 2
1 1 1 1 4
= ∫x = 0 x  (1 − x ) y − y 
2 2
dx
2 2 4 0
1 1 1 1 2
= ∫ x  (1 − x 2 )(1 − x 2 ) − (1 − x 2 )  dx
2 0 2 4 
1 1 1 1
x  −  (1 − x 2 ) dx
2
=
2 ∫0
2 4
1 1
=
8 ∫0
( x − 2 x3 + x5 ) dx
1
1 1 2 1 4 1 6 
= x − x + x 
8  2 2 6 0
1 1 1 1  1
=  − + =
8  2 2 6  48
Solved Examples 285
1 z x+ z
Example 8.23: Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + y + z ) dy dx dz
−1 0 x− z

1 z x+ z
I= ∫ ∫ ∫ ( x + y + z ) dy dx dz
−1 0 x− z
∫ ∫  ∫ ( x + y + z ) dy  dx dz
1 z x+ z
= −1 0 x− z
x+ z
 y2 1 z
= ∫ ∫  xy + + zy  dx dz
−1 0
 2  x− z
 ( x + z ) + z x + z − x x − z −
2
 x( x + z) + ( ) ( )( ) 
1 z
 2  dx dz
== ∫−1 ∫0
 −( x − z)
2 
 − z( x − z) 
 2 
∫  ∫ ( 4 xz + 2 z ) dx  dz
1 z
2
= −1 0
1 z
=
∫  2 zx 2 + 2 z 2 x  dz
−1  0
1
= ∫−1
 2 z 3 + 2 z 3  dz
1
= 4 ∫ z 3 dz
−1
1
 z4 
= 4   = 0
 4  −1
1 1− x 1− x − y dx dy dz
Example 8.24: Evaluate ∫∫ ∫0 0 0
(1 + x + y + z )
3 .

1 1− x 1− x − y dx dy dz
I = ∫∫ ∫
0 0 0
(1 + x + y + z )
3
1− x − y
1 1− x  1 
= ∫∫0 0
− 
 2 (1 + x + y + z )  0
2
dx dy
1 1 1− x  1 1 
2 ∫0 ∫0  4 (1 + x + y )2 
=  − +  dx dy
1− x
1 1 1 1 
= ∫  − y−
2 0 4 1 + x + y  0
dx
1 1 1 1 1 
= ∫  − (1 − x ) − + dx
2  4
0 2 1 + x 
1 1 3 1 1 
= ∫  − + x+
2  4 4
0 1 + x 
dx
1
1 3 1 x2 
=  − x + + log (1 + x ) 
2 4 4 2 0
1 3 1 
=  − + + log 2 
2 4 8 
1 5
= log 2 − 
2  8
Example 8.25: Evaluate ∫∫∫ ( x + y 2 + z 2 ) dx dy dz , where V is the volume of

2
V
cube bounded by the co-ordinates planes and the planes x = y = z =a.
Solution: Here, the limits of x, y and z are varies from 0 to a. Therefore the
given triple integral is
∫ ∫ ∫ (x + y 2 + z 2 ) dx dy dz
a a a
2
I = 0 0 0
a
a a  2 1 3
∫∫
2
=  x z + y z + 3 z  dx dy
0 0
 0
a a  2 1 3
∫∫
2
=  x a + y a + a  dx dy
0 0
 3 
a
a  2 1 3 1 3
= ∫ 0  x ay + 3 y a + 3 ya  dx
 0
a  2 2 1 4 1 4
= ∫ 0  x a + a + a  dx
 3 3 
a
1 3 2 1 4 1 4 
=  x a + a x + a x 
3 3 3 0
= a5
Solved Examples 287
Example 8.26: Evaluate the integral ∫ ∫ ∫ xyz dx dy dz over the volume

enclosed by three co-ordinates plane and the plane x +y + z = 1.
Solution. Here the region of integration over the volume can be expressed as
0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1 – x, 0 < z < 1–x – y. Therefore the required integral is
1 1− x 1− x − y
= ∫∫ ∫
0 0 0
xyz dx dy dz
1− x − y
1 1− x  z2 
= ∫∫
0 0
xy  
 2 0
dx dy
1 1 1− x
xy (1 − x − y ) dx dy
2
=
2 ∫0 ∫0
1 1 1− x 
xy (1 − x ) − 2 (1 − x ) y + y 2  dx dy
2
=
2 ∫0 ∫0  
1 1 1− x 
x y (1 − x ) − 2 (1 − x ) y 2 + y 3  dx dy
2
2 ∫0 ∫0
=  
1− x
1 1  y2 y3 y 4 
 ( ) ( ) +  dx
2
2 ∫0  2
= x 1 − x − 2 1 − x
3 4 0
1 1  (1 − x ) 2 (1 − x ) (1 − x ) 
4 4 4
2 ∫0  2
= x  − +  dx
3 4 
1 1
x (1 − x ) dx
4
=
24 ∫0
1 1 2 −1
x (1 − x ) dx
5 −1
24 ∫0
= [Using Beta formula]
1
= B ( 2,5 )
24
1 Γ ( 2 ) Γ ( 5)
= [Using Beta and Gamma relation]
24 Γ ( 2 + 5 )
1 1.4.3.2.1
= .
24 6.5.4.3.2.1
1
=
720
Example 8.27: Evaluate ∫∫∫ V

zy 2 dx dy dz , where V is the region bounded
between the xy plane and the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1.
Solution: Here the column parallel to z-axis is bounded by the plane z = 0 and
2 2
the surface of sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 i.e., z = 1 − x − y
Y
y= (1 – x2)
dx dy
S
X′ X
y=– (1 – x2)
Y′
The region S above which the volume V stands, is the area of circle of
intersection of sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 by xy plane. Hence, the region S is the
circle x2 + y2 = 1.
It is clear from the figure that limits of integration for y are – 1 − x 2 to 1 − x 2
and for x are – 1 to 1. Hence the given triple integral is
1 1− x 2 1− x 2 − y 2
I = ∫ ∫
x= − 1− x 2
−1 y = ∫
z=
0
zy 2 dx dy dz
1− x 2 − y 2
1 1− x 2 1 
∫ ∫ y  z2 
2
= dx dy
x= − 1− x 2
−1 y =
 2 0
1 1
y 2 (1 − x 2 − y 2 ) dx dy
1− x 2
=
2 ∫x =
−1 ∫ y =− 1 − x 2
1 1
2 (
y 2 − x 2 y 2 − y 4 ) dx dy
1− x 2
=
2 ∫x =
−1 ∫ y =− 1 − x
1− x 2
1 1 1 3 1 2 3 1 5
2 ∫x = −1  3
=  y − x y − y  dx
3 5 − 1− x 2
 2  2 
(1 − x 2 ) − x 2 (1 − x 2 )
3/ 2 3/ 2
1 1 3    
3
2 ∫x = −1 
=  dx
2 2 5/ 2 
 − (1 − x ) 
 5 
Solved Examples 289
1 1 2 5/ 2 
 3 (1 − x ) − 5 (1 − x )  dx
1
2 5/ 2
= ∫x = −1
 
Q (1 − x 2 )3/ 2 − x 2 (1 − x 2 )3/ 2 =−
(1 x2 ) 
5/ 2

2 1
(1 − x 2 ) dx [by property of definite integral]
5/ 2
=
15 ∫x = −1
4 1
(1 − x 2 ) dx
5/ 2
=
15 ∫0
4 p/ 2
(1 − sin 2 f ) cos f d f
5/ 2
=
15 ∫0
putting x = sin f
4 p/ 2 6
15 ∫0
= cos f d f [Using Gamma Formula]
4 5 3 1 p p
= . . . . =
15 6 4 2 2 24
Example 8.28: Evaluate ∫∫∫R

u 2 v 2 wdu dv dw where R is the region
u2 + v2 < 1, 0 < w < 1.
Solution. Here the limits of integration to cover the region R can be expressed
as
−1 ≤ u ≤ 1, − 1 − u 2 ≤ v ≤ 1 − u 2 ,0 ≤ w ≤ 1
Therefore the required triple integral is

1 1 1− u 2
I = ∫ ∫ ∫
w=
0 u= − 1− u 2
−1 v =
u 2 v 2 wdu dv dw
2  
1− u 2 1 1
∫w=0 ∫u =−1  ∫v =− 1−u2 v dv  dwdu
2
= u w
2  
1 1 1− u 2
= ∫w= 0 ∫u = −1 2 u w  ∫0 v 2 dv  dwdu
 
[Q v2 is an even function of v]
2 1 1 1− u 2
3 ∫w= 0 ∫u = −1
= u 2
w  v
 0
3
 dwdu
2 1 1
= ∫w= 0 ∫u = −1 u w (1 − u ) dwdu
2 2 3/ 2
3
Put u = sin q so that du = cos q dq,we have

2× 2 1
w  ∫ sin 2 q cos 4 q d q  dw
p/ 2
= ∫
3=w 0 =  q 0 
4 1 1 3 1 p
3 ∫w= 0 6 4 2 2
= . . . w dw
p 1
24 ∫0
= wdw
1
p  w2 
=  
24  2  0
p
= .
48
Example 8.29: Find the volume of region bounded by the cylinder

x2 + y2 = 16 and plane z = 0 to z = 3.
Solution. The limits are given from z = 0 to z = 3. Also, from the equation of
cylinder x2 + y2 = 16 we find that the limits of y are from – 16 − x 2 to +
16 − x 2 and limits of y are from – 16 to + 16 i.e., from – 4 to + 4.
Therefore the required volume is
4 16 − x 2 3
V = ∫ ∫
x=
−4 y =
− 16 − x 2 ∫ z=
0
dx dy dz
4 16 − x 2 3
= 4 ∫ ∫ ∫ dx dy dz
0 0 0
4 16 − x 2
( z )0 dx dy
3
= 4 ∫ ∫
0 0
4 16 − x 2
= 12 ∫ ∫ dx dy
0 0
4 16 − x 2
= 12 ∫0 ( y )0 dx
4
= 12 ∫ 42 − x 2 dx
0
4
1 2 2 1 2 −1  x  
= 12  x 4 − x + 4 sin   
2 2  4 0
Solved Examples 291
1 
= 12.  .16sin (1) 
−1
2 
p
= 96  
2
= 48 p.
Example 8.30: Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the plane
x y z
+ + =1 and x + y + z = a.
a b c
Solution. Here the region of integration volume V covers
the plane, given by tetrahedron, can be expressed as
0 ≤ x < a,0 ≤ y ≤ b (1 − x / a ) ,0 ≤ z ≤ c (1 − x / a − y / b ) .
The volume of the tetrahedron is

a b (1− x / a ) c (1− x / a − y / b )
∫∫
0 0 ∫
0
dz dy dx
a b (1− x / a )  x y
= ∫∫
0 0
c 1 − −  dy dx
 a b
b (1− x / a )
a x y2 
= c∫  y − .y −  dx
0
 a 2b  0
a  x x  x 1  x 
2
= c ∫ b 1 −  − b 1 −  − b 2 1 −   dx
0
  a  a  a  2b  a  
a b b b b b b 
= c ∫ b − x − x + 2 x 2 − + x − 2 x 2  dx
0
 a a a 2 a 2a 
a b b 1 b 
= c ∫  − x + . 2 x 2 dx
0 2
 a 2 a 
a
b b 2 1 b 3
= c x − x + x
2 2a 6 a 2  0
 ab ab ab 
= c − + 
2 2 6
= 1
abc.
6
Example 8.31: Evaluate ∫∫∫

R
x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz , where R is the region given by
x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1.
Solution: Here, the region is a cylinder between z = 0 to z = 1 and y take the

values from – 1 − x 2 to + 1 − x 2 and x takes from –1 to 1. Then we have,
I = ∫∫∫ R
x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dx
x=
1 1− x 2
y= z=
1
∫ ∫ ∫ x y 2 z 2 dx dy dz
2
= x= − 1− x 2
−1 y = z=
0
1
 z3  1 y
= 1− x 2
= ∫x =
−1 ∫ y =
2 2
x y   dx.dy
 3 0
2
− 1− x
1 =x 1 2 =y 1− x2 2
3 ∫x =
= x ∫ y dy dx
−1 − 1− x 2
y=
y
= 1− x 2
1 x =1 2  y 3 
= ∫x = −1 x   dx
3  3  y=
− 1− x 2
2 x =1 2
x (1 − x 2 ) dx
3/ 2
=
9 ∫x = −1
4 1 2
x (1 − x 2 ) dx
3/ 2
=
9 ∫0
Put x = sin q, then dx = cos q dq and q varies from 0 to p/2, therefore we have
4 p/ 2 2
sin q (1 − sin 2 q ) cos q d q
3/ 2
I =
9 ∫0
4 p/ 2 2
9 ∫0
= sin q.cos 4 q d q
4  1.3.1 p 
= . [Using Gamma formula]
9  6.4.2 2 
p
=
72
8.11 Mass and Centre of Gravity or Centroid 293
8.11 Mass and Centre of Gravity or Centroid

Let us consider a lamina which occupies a region R in the xy-plane. If the
density at any point (x, y) in the region R is ρ(x, y) then the total mass of the
lamina is defined as
M = ∫∫R
r dxdy
In polar co-ordinate, the total mass of the lamina is defined as
M = ∫∫R
r r drd q
The moment of the lamina about the x-axis and y-axis are denoted as Mx and
M x ∫∫ y r dxdy and =
My respectively and defined as = M y ∫∫ x r dxdy .
R R
In polar co-ordinate, we have

M x = ∫∫ r r 2 sin q drd q and M y = ∫∫R r r cos q drd q
2
R
Consider ( x , y ) be the centroid of the mass, then the co-ordinate of the

centroid ( x , y ) are
x
=
My
=
∫∫R
x r dxdy
and=
y
Mx
=
∫∫ R
y r dxdy
M ∫∫
R
r dxdy M ∫∫ R
r dxdy
x =
My
=
∫∫ R
r r 2 cos q drd q
M ∫∫
R
r r drd q
and y =
Mx
=
∫∫
R
r r 2 sin q drd q
M ∫∫ R
r r drd q
Note:
1. Mass=Volume×density.
2. If the mass density of the lamina is ρ(x, y) = 1 for all (x, y) in the
region R, then the center of mass is defined only by the shape of the
region and is called the centroid of R.
3. For a solid of volume V, if the density is ρ, then the total mass is given
by
M= ∫∫∫ V
r dxdydz
and the co-ordinate of the centroid ( x , y , z ) are
x=
∫∫∫ x r dxdydz ,
V
y=
∫∫∫ y r dxdydz
V
∫∫∫ r dxdydz
V ∫∫∫ r dxdydz
V
and z=
∫∫∫ z r dxdydz
V
∫∫∫ r dxdydz
V
Solved Examples
Example 8.32: A plane lamina is in the form of a quadrant of the ellipse
2/3 2/3
x  y
  +  = 1, in which the density at any point varies as the product of
a b
the coordinated of that point. Find the total mass.
Solution. Consider the density at any point (x, y) of the lamina is given by
r = kxy, where k is the constant. For the region, quadrant of the ellipse, x varies
x  2
from 0 to a and y varies from 0 to b 1− 2  . Thus the total mass is
 a 
M = ∫∫ R
r dxdy
= ∫∫ R
kxy dxdy
 x2 
a b 1− 2 
∫∫
 a
=   kxy dxdy
0 0
 b a
 x2
1− 2



= k ∫0  ∫0  a  y dy  x dx
 
 
 x2 
b 1− 2 
 y2  a
 a 
 
= k ∫0   x dx
 2 0
k a 2  x2 
2 ∫0  a 2 
= b 1 −  x dx
k b2
∫ ( a x − x ) dx
a
2 3
=
2 a2 0
Solved Examples 295
a
k b2  2 x2 x4 
= a − 
2 a2  2 4 0
k b2  a 4 a 4 
=  − 
2 a2  2 4 
ka 2b 2
= .
8
Example 8.33: Find the mass of a lamina in the form of the cardioids
r = a(1 + cos q) whose density at any point varies as the square of its distance
from the initial line.
Solution. Consider the distance of any point (r, q) from the initial line is
r sin q then the density at any point (r, q) of the lamina is given by
r = k(r sin q)2 = kr2 sin 2 q. For the region above the initial line, q varies from
0 to p and r varies from 0 to a(1 + cos q). Suppose the required mass is M
which is twice the mass above the initial line.
Thus the total mass is
M = 2 ∫∫R r r drd q
= 2 ∫∫R kr 2 sin 2 q r drd q

p a (1+ cos q )
= 2k ∫ ∫ r 3 sin 2 q drd q
0 0
a (1+ cos q )
 r4  p
= 2k ∫0 sin q  
2
dq
 4 0
k p 2
= ∫0 sin q ( a (1 + cos q ) ) d q
4
2
2 4
ka 4 
p q q  2 q
=
2 ∫0  2sin 2 .cos 2   2cos 2  d q
2 q 10 q
p
= 32ka ∫0 sin .cos
4
dq
2 2
Put q/2 = t so that dq = 2t dt, when q = 0, t = 0,when q = p, t = p/2 we have
p/ 2
= 32ka 4 ∫ 2sin 2 t.cos10 t . t dt
0
21
= k p a4 . [Using Gamma formula]
32
Example 8.34: Find the centre of gravity of the area in the first quadrant
bounded by the curve y = 2x – x2.
Solution. The equation of the given curve is
y = 2x – x2
or y – 1 = – 1 + 2x – x2
or y – 1 = – (x – 1)2
or (x – 1)2 = – (y – 1) … (8.6)
The equation (8.6) represents a parabola of vertex (1, 1), axis as x =1 and it is
symmetrical about x =1. Thus we have x = 1.
y =
∫∫ R
y r dxdy
=
∫∫R
y dxdy
∫∫ R
r dxdy ∫∫
R
dxdy
1 2 x − x2
and =
∫∫
0 0
y dydx
1 2 x − x2
∫∫ 0 0
dydx
2 x − x2
1  y2 
∫0
 
 2 0
dx
= 1 2 x − x2
∫ ( y) 0 0
dx
1 1
( 2 x − x 2 ) dx
2
∫
= 2 1
0
∫ ( 2 x − x ) dx
2
0
1 1
∫ ( 4 x 2 + x 4 − 4 x 3 ) dx
= 2
0
∫ ( 2 x − x ) dx
1
2
0
1
 x3 x5 4
4 + − x 
1 3 5 0
= 1
2  2 x 3
x − 
 3 0
Exercise 8 297
4 1 
+ −1
1  3 5  2
= = .
2  1 5
1 − 
 3
 2
Hence the required centre of gravity is 1,  .
 5
Exercise 8
1. Evaluate the following double integrals:
2 3y p/ 2 p
(i) ∫∫
1 0
y dx dy (ii) ∫ ∫
0 p/ 2
cos ( x + y ) dx dy
∫ ∫ (x + y 2 ) dy dx
1 x 3 2
∫∫ xy (1 + x + y ) dy dx
2
(iii) 0 x
(iv)
0 1
(a − x 2 − y 2 ) dx dy
1 1+ y 2 a a2 − y2
∫∫ 4 y dy dx ∫∫
2
(v) 0 0
(vi) 0 0
2. Evaluate ∫∫ x
2
y 3 dx dy over the circle x2 + y2 = a2.
3. Evaluate ∫∫ e dx dy over the triangle bounded by x = 0, y = 0 and

2 x +3 y
x + y = 1.
4. Show that by double integration the area between the parabola y2 = 4ax
16
and x2 = 4by is ab .
3
5. Find by double integration the area of the region bounded by the
parabola y2 = 4ax and the line y = mx.
6. Find the value of ∫∫
y dx dy , where A is the region in the first quadrant
A
x2 y 2
bounded by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
7. Find by double integration the area included between the rectangular
hyperbola 9xy = 4 and the line 2x + y = 2.
p a (1+ cos q )
8. Evaluate ∫∫ 0 0
r 2 cos q dr d q
∫∫ r d q dr over the area of the circle r = a cos q.

2
9. Evaluate
10. Find by double integration the area lying inside the cardioids
r = a cos q and outside the parabola r(1 + cos q) = 1.
11. Find by double integration the area lying inside the circle r = a sin q
and outside the cardioids r = a(1 – cos q).
12. Transform the following double integrals to polar coordinates and
hence evaluate them
(a − x 2 − y 2 ) dx dy
a a2 − y2
(i) ∫ ∫
2
0 0
( x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx (iii)
1 2 x − x2 a a2 − x2
(ii) ∫ ∫ ∫∫ y 2 x 2 + y 2 dy dx
0 x 0 0
13. Find the volume under the plane z = x + y and above the area cut from
the first quadrant of the ellipse 4x2 + 9y2 = 36.
x2 y 2 z 2
14. Find the volume in the positive octant of the ellipsoid + + = 1.
a 2 b2 c2
15. Change the order of integration in the following integrals:
1 x (2 − x )
(i) ∫∫ 0 x
f ( x, y )dy dx
a a2 − x2
(ii) ∫∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dy dx
a lx
(iii) ∫∫ 0 mx
f ( x, y )dy dx
aa 3a − x
(iv) ∫ ∫
0 x2 / 4 a
f ( x, y )dy dx
ab / a 2 + b 2 ( a / b ) b2 − y 2
(v) ∫0 ∫ 0
f ( x, y )dy dx
p/ 2 2 a cos q
(vi) ∫ ∫ 0 0
f (r , q)dr d q
a x+2a
(vii) ∫∫ 0 a2 − x2
f ( x, y )dy dx
3 4− y
(viii) ∫∫ 0 0
( x + y )dy dx
a cos a a2 − x2
(ix) ∫0 ∫ x tan α
f ( x, y )dy dx .
2a 3a − x
(x) ∫ ∫
0 x2 / 4 a
f ( x, y )dy dx .
a a− x a− x− y
16. Evaluate ∫∫ ∫0 0 0
x 2 dx dy dz.
log a x x+ y
17. Evaluate ∫ ∫∫0 0 0
e x + y + z dx dy dz.
2 x x+ y
18. Evaluate ∫ ∫ ∫ e x ( y + 2 z ) dx dy dz.
=x 0=y 0=z 0
Answers 299
a2 − r 2
p/ 2 a sin q
19. Evaluate ∫ 0
dq ∫
0
dr ∫
0
a
rdw.
20. Evaluate the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by the co-ordinate

planes and the planes x + y + z = 1.
21. Evaluate the integral ∫∫∫ xyzdx dy dz over the volume enclosed by
three co-ordinates planes and the planes x + y + z = 1.
22. Find the mass of the tetrahedron bounded by the co-ordinates planes
x y z
and the planes + + = 1, the variable density kxyz.
a b c
23. Find the centre of gravity of a lamina in the shape of a quadrant of
2/3 2/3
x  y
the curve   +  1, the density being r = kxy, where k is a
=
a b
constant.
24. Find the centre of gravity of the area of the cardioid r = a(1 + cos q).
Answers
3 3
1. (i) 7. (ii) – 2. (iii) (iv) 30 .
35 4
3 pa 4
(v) . (vi) .
4 8
1 2
2. 0. 3. (e − 1) (2e + 1) .
6
8a 2 ab 2 1 4
5. . 6. . 7. − log 2 .
3m3 3 3 9
5pa 3 4 9p + 16
8. . 9. a 3 . 10. .
8 9 12
a2
11. (4 − p) .
4
pa 4
( a 2 − r 2 ) r dr d q;
p/ 2 a
12. (i) ∫ ∫
0 0 8

p/ 2 2cos q 3p
(ii) ∫ ∫
p/ 4 0
r 3 dr d q;
8
−1
p/ 2 a pa 5
(iii) ∫ ∫ 0 0
r 4sin 2 q dr d q;
2
1
13. 10. 14. p abc
6
1 y a a2 − y2
15. (i) ∫∫0 1− 1− y
f ( x, y )dy dx (ii) ∫ ∫
0 0
f ( x, y )dx dy
am a/m al a
(iii) ∫0 ∫ y /l
f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫ ∫
am y / l
f ( x, y )dx dy
a 4 ay 3a 3a − y
(iv) ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy .
0 0 0 0
b 2 2
ab / a 2 + b 2 ab / a 2 + b 2 a   a −x
(v) ∫0 y /l ∫ f ( x, y )dy dx + ∫
ab / a + b 2 2 ∫
a
0
f ( x, y )dy dx
 r 
2 a cos −1  
(vi) ∫ ∫ 0 0
 2a  f (r , q)d q dr .
a a 2a a
(vii) ∫∫ 0 a2 − y2
f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫
a ∫ 0
f ( x, y )dx dy .
3a a
+∫ ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy
2a y −2a
2 4− x2
(viii) ∫ ∫ ( x + y )dy dx
1 0
a sin α y cot α a a2 − y2
(ix) ∫ 0 ∫0
f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫
a sin α 0 ∫ f ( x, y )dx dy
.
a 4 ay 3a 3a − y
(x) ∫∫ 0 0
f ( x, y )dx dy + ∫
0 ∫
a
f ( x, y )dx dy .
a5 1 4
16.
60
. 17.
8
( a − 6 a 2 + 8a − 3 ) .
 2  5a 3 p
18. 19 1 − e 2  . 19. .
 3  64
1 1
20. . 21. .
6 720
ka 2b 2 c 2  128a 128b 
22. . 23.  , .
720  429 429 
 5a 
24.  ,0  .
 6 
Recapitulation 301
Recapitulation
1. Double integral is an extension of the concept of a definite integral in
two dimensional spaces.
=
2. If the region A is bounded by the curves y f= 1 ( x ), y f=
2 ( x ), x a to
x = b, then the double integral of f(x, y) over the region A is given by
b f2 ( x )
f ( x, y )dy dx = ∫  ∫ f ( x, y )dy  dx
b f2 ( x )
∫∫ f ( x, y)dx dy = ∫ ∫
A a f1 ( x )  f1 ( x )
a  
where the integration with respect to y and x treated as a constant.
3. If A is a region bounded by the curves r = f1(q) to r = f2(q),
q = q1 to q = q2, then the area (choosing f(r, q) = 1) is given by
q2 f2 ( q)
=∫∫ dA A ∫ ∫q1 f1 ( q )
r dr d q
4. The volume obtained by revolution of the area between the curve

r = f(q) and the radii vectors q = q1 to q = q2 is given by
q2 f ( q)
V
= ∫ ∫ (2pr sin q) r dr d q .
q1 0
5. Suppose if the region V be indicated by the inequalities

a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d , e ≤ z ≤ f , then the triple integral
b d f
∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫ ∫ ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz
V a c e
= ∫ dx ∫ dy ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dz .
b d f
a c e
Here first we integrate with respect to z taking x and y as constant and

then the remaining integration is done in the case of double integrals.
6. Suppose if the limits of z are the function of x and y, and y as a
function x and x takes the constant limits say from x = a to x = b, then
we have
b y2 ( x ) z2 ( x , y )
∫∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz = ∫
V a
dx ∫
y1 ( x )
dy ∫
z1 ( x , y )
f ( x, y, z ) dz
.
Here we integrate with respect to z performed first regarding x and y
as constant then integrate with respect to y regarding x as a constant
and then integrate with respect to x.
7. Consider a lamina which occupies a region R in the xy-plane. If the
density at any point (x, y) in the region R is ρ(x, y) then the total mass
of the lamina is defined as M = ∫∫ r dxdy
R
8. In polar co-ordinate, the total mass of the lamina is defined as
∫∫R
M = r r drd q
9. Consider (x, y) be the centroid of the mass, then the co-ordinate of

the centroid (x, y) are

My
x =
=
∫∫R
x r dxdy
and =
y
Mx
=
∫∫R
y r dxdy
M ∫∫ R
r dxdy M ∫∫R
r dxdy

My
x =
=
∫∫R
r r 2 cos q drd q
and =
y
Mx
=
∫∫R
r r 2 sin q drd q
M ∫∫ R
r r drd q M ∫∫R
r r drd q
10. Mass = Volume×density.
11. If the mass density of the lamina is ρ(x, y)=1 for all (x, y) in the
region R, then the center of mass is defined only by the shape of the
region and is called the centroid of R.
12. For a solid of volume V, if the density is ρ, then the total mass is given
by= M ∫∫∫ r dxdydz and the co-ordinate of the centroid ( x , y , z )
V
are
x=
∫∫∫ x r dxdydz ,
V
y=
∫∫∫ y r dxdydz
V
and z =
∫∫∫ z r dxdydz
V
∫∫∫ r dxdydz
V
Exercise 8.1
1 To change the integral from Cartesian to polar, we put
(a) x = r cos q and y = r sin q
(b) x = cos q and y = sin q
(c) x = r cos q and y = sin q
(d) None of these
p/ 2 2 a cos q
2 The value of integration ∫ ∫
0 0
r sin q d q dr is:
2a 2
(a) 4a2 (b) (c) 2a2 (d) None of these.
3
Answers 303
3. If R be a region bounded by the areas y = f1(x) and y = f2(x), x = a and
∫ {∫ }
a f2
x = b, then the integral f ( x, y ) dx dy is equal to
b f1
∫ {∫ } ∫ {∫ }
a f2 a f2
(a) f ( x, y ) dy dx (b) f ( x, y ) dy dx
b f1 b f1
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

4. To transform the Cartesian coordinate into polar, when we put
x = r cos q, y = r sin q, then the value of the integral ∫∫ f ( x, y ) dx dy
is equal to
(a) ∫ f ( r , q ) rq d q dr (b) ∫∫ f ( r , q ) r d q dr
(c) ∫∫ f ( r , q ) r d q dr (d) None of these
State True or False

1. Double integral is an extension of a integral in two dimensional space.
2. The element of the area is generally denoted by dS.
3. The value of the double integration of the region bounded by the circle
x2 + y2 = a2 is p2a2.
4. If we consider the area dx dy on the plane z = 0 then volume of the
solids is ∫ ∫ zdxdy.
5. Mass = Volume × density.
Fill in the Blanks

1. To change the integral from Cartesian to polar form, we put x = r cos q,
and y = .....................................
2. The triple integral is an extension of a integral in …………………
dimensional space.
p/ 2 sin q
3. The value of the integral ∫ ∫ rd q dr is equal to ……….
0 0
4. The transformation formula required as x = r cos q, y = r sin q and the

elementary area is dA = .............................
a 2 x 2 y 3 ( 2a − y ) is given by
5. The whole area of the curve =
…………………………
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c)
State True or False

1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T
5. T
Fill in the Blanks

p
1. r sin q 2. three 3. 8.4 rdqdr

8
5. pa2
qqq
9
Introduction to
Vector Calculus
Learning Objectives

l understand the vectors; vector and scalar field
l comprehend the differentiation and integration of vectors
l explain the limit, continuity, differentiability and integrability of vector

functions
l discuss the position vector, velocity vector and acceleration vector
l understand the vector differential operators
l comprehend the scalar point function, vector point function
l discuss the Gradient, Divergence, Curl, directional derivative
l explain the Solenoidal vector and irrotational vector
l discuss the Laplacian operator and Laplace equation
9.1 Introduction
Vector calculus has a great importance in the field of mathematics, physics and
engineering such as differential geometry, partial differential equations, mul-
tiple integrals, gravitational field, electromagnetic field, fluid flow etc. Vectors
are the quantities which have both magnitude and direction. Scalar quantities
have only a magnitude. When comparing two vector quantities of the same
type, we have to compare both the magnitude and the direction. For scalars,
only we have to compare the magnitude. For any mathematical operation on
a vector quantity (like adding, subtracting, multiplying…) always consider
306 Chapter 9 Introduction to Vector Calculus
the both magnitude and direction. This makes the vector quantities a slight
more complex than scalars. Gradient measures the rate and direction of change
in a scalar field. Divergence and curl are two measurements of vector fields
that are very useful in science and engineering field.
9.2 Vector
A vector in the plane is a directed line segment. Two vectors are equal or the
same if their lengths and directions are same.
Any vector multiplied with zero is called zero vector of length 0 and zero vec-
tors have no direction.
9.3 Vector Field

A vector field F defined in a domain of the plane or space is a function whose
value at any point of the domain is a vector quantity. A field F(x, y, z) in three
dimensional vectors can be written as
F ( x, y, z ) = F1 ( x, y, z )i + F2 ( x, y, z ) j + F3 ( x, y, z )k ,
where F1 , F2 , F3 are the components of F in the directions of x, y and z axes

respectively. A vector field of two dimensional vectors can be written as
F ( x, y ) F1 ( x, y )i + F2 ( x, y )j .
=
9.4 Scalar Field

A scalar field f defined in a domain of the plane or space is a function whose
value at any point of the domain is a scalar quantity.
9.5 Limit, Continuity, Differentiability and

Integrability of Vector Functions
9.5.1 Limit
Let f (t ) = f1 (t )i + f 2 (t ) j + f3 (t )k be a vector function. We say that f has limit
l as t approaches to t0 and written as
lim f (t ) = l if lim f1 (t ), lim f 2 (t ), lim f3 (t ) exist .
t → t0 t → t0 t → t0 t → t0
9.5.2 Continuity
A vector function f(t) is continuous at a point t = t0 in its domain if
lim f (t ) = f (t0 ) .
t → t0
9.6 Position, Velocity and Acceleration Vector 307
The function f(t) is continuous in the domain if it is continuous at every point

in its domain.
9.5.3 Differentiability
The vector function f (t ) = f1 (t )i + f 2 (t ) j + f3 (t )k is differentiable at t = t0 if
f1 , f 2 and f3 are differentiable at t0.
df f (t + ∆t ) − f (t ) df1 df df
= lim = i + 2 j+ 3 k
dt ∆t →0 ∆t dt dt dt
The curve traced by f is smooth if df is continuous and never 0.

dt
9.5.4 Integrability
The vector function f (t ) = f1 (t )i + f 2 (t ) j + f3 (t )k is integrable at t = t0 if
f1 , f 2 and f3 are integrable at t0. If t is interval from a to b, then
b b b b
∫a
f (t )dt = ∫ [ f (t )dt ]i + ∫ [ f (t )dt ]j + ∫ [ f (t )dt ]k .
a
1
a
2
a
3
9.6 Position, Velocity and Acceleration Vector

If r is the position vector of a particle moving along it smooth curve in space,
then
dr
1. v (t ) = is known as the particle’s velocity vector target to the curve.
dt
2. v(t) = magnitude of v(t) is known as speed of the particle.
dv d 2r
3. a(=t) = is known as acceleration vector which is derivative
dt dt 2
of velocity.
9.7 Differentiation Rules for Vector Functions

dc
1. If c is any constant, then = 0 known as constant function rule.
dt
2. If u and v are differentiable vector functions of t, then
d du
(a) (c u ) = c (c is any number)
dt dt
d df du
(b) u)
( f= u+ f (f is any differentiable function)
dt dt dt
d du dv
(c) (u + v ) = +
dt dt dt
d du dv
(d) (u − v ) = −
dt dt dt
d du dv
(e) u . v)
(= . v + u.
dt dt dt
d du dv
(f) (u × v ) = ×v+u × .
dt dt dt
(g) If r is a differentiable function of t and t is a differentiable function
of s, then
dr dr dt .
=
ds dt ds
Note: If F is a differentiable vector function of t of constant length then

dF
F. =0.
dt
Solved Examples
Example 9.1: If r =2sin t i + 3cos t j + tk , then find
dr dr d 2r d 2r
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) .
dt dt dt 2 dt 2
Sol. We know that the i, j, k are constant vectors, so we have
di dj dk
= 0= =
dt dt dt
(i) We have r = 2 sin t i + 3 cos t j + tk
Differentiate with respect to t both sides, we get
dr
= 2cos t i + (−3sin t ) j + k
dt
dr
(ii) We have = 4cos 2 t + 9sin 2 t +=
1 5(1 + sin 2 t )
dt
d 2r
(iii) We have −2sin ti − 3cos tj.
=
dt 2
d 2r
(iv) We have 2
= 4sin 2 t + 9cos 2 t =+
4 5cos 2 t
dt
d
Example 9.2: If u = t 2 i − tj + (2t + 1)k and v= (2t − 3)i + j − tk find (u.v )
when t = 1. dt
Sol. We have u = t 2 i − tj + (2t + 1)k ...(9.1)
And v= (2t − 3)i + j − tk ...(9.2)
Solved Examples 309
Differentiate equations (9.1) and (9.2) with respect to t both sides, we get
du
= 2ti − j + 2k
dt
dv
And =2i + 0.j − k
dt
d dv du
Now (u
=.v ) u. + v.
dt dt dt
= [t 2 i − t j + (2t + 1)k ].(2i − k ) + [(2 t − 3) i + j − tk ](2t i − j + 2k )
= 2t 2 − (2t + 1) + 2t (2t − 3) − 1 − 2t
= 6 t 2 − 10t − 2
d
When t =1, (u . v ) =6(1) 2 − 10(1) − 2 =−6 .
dt
Example 9.3: If r (t )= 5t 2 i + tj − t 3k , then prove that
2 d 2r 
1


r ∫×
dt 2 
dt = −14i + 75 j − 15k .
Sol. We have
 d 2r  dr
∫  r × 2  dt =r × + c
 dt  dt
2
2 d 2r   dr 
\
∫1
r ×
 dt 
dt = r ×
 dt 
 1
dr
Let us now to find r ×
dt
dr
We have = 10ti + j − 3t 2k
dt
dr
\ r × = (5t 2 i + tj − t 3k ) × (10t i + j − 3t 2k )
dt
i j k
2
= 5t t −t 3
10t 1 −3t 2
= −2t 3i + 5t 4 j − 5t 2k
2 d 2r  2
\ ∫ 1


r × 2 
dt 
dt = −2t 3i + 5t 4 j − 5t 2k 
 1
2 2 2
=  −2t 3  i + 5t 4  j − 5t 2  k
 1  1  1
= −14i + 75 j − 15k .
2
∫ 1
(et i + t 2 j − e −2t k )dt .
2
Sol. We have
∫ 1
(et i + t 2 j − e −2t k )dt
2 2 2
= i ∫1 ∫
et dt + j t 2 dt − k
1 ∫
1
e −2t dt
2 2
2 1   1 
= i et  + j  t 3  − k  − e −2t 
1
 3 1  2 1
1 1
= (e 2 − e)i + (8 − 1) j + (e −4 − e −2 )k
3 2
7 1
= (e 2 − e)i + j + (e −4 − e −2 )k.
3 2
d 2f
Example 9.5: Find the value of f satisfying the equation 2= ta + b , where
dt
a and b are constant vectors.
d 2f
Sol. Given that = ta + b
dt 2
Integrating both sides, we get
df 1 2
= t a + tb + c , where c is constant.
dt 2
Again integrating, we get
1 3 1 2
f= t + t b + tc + d , where d is constant.
6 2
Example 9.6: Show that if a, b, c are constant vectors, then r = at2 + bt + c is
the path of a particle moving with constant acceleration.
Sol. Given that r = at2 + bt + c.
Solved Examples 311
dr
The velocity of the particle = = 2at + b
dt
d 2r
The acceleration of the particle = 2 = 2a
dt
Thus the point whose path is r = at2 + bt + c is moving with constant acceleration.
Example 9.7: A particle moves so that its position vector is given by
r = cos ω t i + sin ω t j where w is a constant. Show that (i) the velocity of the
particle is perpendicular to r, (ii) the acceleration is direct towards the origin
dr
and has magnitude proportional to the distance from the origin, (iii) r × is
dt
a constant vector.
Sol. The position vector is r = cos ω t i + sin ω t j
dr
(i) Velocity v= = −ω sin ω ti + ω cos ω tj
dt
We have r.v = −(cos ω t i + sin ω t j).(−ω sin ω t i + ω cos ω t j)
= − ω cos ωt sin ω t + ω sin ωt cos ωt
= 0.
Hence the velocity is perpendicular to r.
(ii) Acceleration of the particle
d 2r
a= 2
= −ω2 cos ω t i − ω2 sin ω t j
dt
2
= −ω (cos ω t i + sin ω t j)
= w2r
\ Acceleration is a vector opposite the direction or r.
The magnitude of acceleration

2
|a| = ω r
= w2r
Which is proportional to r.
dr
(iii) r× = (cos ωti + sin ωtj) × (−ω sin ωti + ω cos ωt ) j
dt
= ω cos 2 ωt i × j − ω sin 2 ωt j × i
= ω cos 2 ω t k + ω sin 2 ω t k
= ω(cos 2 ω t + sin 2 ω t ) k
= wk, a constant vector.

Example 9.8: The acceleration of a particle at any time t ≥ 0 is given by
dv
a == 12cos 2ti − 8sin 2tj + 16tk . If the velocity v and displacement r are
dt
zero at t = 0, find v and r at any time.
dv
Sol. Given that = 12cos 2ti − 8sin 2tj + 16tk
dt
Integrating both sides, we get
∫
v = i 12cos 2tdt + j −8sin 2tdt + k 16t dt ∫ ∫
= 6sin 2ti + 4cos 2tj + 8t 2k + c .
When t = 0, v = 0, then we have
\ 0 = 0i + 4 j + 0k + c or c =
−4 j
dr
\ v = = 6sin 2ti + (4cos 2t − 4) j + 8t 2k
dt
Integrating, we get
∫ ∫ ∫
2
r = i 6sin 2tdt + j (4cos 2t − 4)dt + k 8t dt
8 3
= −3cos 2ti + (2sin 2t − 4t ) j + t k + d .
3
When t = 0, r = 0, then we have
\ 0 = −3i + 0 j + 0k + d \ d = 3i
8
r = −3cos 2ti + (2sin 2t − 4t ) j + t 3k + 3i
3
8
= (3 − 3cos 2t )i + (2sin 2t − 4t ) j + t 3k .
3
Solved Examples 313
Example 9.9: A particle moves on the curve x = 2t2, y = t2 – 4t, z = 3t – 5 where

t is the time. Find the components of velocity and acceleration at time t = 1 in
the direction i − 3 j + 2k .
Sol. The position vector
r = xi + yj + zk
r = 2t 2 i + (t 2 − 4t ) j + (3t − 5)k
dr
The velocity v = = 4ti + (2t − 4) j + 3k
dt
At t = 1, v = 4i − 2 j + 3k
d 2r
The acceleration a = = 4i + 2 j
dt 2
At t = 1, a= 4i + 2 j
The unit vector in the given direction i − 3 j + 2k ,
i − 3 j + 2k i − 3 j + 2k
=nˆ =
i − 3 j + 2k 14
The component of velocity in the direction i − 3 j + 2k ,
i − 3j + 2k 2.
v.nˆ = (4i − 2 j + 3k ). = 8
14 7
The component of acceleration in the direction i − 3 j + 2k ,
i − 3 j + 2k 2 .
a.nˆ =
(4i + 2 j). =
−
14 14
Example 9.10: The position vector of a particle at time t is

=r cos(t − 1)i + sinh(t − 1) j + α t 3k . Find the condition imposed on a by
requiring that at time t=1, the acceleration is normal to the position vector.
Sol. Give that r = cos(t − 1)i + sinh(t − 1) j + αt 3k
dr 2
and = − sin(t − 1)i + cosh(t − 1) j + 3αt k
dt
d 2r
Acceleration = =− cos(t − 1)i + sinh(t − 1) j + 6αtk
dt 2
d 2r
At t = 1, r = i + αk and =−i + 6αk
dt 2
If r and acceleration are normal, then their scalar product is zero.
(−i + 6αk ). (i + αk ) = 0
or −1 + 6α 2 = 0
1
or a2 =
6
1
or a =± .
6
Example 9.11: Find the tangential and normal components of velocity and
accelerations vectors of a particle moving in xy-plane.
Sol. Let the particle moves along the curve y = f(x) starting from a fixed point
Po and reaches the point P(x, y) at time t.
Let the position vector of point P(x, y) be
r = xi + yj
where x and y are functions of arc length s measures from Po.
The velocity vector v is
dr
v =
dt
dr ds
=
ds dt
ds
= T +0N
dt
where T is unit vector along the tangent at P.
y
v
N
T
)
y = f(x
r P(x, y)
x
O
P0
Solved Examples 315
ds
Thus the tangent component of velocity is and normal component of
dt
velocity is zero.
dv
Further a =
dt
d 2s ds dT
= 2
T+
dt dt dt
d 2s ds dT ds
= 2
T+
dt dt ds dt
2
d 2s  ds  dT
= 2
T + 
dt  dt  ds
2
d 2s N  ds 
= 2
T+  
dt r  dt 
 dT N 
 = , N is unit normal vector 
 ds r 
d 2s
Thus the tangent component of acceleration is and normal component of
2 dt 2
1  ds 
acceleration is   .
r  dt 
Example 9.12: Find the radial and transverse components of velocity and
accelerations of a particle moving in a plane curve.
Sol. Let the position vector of point P(r, θ) be
r = rur , {r= r , u = cos q i + sin q j}
r
where ur is the unit vector along the radius vector OP.

y
r = f(q)
Uq
Ur
q
r P(r, q)
q
x
O
The velocity vector v is

dr du
v = ur + r r
dt dt
dr du d q
= ur + r r
dt d q dt
dr dq  dur 
= ur + r uq Q = uq 
dt dt  dq 
Where uq is unit vector perpendicular to the radius vector.
dr
Thus the radial component of velocity is and transverse component of
dt
dq
velocity is r .
dt
dv
Further a=
dt
d 2r dr dur dr d q d 2q d q du q

= u
2 r
+ + u q + r 2
uq + r
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
d 2r dr dur d q dr d q d 2q d q du q d q
= 2
u r + + u q + r 2
uq + r
dt dt d q dt dt dt dt dt d q dt
2
d 2r dr d q dr d q d 2q  dq 
= 2
u r + u q + u q + r 2
u q + r   (−ur )
dt dt dt dt dt dt  dt 
 du q 
 = −ur 
 d q 
 d 2r  dq  
2
 dr d q d 2q 
=  2 − r    r  u + 2 + r  uq
 dt  dt    dt dt dt 2 
2 2
Thus the radial component of acceleration is d r − r  d q  and normal
dt 2  dt 
2
dr d q d q
component of acceleration is 2 +r 2 .
dt dt dt
Note: 1. ur= cos q i + sin q j
dur p  p 
2. u=
q = sin q i + cos q=
j cos  + q  i + sin  + q  j
dq 2  2 
du q d
3. = ( − sin q i + cos q j) =− cos q i − sin q j =– ur
dq dq
9.8 Partial Derivatives of Vectors 317
9.8 Partial Derivatives of Vectors

Let f = f1 ( x, y, z )i + f 2 ( x, y, z ) j + f 3 ( x, y, z )k be a vector function of three
independent variables x, y, z. The first order partial derivative of f with respect
∂f
to x is denoted by or fx and is defined as
∂x
∂f ∂f1 ∂f ∂f
= i + 2 j+ 3 k
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Similarly the first order partial derivatives of f with respect to y and z
respectively are
∂f ∂f1 ∂f ∂f
= i + 2 j+ 3 k
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂f ∂f1 ∂f ∂f
and = i + 2 j+ 3 k .
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
9.9 THE OPERATORS ∇
The vector differential operator denoted as ∇, called del operator, is defined as
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ i
= + j +k .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Note that it is not a vector quantity. However when it operates on some scalar
function, the result obtained is a vector function.
9.10 Scalar and Vector Point Function

A function f(x, y, z) is said to be scalar point function if it associates a scalar
quantity with every point in space.
A function F(x, y, z) is said to be vector point function if it associates a vector
quantity with every point in space.
9.11 Gradient of a Scalar Point Function

Let f(x, y, z) be a continuously differential scalar point function, then the
gradient of f(x, y, z) is denoted as grad f (or ∇f) and is defined as
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad f =∇f = i + j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
The gradient of a scalar field is a vector field.
9.12 Some Important Results Related to Gradient

1. If f and g are two scalar point functions, then grad (f + g) = grad
f + grad g or ∇( f + g ) = ∇f + ∇g .
Proof. We have

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇( f + g ) =  i + j + k  ( f + g )
grad ( f + g ) =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= ( f + g )i + ( f + g ) j + ( f + g )k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g ∂f ∂g
= i+ i+ j+ j+ k + k
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
 ∂f ∂f ∂f   ∂g ∂g ∂g 
=  i + j+ k + i + j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
2. If f and g are scalar point functions, then grad(fg)=f(grad g)+g(grad f)

or ∇( fg ) = f ∇g + g ∇f .
3. If f is a scalar point function, then f is constant if and only if ∇f =0.
4. If f and g are scalar point functions and g ≠ 0 for all point in the region
R, then
∇  f  = g ∇f − f ∇g .
g g2
9.13 Level Surfaces

Suppose f(x, y, z) is a single valued, continuous scalar point function which
is defined in a region R of space. The set of point (x, y, z) of region R, where
w= f(x, y, z) assumes the same value say c, then f(x, y, z) = c are called level
surfaces. Similarly if z = f(x, y) or single valued (x, y) in the xy-plane, where
z = f(x, y) is constant say z = f(x, y) = c, then f(x, y) = c is a level curve on the
surface z = f(x, y).
Example: Consider z=x2+y2, then {(x, y): x2+y2 =1} is a level curve on the
surface x2+y2=z lying in the plane z=1 which is a circle x2+y2=1, z=1.
Note: ∇φ is a vector normal to the surface φ(x, y, z) = c, where c is arbitrary
constant.
9.14 Directional Derivatives 319
9.14 Directional Derivatives
Suppose f(x, y, z) define a scalar field in a region R and let A be any point in
this region. Suppose B is a point in this region in the neighborhood of A in the
direction of a given unit vector â . Then lim f ( B ) − f ( A) , if it exist, is called
B→ A AB
the directional derivative of f at P in the direction of â .
Let coordinates of A and B be (x, y, z) and ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) respectively.
Let us considers denote the distance of A from some fixed point in the direction
of â . Let AB = δs and δf = f ( x + d x, y + d y, z + d z ) − f ( x, y=
, z ) f ( B ) − f ( A) .
Thus the directional derivative of B at A in the direction of is given by
f ( B ) − f ( A) df df
lim = lim = .
B→ A AB dx → 0 ds ds
Note.
1. The directional derivative of a scalar field f at a point A (x, y, z) in the
df
direction of a unit vector â is given by = ∇f . â
ds
2. Let n̂ be a unit vector normal to the level surface f(x, y, z) = c at a
point A (x, y, z) and n be the distance of A from some fixed point P in
the direction of n̂ , then ∇f =df . n̂
dn
3. The maximum value of the directional derivative of f is | ∇f | and it is in
the direction of ∇f.
9.15 Tangent Plane and Normal to a Level Surface

Let f(x, y, z) = c be the equation of a level surface and r = xi + yj + zk be the
position vector of any point P(x, y, z) on this surface.
Now let r0 = x0 i + y0 j + z0k be the position vector of the given point of contact
P(x0, y0, z0). Then r – r0 is a vector parallel to tangent plane and |∇f | is normal
to the tangent plane. Then the equation of tangent line at P is
(r − r0 ). (∇f ) =
0
And the equation of normal line at P is

(r − r0 ) × (∇f ) =0
In Cartesian form the equation of normal line at P is
x0 − x y0 − y z0 − z
= =
∂f ∂f ∂f .
∂x ∂y ∂z
And that of tangent plane at P is

∂f ∂f ∂f
0.
( x − x0 ) + ( y − y0 ) + ( z − z0 ) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
9.16 Divergence of a Vector Point Function

Let f (x, y, z) = f1i + f 2 j + f3k , be a differentiable vector point function. Then
divergence of f is denoted as div f or ∇.f and is given as
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇.f =  i + j + k  .( f1i + f 2 j + f3k )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂f1 ∂f 2 ∂f3
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
9.17 Solenoidal Vector

A vector f is said to be Solenoidal vector if div f or ∇. f = 0.
9.18 Curl of a Vector Point Function

Let f = f1i + f 2 j + f3k be a differentiable vector point function, then the curl
of f is
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Curl f = ∇ × f =
∂x ∂y ∂z
f1 f 2 f3
 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
=  3 − 2  i −  3 − 1  j +  2 − 1  k
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
9.19 Irrotational Vector
A vector f is said to be irrotational vector if curl f or ∇ × f = 0.
9.20 Laplacian Operator and Laplace Equation

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 .
∇ i
We know that = + j +k ⇒ ∇=
2
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
If f is a scalar point function, then
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇2 f = + + is a scalar quantity.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Solved Examples 321
The equation ∇2f = 0 is called the Laplace’s equation. A function which satisfies
the Laplace’s equation is called the harmonic function.
Solved Examples
Example 9.13: If f ( x, y=
, z ) 2 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 , then find grad f at the point ( 1, – 2, – 1 ).
, z) 2 x2 y − y3 z 2
Sol. Given that f ( x, y=
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
f  i + j + k  (2 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 )
We have grad f = ∇=
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 )i + (2 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 ) j + (2 x 2 y − y 3 z 2 )k
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 2 2 3
= 4 xyi + (2 x − 3 y z ) j + (−2 y z )k
At (1, – 2, – 1),
grad f = [4(1)(−2)]i + [2(1) 2 − 3(−2) 2 (−1) 2 ]j + [−2(−2)3 (−1)]k
= −8i − 10 j − 16k
Example 9.14: Find the directional derivative of 4 xz 3 − 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 at the point
(2, –1, 2) along z-axis.
Sol. Given that f(x, y, z) = 4 xz 3 − 3 x 2 y 2 z 2
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ (4 xz 3 − 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 ) ∂ (4 xz 3 − 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 ) ∂ (4 xz 3 − 3 x 2 y 2 z 2 )
= i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= i (4 z 3 − 6 xy 2 z 2 ) + j(−6 x 2 yz 2 ) + k (12 xz 2 − 6 x 2 y 2 z )
At (2, –1, 2), ∇f = i (32 − 48) + j (96) + k (96 − 48)
= –16i + 96 j + 48k
The unit vector along z-axis is k. thus the required directional derivative in
z- direction is
∇f · k = −(16i + 96 j + 48k ).k
= 48.
1
Example 9.15: Find the directional derivative of in the direction of r.
r
1 1
Sol. Given that f = = ...(9.3)
r x + y2 + z2
2
Differentiate equation (9.3) with respect to x, y and z respectively, we get

∂f 1 2x x x
= − 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 3
∂x 2 (x + y + z ) (x + y + z ) r
∂f 1 2y y y
= − 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 3
∂y 2 (x + y + z ) (x + y + z ) r
∂f 1 2z z z
and = − 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 2 2 2 3/2
=
− 3
∂z 2 (x + y + z ) (x + y + z ) r
We know that r = xi + yj + zk and

∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
x y z
= −i 3
− j 3 −k 3
r r r
1
= − ( xi + yj + zk )
r3
r
= −
r3
1
The directional derivative of in the direction of r
r
r r
∇f . rˆ = − 3 .
r r
r2
= −
r4

(Q r.r = r )2
= − 1 .
r2
, z ) x 2 yz + 4 xz 2 at
Example 9.16: Find the directional derivative of f ( x, y=
the point (1, –2, –1) in the direction of the vector 2i – j – 2k.
, z ) x 2 yz + 4 xz 2
Sol. Given that f ( x, y=
Solved Examples 323
2 2 2
\ grad f = (2 xyz + 4 z )i + x zj + ( x y + 8 xz )k
At (1, –2, –1), grad f = 8i – j – 10k
If n̂ be the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i – j – 2k, then
2i − j − 2k 2 1 2
n̂ = = i − j− k
4 +1+ 4 3 3 3
Thus the required directional derivative is
df
= grad f . n̂
ds
2 1 2 
= (8i − j − 10k ).  i − j − k 
3 3 3 
16 1 20
= + +
3 3 3
37
=
3
Example 9.17: Find the values of the constants a, b, c so that the directional
2 2 3
derivative of f ( x, y, z ) = axy + byz + cz x at (1, 2, -1) has a maximum
magnitude 64 in the direction parallel to z- axis.
Sol. Given that f (x, y, z) = axy 2 + byz + cz 2 x3 ...(9.4)
\ grad f = (ay 2 + 3cz 2 x 2 )i + (2axy + bz ) j + (by + 2czx3 )k
...(9.5)
At (1, 2, –1), grad f = (4a + 3c)i + (4a − b) j + (2b − 2c)k
The directional derivative of f is maximum in the direction of grad
f = (4a + 3c)i + (4a − b) j + (2b − 2c)k . The maximum value of this directional
derivative in the direction parallel to z-axis, i.e., the coefficient of i and j in
grad f should be zero and coefficient of k will be positive. Thus we have
4a + 3c = 0 ...(9.6)
4a – b = 0 ...(9.7)
2b – 2c > 0 ⇒ b > c
and grad f = 2(b – c).
But given grad f = 64
⇒ b - c = 32 ...(9.8)
a = 6, b = 24 and c = –8.
Example 9.18: In what direction from the point (1, 1, –1) is the directional
derivative of f ( x, y, z ) =x 2 − 2 y 2 + 4 z 2 is maximum? Also find the value of
this maximum directional derivative.
Sol. Given that f(x, y, z) = x 2 − 2 y 2 + 4 z 2
grad f = 2 xi − 4 yj + 8 zk

At (1, 1, -1), grad f = 2i − 4 j − 8k

The directional derivative of f is maximum in the direction of grad
f = 2i − 4 j − 8k . The maximum value of this directional derivative
| grad f | = 2i − 4 j − 8k = 4 + 16 + 64 = 2 21 .
Example 9.19: Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve
x = t2 + 1, y = 4t – 3, z = 2t2 – 6t, where t is any variable. Also determine the
unit tangent vector at the point t = 2.
Sol. We know that the position vector of any point of the curve is
r = xi + yj + zk
Given that x = t2 + 1, y = 4t – 3, z = 2t2 – 6t, then
r = (t 2 + 1)i + (4t − 3) j + (2t 2 − 6t )k
The tangent vector
dr
n = = 2ti + 4 j + (4t − 6)k
dt
The unit tangent vector
n 2ti + 4 j + (4t − 6)k
n̂ = =
n 4t 2 + 16 + (4t − 6) 2
The unit tangent vector at the point t = 2 is
4i + 4 j + 2k
n̂ =
16 + 16 + 4
4i + 4 j + 2k
=
6
2i + 2 j + k
= .
3
Solved Examples 325
Example 9.20: Find the equations of the tangent plane to the surface xyz = 4
at the point (1, 2, 2).
Sol. Let the equation of the surface is f ( x, y, z )= xyz − 4= 0
\ grad f = yzi + xzj + xtk
At (1, 2, 2), grad f = 4i + 2 j + 2k
\ 4i + 2 j + 2k is a vector along the normal to the surface at the point (1, 2, 2).
The position vector of the point (1, 2, 2) is
r = i + 2 j + 2k
If r1 = x1i + y1 j + z1k is the position vector of any current point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on
the tangent plane at (1, 2, 2). The equation of the tangent plane is
(r1 − r ) . grad f = 0
i.e. {(x1i + y1 j + z1k ) − (i + 2 j + 2k )}.(4i + 2 j + 2k ) =

0
i.e. 4(x1 − 1) + 2( y1 − 2) + 2( z1 − 2) =
0
i.e. 4x1 + 2 y1 + 2 z1 =
12
i.e. 2x1 + y1 + z1 =
6.
2 3
Example 9.21: Find the angle between the tangent to the curve r = t i + 2tj − t k
at the points t = ± 1.
Sol. Given that r = t 2 i + 2tj − t 3k
The tangent vector along any point t is
dr
= 2ti + 2 j − 3t 2k
dt
If n1 and n2 are the vectors along the tangents at t = 1 and t = –1 respectively,
then we have
n1 = 2i + 2 j − 3k
and n2 =−2i + 2 j − 3k
If θ is the angle between n1 and n2, then we have
n1. n 2 n1 n 2 cos q
=
or 2(−2) + 2(2) + (−3)(−3) = 4 + 4 + 9 4 + 4 + 9 cos q
9
or q =cos −1 .
17
2 2 2
Example 9.22: Find the angle between the surface x + y + z =9 and
z = x 2 + y 2 − 3 at the point (2, – 1, 2).
Sol. Let f1 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 – 9 and f 2 = x 2 + y 2 − z − 3
Then grad f1 = 2 xi + 2 yj + 2 zk
And grad f 2 = 2 xi + 2 yj − k
Let n1 = grad f1 at the point (2, –1, 2). Then
n1 = 4i – 2j+4k
and n2 = grad f2 at the point (2, –1, 2). Then
n2 = 4i – 2j – k.
The vector n1 and n2 are along normal to the surface at the point (2, –1, 2). The
angle between two surfaces at a point is the angle between the normal to the
surfaces at that point. If q is the angle between these vectors, then
n1 · n2 = n1 n 2 cos q

or 16 + 4 – 4 = 16 + 4 + 16 16 + 4 + 1 cos q
16
cos q =
6 21
−1 8
or q = cos .
3 21
2 3
Example 9.23: Find a and b so that the surfaces f= 4 x y + z − 4 and
f ax 2 − byz − (a + 2) x may be orthogonal at P(1, –1, 2).
=
Sol. Given that f = 4 x2 y + z3 − 4
and f = ax 2 − byz − (a + 2) x
Since point is common to both surfaces, it must be satisfying both curves. Thus
f(1, − 1, 2) = a (1) 2 − b(−1)(2) − (a + 2)(1) =
0
a + 2b – a – 2 = 0
or
or b = 1
Now ∇f = {2ax − (a + 2)} i − bzj − byk
And ∇f = 8 xyi + 4 x 2 j + 3 z 2k
At point P(1, –1, 2), ∇f = (a − 2)i − 2bj + bk
Solved Examples 327
At point P(1, –1, 2), ∇f = –8i + 4 j + 12k

The necessary condition of orthoganality of two surfaces f and φ at point P is
∇f.∇f = 0
i.e., [ (a − 2)i − 2bj + bk ].( − 8i + 4 j + 12k ) = 0
or −8(a − 2) + 4(–2b) + 12b) = 0
5
a=
2
5
Hence for a = and b=1, the surface φ is orthogonal to the surface f at point
2
P(1, –1, 2).
Example 9.24: Find a unit vector normal to the surface x2 + 3y2 + 2z2 = 6 at
P(2, 0, 1).
Sol. Let f = x 2 + 3 y 2 + 2 z 2 =
6.
 ∂ ∂ ∂  2 2 2
∇f is normal vector i.e., ∇f =  i + j + k  ( x + 3 y + 2 z − 6)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= 2 xi + 6 yj + 4 zk
Normal vector at (2, 0, 1) is 4i + 4k.
4i + 4k
Unit vector at (2, 0, 1) =
16 + 16
1
= (i + k ) .
2
Example 9.25: Evaluate divergence f, where f = 2 x 2 zi − xy 2 zj + 3 y 2 xk .
Sol. Given that f = 2 x 2 zi − xy 2 zj + 3 y 2 xk

We have div f = ∇·f
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  i + j + k  .(2 x 2 zi − xy 2 zj + 3 y 2 xk )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= (2 x 2 z ) + (− xy 2 z ) + (3 y 2 x)
∂x ∂y ∂z
= 4 xz − 2 xyz + 0
= 2 xz (2 − y ) .
Example 9.26. If f is a differentiable vector function and g is a differentiable

scalar function, then
div( gf ) ( grad g ). f + g div f
=
or ∇.( gf ) =∇
( g ). f + g (∇. f ).
Sol. We have div ( gf ) = ∇.( gf )
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  i + j + k  .( gf )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂ ∂ ∂
= ( gf ).i + ( gf ).j + ( gf ).k
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂   ∂g ∂f  
= ∑  =
∂x
( gf ).i  ∑ 
  ∂x
f + g  .i 
∂x  
 ∂    ∂f  
= ∑  ∂x f  .i  + ∑  g ∂x  .i 
 ∂g     ∂f  
= ∑  ∂x i  . f  + ∑  g  ∂x .i 
{Q a= ma ).b m(a.b)}
.(mb) (=
 ∂g   ∂f 
= 

∑ ∂x i  . f + g ∑  ∂x .i 
= ( ∇g ) . f + g ( ∇. f ) .
Example 9.27: If F = x 2 yi + xzj + 2 yzk , verify that div curl F = 0.
Sol. Given that F = x 2 yi + xzj + 2 yzk
j k i
∂ ∂ ∂
\ curl F = ∂x
∂y ∂z
x y xz 2 yz
2
∂ ∂  ∂ ∂  ∂ ∂ 
=  (2 yz ) − ( xz )  i −  (2 yz ) − ( x 2 y )  j +  ( xz ) − ( x 2 y )  k
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
= (2 z − x)i − 0 j + ( z − x 2 )k = (2 z − x)i + ( z − x 2 )k
Solved Examples 329
F = div (2 z − x)i + ( z − x )k 

2
Now div curl
∂ ∂
= (2 z − x) + ( z − x 2 )
∂x ∂z
= –1 + 1
= 0.
Example 9.28: Prove that curl of the gradient of f is zero.
i.e. =∇ × ( ∇f ) 0,=
i.e., curl grad f 0 .
Sol. We know that
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad f = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
Curl grad f = ∇ × grad f
 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂f ∂f ∂f 
=  i + j + k  ×  i + j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z 
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂y ∂z
∂x
∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂2 f ∂2 f   ∂2 f ∂2 f   ∂2 f ∂2 f 
=  − i +  − j+ − k
 ∂y∂z ∂z∂y   ∂z∂x ∂x∂z   ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 
= 0i + 0 j + 0k
= 0.
Example 9.29: Prove that curl r = 0.
Sol. We know that curl r = ∇ × r.
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
=  i + j + k  × r
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂r ∂r ∂r
= ×i + × j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
We have r = xi + yj + zk
∂r ∂r ∂r
= i,= j=
, k
∂x ∂y ∂z
\ curl r = i × i + j × j + k × k
= 0 + 0 + 0
= 0.
Example 9.30: Prove that ∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇(∇. A) − ∇ 2 A .
Sol. Let A = A1i + A2 j + A3k
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Then ∇×A =
∂x ∂y ∂z
A1 A2 A3
 ∂A ∂A   ∂A ∂A   ∂A ∂A 
=  3 − 2  i +  1 − 3  j +  2 − 1  k
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
\ ∇ × (∇ × A) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1 ∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1
− − −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
  ∂  ∂A2 ∂A1  ∂  ∂A1 ∂A3  

= ∑  ∂y  ∂x − −
∂y  ∂z  ∂z
− i
∂x   

  ∂ 2 A ∂ 2 A3   ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1   
= ∑  ∂y∂x + ∂z∂x  −  ∂y
2
2
+  i 
∂z 2   

  ∂  ∂A ∂A   ∂ 2 A ∂ 2 A   
= ∑    2 + 3  −  21 + 21   i 
  ∂x  ∂y ∂z   ∂y ∂z   
  ∂  ∂A ∂A ∂A   ∂ 2 A ∂ 2 A ∂ 2 A   
∑    1 + 2 + 3  −  21 + 21 + 21   i 
  ∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂y ∂z   
=
Solved Examples 331
 ∂  
= ∑  ∂x (∇.A) − (∇ 2
A1 )  i 
 
 ∂  
= ∑  ∂x (∇.A) i  − ∇ ∑ A i
2
1
= ∇(∇. A) − ∇ 2 A .
Example 9.31: If P and Q are irrotational, prove that P × Q is Solenoidal.

Sol. If P and Q are irrotational, then
curl P = 0, curl Q = 0
Now we have div(P × Q) = Q. curl P – P. curl Q
= Q.0 − P. 0
= 0.
Since, div (P × Q) is zero, thus P × Q is Solenoidal.
r 
Example 9.32: Prove that div  3  = 0.
r 
r  −3
Sol. We have div  3  = div (r r )
r
 
= r −3 div r + r. grad r −3
−3  −4 1 
= 3r + r.  −3r r  {div r = 3}
 r 
= 3r −3 − 3r −5 (r.r )
= 3r −3 − 3r −5 (r 2 )
= 3r3 – 3r3
= 0.
i.e., the vector r −3r is Solenoidal.
2
Example 9.33: Prove that ∇ 2 f (r ) = f ′′(r ) + f ′(r )
r
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Sol. We know that ∇2 = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 
∇ f(r) =  2 + + 2  f (r )
 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇2f(r) = f ( r ) + f ( r ) + f (r ) ...(9.9)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
We know that
∂ ∂r x
f (r ) = f ′(r ) = f ′(r )
∂x ∂x r
∂2 ∂  f ′(r ) 
And 2
f (r ) =  .x 
∂x ∂x  r 
f ′(r ) r f ′′(r ) − f ′(r ).1 ∂r
= .1 + x. .
r r2 ∂x
f ′(r ) r f ′′(r ) − f ′(r ).1 x
= + x. .
r r2 r
f ′(r ) r f ′′(r ) − f ′(r ).1 x 2

= + . 2
r r r
f ′(r ) x 2 f ′(r ).
= + f ′′(r ) 2 − 3 x 2
r r r
Similarly, we get
∂2 f ′(r ) y 2 f ′(r ). 2
f ( r ) = + f ′′( r ) − 3 y
∂y 2 r r2 r
∂2 f ′(r ) z 2 f ′(r ). 2
and f (r ) = + f ′′( r ) − 3 z
∂z 2 r r2 r
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
Putting these above values of 2 f (r ), 2 f (r ), 2 f (r ) in equation (9.9),
∂x ∂y ∂z
we get
f ′(r ) x 2 f ′(r ) f ′(r ) y 2 f ′(r ) f ′(r )

∇2f(r) = + f ′′(r ) 2 − 3 x 2 + + f ′′(r ) 2 − 3 y 2 +
r r r r r r r
2
z f ′(r )
+ f ′′(r ) 2 − 3 z 2
r r
f ′(r ) f ′′(r ) 2 f ′(r )
= 3 + 2 ( x + y 2 + z 2 ) − 3 ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 )
r r r
Solved Examples 333
f ′(r ) f ′′(r ) 2 f ′(r ) 2

= 3 + 2 r − 3 r
r r r
f ′(r ) f ′(r )
= 3 + f ′′(r ) −
r r
f ′(r )
= 2 + f ′′(r )
r
1 1
that ∇ 2   0 or div
Example 9.34: Prove = =

 grad  0 .
r  r
1  1
Sol. We have ∇2   = ∇ .  ∇ 
r  r
 1
= div  grad 
 r
 1 
= div  − 2 grad r 
 r 
 1 1 
= div  − 2 r 
 r r 
 1 
= div  − 3 r 
 r 
 1  1
=  − 3  div r + r. grad  − 3 
 r   r 
3 d  1 
= – 3
+ r.   − 3  grad r 
r  dr  r  
3  3 1 
= – 3
+ r.  4 r 
r r r 
3 3
= − + (r. r )
r3 r5
3 3 2
= − + r
r3 r5
= 0.
Example 9.35: Prove that ∇.  r∇  1   =3 .

3 4
  r  r
1
Sol. We have ∇  3  = grad r −3
r 
∂ −3 ∂ ∂
= (r )i + (r −3 )j + (r −3 )k ...(9.10)
∂x ∂y ∂z
We know that the position vector r = xi + yj + zk
⇒ r 2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
∂r ∂r x
⇒ =2r x or
2=
∂x ∂x r
∂ −3 x
Thus −3r −4 =
(r ) = −3r −5 x
∂x r
∂ −3 y
−3r −4 =
(r ) = −3r −5 y
∂y r
∂ −3 z
−3r −4 =
(r ) = −3r −5 z
∂z r
Putting these values in given equation (9.10), we have
1
Thus ∇ 3  =−3 r −5 ( xi + yj + zk )
r 
1
Now we have r∇  3  =−3 r −4 ( xi + yj + zk )
r 
  1  ∂ ∂ ∂
∇.  r∇  3   = ( −3 r −4 x) + ( −3 r −4 x) + ( −3 r −4 x)
  r   ∂x ∂y ∂z
 ∂r   ∂r   ∂r 
= 12 r −5 x − 3r −4  + 12 r −5 y − 3r −4  + 12 r −5 z − 3r −4 
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
= 12 r −6 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 9r −4
= 12 r −6 r 2 − 9r −4
= 3r −4
Solved Examples 335
Example 9.36: If f = (x + 2 y + az )i + (bx − 3 y − z )j + (4 x + cy + 2 z )k , find

a, b, c so that f is irrotational. Also find its scalar potential.
Sol. We have f = (x + 2 y + az )i + (bx − 3 y − z )j + (4 x + cy + 2 z )k ,
F is irrotational if ∇ × f = 0
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
or =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
x + 2 y + az bx − 3 y − z 4 x + cy + 2 z
or (c + 1)i + (a − 4)j + (b − 2)k =

0
Comparing the coefficient, we have
c + 1 = 0, a – 4 = 0, b – 2 = 0
or c = –1, a = 4, b = 2
Hence f =(x + 2 y + 4 z )i + (2 x − 3 y − z )j + (4 x − y + 2 z )k
Let φ be the scalar potential of f, then
∂f ∂f ∂f
f = ∇f
= i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (x + 2 y + 4 z )i + (2 x − 3 y − z )j + (4 x − y + 2 z )k
Comparing the coefficients both sides, we get
∂f
=x + 2 y + 4 z
∂x
∂f
= 2x − 3y − z
∂y
∂f
= 4x − y − 2z
∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Now df = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
= (x + 2 y + 4 z )dx + (2 x − 3 y − z )dy + (4 x − y + 2 z )dz
= xdx − 3 ydy + 2 zdz + 2( ydx + xdy ) + 4(zdx + xdz ) − (zdy + ydz )
 x2  3
= d   + d  − y 2  + d ( z 2 ) + d (2 xy ) + d( 4 xz ) − d(yz )
 2   2 
Integrating both sides, we have

x2 3 2
f = − y + z 2 + 2 xy + 4 xz − yz + c .
2 2
Exercise 9
1. If r = sin ti + cos tj + tk , find
dr dr d 2r d 2r
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
dt dt dt 2 dt 2
dr d 2r
2. If r = (t + 1)i + (t 2 + t + 1) j + (t 3 + t 2 + t + 1)k. Find and 2 .
dt dt
dr d 2r dr d 2r d 3r
3. If r = a cos ti + a sin tj + at tan αk then find × 2 and , , .
dt dt dt dt 2 dt 3
4. Find the unit vector along the sum of the vectors

i + j – 3k , i − j + 3k and 2i + j – 2k

d d
5t 2 i − cos t j, B =
5. If A = t i + sin t j . Find (i) ( A.B) (ii) ( A × B) .
dt dt
B sin ti − cos tj ,find
6. If A= 5t 2 i + tj − t 3k and=
d d d
(i ) ( A.B) (ii ) ( A × B) (iii ) ( A.A)
dt dt dt
7. Prove the following:
d  db da  d 2b d 2a
(i) a. − .b = a. − .b
dt  dt dt  dt 2 dt 2
d  db da  d 2b d 2a
(ii) a × − × b =a × − ×b .
dt  dt dt 
 dt 2 dt 2
8. The acceleration of a particle at any time t is et i + e 2t j + k , find v,

given that v = i + j at t = 0.
9. A particle moves along the curve= x 4cos
= t , y 4sin
= t , z 6t .Find
p
=
the velocity and acceleration at time t 0= and t . Find also the
2
magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at any time t.
Exercise 9 337
−t
=
10. A particle moves along the curve x e= , y 2cos3
= t , z 2sin 3t , where
t is the time. Determine its velocity and acceleration vectors and also
the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration at t = 0.
11. If=r a e nt + b e − nt , where a, b are constant vectors, show that
d 2r
0.
− n2 r =
dt 2
ct d 2r 2c
12. If =
r a sin ω t + b cos ω t + 2
sin ω t , prove that 2
+ ω2=
r cos ω t
ω dt ω
, where a, b, c, are constants vectors and w is a constant scalar.
13. If f (t ) =(t − t 2 )i + 2t 3 j − 3k , find
2
(i) ∫ f (t )dt (ii)
∫1
f (t )dt
1
∫
14. If f (t ) =ti + (t 2 − 2t ) j + (3t 2 + 3t 3 )k ,find f (t )dt .
0
15. a= sin q i + cos q j + q k , b= cos q i − sin q j − 3k and

d
c = 2i + 3j – 3k, find {a × (b × c)} at q = p / 2 .
dq
1 dr
16. If r = t 3i +  2t 3 − 2  j, show that r × = k .
 5t  dt
 2i − j + 2k , when t =2
17. Given that r (t ) =  , show that
4i − 2 j + 3k , when t =
3
3  dr 
.
2 ∫
 r. dt = 10
dt 
dr
18. If r = cos nt i + sin nt j, where n is a constant, show that r × nk .
=
dt
19. If a is a constant vector, prove that ∇. ( a × v ) = −a.(∇ × v ) .
20. If v1 and v2 are the vectors joining the fixed points (x1, y1, z1) and
(x2, y2, z2) respectively to a variable point (x, y, z), prove that
(i) div(v1 × v2) = 0 (ii) grad (v1.v2) = v1+ v2
(iii) curl(v1 × v2) = 2(v1– v2)
21. If r = |r|, where r = xi + yj + zk prove that

1
∇f(r) = f ′(r)∇r
(i) (ii) ∇r = r
r
1 r
(iii) ∇f (r ) × r =0 (iv) ∇   =
− 3
r r
r
(v) ∇ log r = (vi) ∇r n =
nr n − 2r
r2
22. (i) f1 ( x, y, z ) = xy 2 z and f 2 = xzi − xyj + yz 2k , show that
∂3
( f1 f 2 ) at (2, –1, ) is 4i + 2j.
∂x 2 ∂z
(ii) If A = x 2 yzi − 2 xz 3 j + xz 2k , B = 2 zi + yj − x 2k . then find the

∂2
value of ( A × B) at (1, 0, − 2) .
∂x∂y
23. Find a unit normal vector to the level surface x 2 y + 2 xz =
4 at the
point (2, – 2, 3).
24. If f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y + y 2 x + z 2 , find Df at the point (1, 1, 1).
25. In what direction from (3, 1, –2) is the directional derivative of
f = x 2 y 2 z 4 maximum? Find also the magnitude of this maximum.
26. Find the equation of the tangent plane and normal to the surface
7 at the point (1, –1, 2).
2 xz 2 − 3 xy − 4 x =
27. Find the directional derivative of the function f = x 2 − y 2 + 2 z 2 at the
point P (1, 2, 3) in the direction of the line PQ where Q is the point
(5, 0, 4).
28. A vector field is given by f = ( x 2 + xy 2 )i + ( y 2 + x 2 y )j . Show that the
field f is irrotational and find the scalar potential.
29. A field is given by f =( y + z )i + ( z + x)j + ( x + y )k is this irrotational? If
so, find its velocity potential.
30. If a is a constant vector, find
(i) div (r × a) (ii) curl (r × a)
2
31. If f == x yi − 2 xzj + 2 yzk , find
(i) curl f (ii) div f (i) curl curl f
f e xyz (i + j + k ) , find curl f.

32. If=
2
+ y 2 + z 2 )1/2
f ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )e − ( x
33. Find ∇f and |∇f| when = .
34. Prove that div r = 3.
Answers 339
35. Prove that div (A × B) = B . curl A × A . curl B.

36. If f ( x, y, z )= (2 x 2 y − x 4 )i + (e xy − y sin x) j + x 2 cos yk , verify that
∂ 2f ∂ 2f .
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
37. Prove that curl (A × B) = (B.∇)A – B div A – (A.∇) B + A div B.
38. Prove that div curl A = 0 i.e., ∇.(∇ × A) = 0.
39. Prove that curl (A + B) = curl A + curl B.
40. Show that the vector =
f (sin y + z )i + ( x cos y − z ) j + ( x − y )k
is irrotational.
Answers
1. (i) cos ti – sin tj + k (ii) 2 (iii) –sin ti – cos tj (iv) 1.
2. i + (2t + 1) j + (3t 2 + 2t + 1)k , 2 j + (6t + 2)k.
3. a 2 sec α, a 3 tan α
4. 4i + j + 4k .
33
5. (i) 15t2 – cos 2t (ii) [9tsint + (5t2 + 1) cost] k
6. (i) (5t 2 − 1) cos t + 11t sin t
(ii) t 2 (t sin t − 3cos t )i − t 2 (t cos t + 2sin t ) j − (11t cos t − 5 t 2 sin t + sin t )k
(iii) 100t 3 + 2t + 6t 5
1
8. v = et i + (e 2t + 1) j + t k
2
9. 2 13,4, v =4 j + 6k, a =−4i, v =−4i + 6k , a =−4 j.
10. 37, 325 .
 t 2 t3  t4 5 15
13. (i)  −  i + j − 3tk + c (ii) − i + j − 3k
2 3 2 6 2

1 2 7
14. i − j+ k .
2 3 4
3
15.  4 + p  i + 15 j + 9k .
 2 
22. (ii) −4i − 8j
23. − 1 i + 2 j + 2 k .
3 3 3
24. 3i + 3j + 2k
25. 96(i + 3j − 3k ), 96 19 .
26. 7( x1 − 1) − 3( y1 + 1) + 8( z1 − = x −1 y +1 z − 2 .
2) 0, 1 = 1 = 1
7 −3 8
27. 4 21 .
3
x3 y 3 1 2 2
28. =
f + + (x y ) + C
3 3 2
29. f= xy + yz + zx + C
30. (i) 0 (ii) –2a.
31. (i) (2 x + 2 z )i + ( x 2 − 2 z )k (ii) 2y (x +1) (iii) – (2x – 2)j
32. e xyz [( xz − xy )i + ( xy − yz ) j + ( yz − xz )k ].
33. ( 2 − r ) re− r .
Recapitulation
1. Any vector multiplied with zero is called zero vector of length 0 and
zero vectors have no direction.
2. If r is the position vector of a particle moving along it smooth curve
dr
in space, then v (t ) = is known as the particle’s velocity vector
dt
dv d 2r
target to the curve and a(= t) = is known as acceleration
dt dt 2
vector which is derivative of velocity.
Exercise 9.1 341
3. The vector differential operator called as del operator and is defined

as= ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ i + j +k .
∂x ∂y ∂z
4. A function f(x, y, z) is said to be scalar point function if it associates
a scalar quantity with every point in space.
5. A function F(x, y, z) is said to be vector point function if it associates
a vector quantity with every point in space.
6. The gradient of f(x, y, z) is denoted as grad f (or ∇f) and is defined as
∂f ∂f ∂f
grad f =∇f = i + j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
7. The directional derivative of a scalar field f at a point A (x, y, z) in the
df
direction of a unit vector â is given by = ∇f . â
ds
8. The equation of tangent line at any point is (r − r0 ). (∇f ) = 0.
9. The divergence of f is denoted as div f or ∇·f and is given as
 ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇·f =  i + j + k  .( f1i + f 2 j + f3k ) = 1 + 2 + 3 .
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z
10. A vector f is said to be Solenoidal vector if div f or ∇.f =0.
11. If f = f1i + f 2 j + f3k is a differentiable vector point function, then the
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl of f is Curl f = ∇ × f = ∂x ∂y ∂z
f1 f 2 f3
 ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f   ∂f ∂f 
=  3 − 2  i −  3 − 1  j +  2 − 1  k
 ∂y ∂z   ∂x ∂z   ∂x ∂y 
12. A vector f is said to be irrotational vector if curl f or ∇ × f = 0 .
The equation ∇2f = 0 is called the Laplace’s equation.
Exercise 9.1
1. The vector equation r ( t ) = a cos t i + b sin t j + 0 k represents
(a) circle (b) cube
(c) parabola (d) None of these
( )( )
2. The value of the lim t i + t 2 j − 2t 3 k . t 2 i + t j + k equals to
t →3
(a) 1 (b) 0
3. The acceleration of a particle whose path is r ( t )= 2at 2 + bt + c

where a, b, c are constant at any time is
(a) 0 (b) 4at
(c) 4a (d) None of these
 dr d 2 r 
∫
4. The expression  2 . 2  dt is equals to
 dt dt 
dr
(a) +c (b) 0
dt
2
(c)  dr  + c (d) None of these.
 dt 
5. The unit normal vector to the surface f = 0 is equals to
(a) ∇f (b) |∇f |
∇f
(c) (d) None of these.
∇f
6. The notation ∇f is used for
(a) grad f (b) div f
(c) curl f (d) None of these
7. The value of div r is equal to
(a) 0 (b) 1
8. If F is irrotational vector, then
(a) grad f = 0 (b) div F = 0
(c) curl F = 0 (d) None of these
State True or False

1. f ( x, y, z ) = x + y + z − 3 xyz is a vector function.
2. The derivative of a constant vector is equal to zero vector.

Answers 343
d 2r
3. represent the velocity vector.
dt 2
4. d  r=dr  d 2 r dr dr
.  r. 2 + . .
dt  dt  dt dt dt
5. The integration of a vector function is the reverse process of the
differentiation of that vector function.
6. The gradient of a scalar is a scalar.
7. The curl of a vector is again a vector.
8. The divergence of a constant vector is a zero scalar.
Fill in the Blanks

dr
1. The vector r(t) has constant magnitude if and only if r. is equal to
……………….. dt
d 2r
2. If r ( t ) = a cos t i + b sin t j + 0 k , then equals to ………
dt 2
 d 2r 
3. ∫  r × 2  dt =
 dt 
...........................
d  dr d 2r 
4. The expression  r, ,  is equals to ……………….
dt  dt dt 2 
5. curl r = ………
6. The divergence of a vector is a ……………….
7. If ∇·F = 0, then F is ……………….
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c)
4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (c)
State True or False

1. F 2. T 3. F
4. T 5. T 6. F
7. T 8. F
Fill in the Blanks

1. 0 2. a2 + b2
dr  3

3. r × + c 4.  r, dr , d r 
dt  dt dt 
3
5. 0 6. scalar
7. Solenoidal
qqq
10
Applications of Vector
Calculus
Learning Objectives

l understand the line integrals
l comprehend the Surface integral
l explain the volume integral
l discuss the Green theorem
l understand the Gauss theorem
l explain the Stoke theorem
10.1 Introduction
In mathematics, Green’s theorem provides the relationship between a line
integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the
plane region R bounded by C. Gauss’s theorem permits an integral taken
over a volume to be replaced by one taken over the surface bounding that
volume, and vice versa. Stokes’ law permits an integral taken around a
closed curve to be replaced by one taken over any surface bounded by that
curve. In vector calculus, the divergence theorem, also known as Gauss’s
theorem. The divergence theorem is an important result for the mathematics
of physics and engineering, in particular in electrostatics and fluid dynamics.
This chapter delivers the techniques for answering these questions which arise
in several areas, such as electromagnetism, fluid flow, thermodynamics, and
gravity. These techniques will apply more generally, to a general vector field.
346 Chapter 10 Applications of Vector Calculus
10.2 Some basic terminologies

(i) Regular arc: A curve C represented in rectangular Cartesian
Coordinates by the equation, r = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k is a vector equation
of C, with t as parameter. Further if a ≤ t ≤ b, then it is called an arc of
the curve C, where r is the position vector of any point P on the curve
C.
(ii) Smooth Curve: Let r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k be the position vector of a
point P(x, y, z) in three dimensional space. Suppose r(t) is continuously
differentiable for all values of t under consideration, then such type
of a curve is called a smooth curve. A curve is said to the piecewise
smooth if it is made up of a finite number of smooth curves.
(iii) Simple Closed Curve: A closed curve which does not intersect itself
anywhere is known as simple closed curve.
(iv) Simple Connected Region and Multi-connected Region: A region
in which any closed curve lying entirely within the region can be
contracted continuously to a point of the region without any portion of
the curve going out of the region is called the simple connected region.
Otherwise the region is called the multi-connected region.
10.3 Line Integral

Let F(t) be a vector function and r be the position vector of a point on the curve
C, then the integral ∫ F.dr is called the line integral of F along the curve C. In
C
fact any integral which is to be evaluated along a curve is called a line integral.
Let r(t) = xi + yj + zk
and F = F1i + F2j + F3k
then dr = dxi + dyj + dzk
we have ∫C
F.dr = ∫ ( F i + F j + F k ) . ( dxi + dyj + dzk )
C 1 2 3
= ∫ ( F dx + F dy + F dz )
C 1 2 3
If the curve C is given by the parametric equations

=x x=
(t ), y y=
(t ), z z (t ), then
t2  dx dy dz 
∫C
F.dr = ∫t1  F1 (t ) dt + F2 (t ) dt + F3 (t ) dt  dt
 
Where t1 and t2 are the values of t at two point of the curve between which,
the line integral is to be evaluated. Thus to evaluate a line integral we have to
consider the parametric equation of the curve, which convert the integral into
10.4 Surface Integral 347
an ordinary integral. Also, if F represents the force acting on a particle moving

B
along the arc AB, then the total work done by the force F is W = ∫A F. dr.
Note: If ∫ F.dr = 0 , the F is called irrotational force field. The integral ∫ F. dr
C
is called circulation.
10.4 Surface Integral
Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface S is called a surface
integral. Let F be the vector function and S be the given surface, then the
surface integral of F over S is
∫∫ F.ndS
S
or ∫ F.ndS
S
where n is unit outward normal vector to the surface S.

The Cartesian form of the surface integral of F over the surface S is
∫∫ ( F dydz + F dzdx + F dxdy ),

S 1 2 3 where F = F1i + F2 j + F3k
The parametric form of the surface integral is

 ∂ ( y, z ) ∂ ( z, x ) ∂ ( x, y ) 
∫∫  ∂ ( u, v ) ∂ ( u, v ) ∂ ( u, v )  du dv
 F1 + F2 + F3
 
when x = f1(u, v), y = f2 (u, v), z = f3(u, v)
∂y ∂y
∂ ( y, z ) ∂u ∂v
and = , similarly.
( u, v ) ∂z ∂z
∂u ∂v
10.5 Flux
The normal surface integral of continuous vector point function F over a closed
surface S i.e., ∫∫ F. dS is called the flux of F across the surface S.
S
Note: If ∫∫ F.n dS = 0 , then F is called solenoid vector point function

S
10.6 Volume Integral
Let V be the volume enclosed by a closed surface S and D is the enclosed
region by S, then the integral ∫∫∫ dV is called the volume integral and the total
V
volume V of the enclosed region is V = ∫∫∫ dV .
D
Solved Examples
Example 10.1: Find the work done in moving a particle in a force field
F = 3 x 2 i + (2 xz − y ) j + zk along the line joining (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3).
Sol. Given that F = 3 x 2 i + (2 xz − y ) j + zk
Let C be the straight line joining (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3). Then we have
x−0 y−0 z−0
= = = t ( say )
2−0 1− 0 3 − 0
i.e., x = 2t, y = t, z =3t.
Now we have r = xi + yj + zk
= 2ti + tj + 3tk
dr
\ = 2i + j + 3k
dt
Also along the given curve C, is
2
F = 3(2t ) i + {2(2t )(3t ) − t}j + 3tk
At the point (0, 0, 0), we have t = 0
At the point (2, 1, 3), we have t = 1
 dr 
\ ∫C
F. dr = ∫
C  F.  dt
 dt 
1
= ∫ 0
3(2t ) 2 i + {2(2t )(3t ) − t}j + 3tk  . [2i + j + 3k ]dt
1
= ∫ 0
3(2t ) 2 2 + {2(2t )(3t ) − t} + 3t (3)  dt
1
= ∫ 0
 24t 2 + 12t 2 − t + 9t  dt
1
= ∫ 0
36t 2 + 8t  dt
1 1
 t3   t2 
=  36  +  8 
 3 0  2 0
= 12 + 4 = 16
Example 10.2: Evaluate ∫ F.dr where, F =( x 2 − y 2 ) i + xyj and curve C is the
C
arc of the curve y = x3 from (0, 0) to (2, 8).
Sol. The given curve y = x3 from (0, 0) to (2, 8).
Solved Examples 349
We take x = t, then y = t3.

We have r = xi + yi = ti +t3j
dr
= i + 3t 2 j
dt
F = (x2 – y2) i +xyj
= (t2– t6) i + t4j
At the point (0, 0), t = 0 and at the point (2, 8), t = 2. Thus we have
 dr 
\ ∫
C
F. dr = ∫C  F.  dt
 dt 
∫ ( t − t 6 ) i + t 4 j . ( i + 3t 2 j) dt
2
2
= 0
∫ ( t − t 6 ) + 3t 6  dt
2
2
=
0
2
= ∫0
t 2 + 2t 6  dt
2
 t 3 2t 7  824
=  +  = .
3 7 0 21
Example 10.3. Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field
given by F = 3xyi – 5zj + 10xk along the curve x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2, z = t3 from
t = 1 to t = 2.
Sol. Given that F = 3xyi – 5zj + 10xk
Along any curve C is
x = t2 + 1, y = 2t2, z = t3 from t = 1 to t = 2
∫
C
F. dr = ∫ ( 3xyi − 5 zj +10 xk ) . ( dxi + dyj + dzk )
C
= ∫ ( 3xy dx − 5 z dy +10 xdz )

C
2  dx dy dz 
= ∫1  3 xy
 dt
− 5z
dt
+10 x  dt
dt 
3 ( t + 1) ( 2t ) ( 2t ) − ( 5t 3 ) ( 4t ) +10 ( t 2 + 1) ( 3t 2 )  dt
2
∫
2 2
= 1
∫ (12t +12t 3 − 20t 4 + 30t 4 + 30t 2 ) dt

2
= 5
1
∫ (12t +10t 4 +12t 3 + 30t 2 ) dt

1
5
=
2
2
=  2t 6 + 2t 5 + 3t 4 +10t 3 
1
= ( ) ( ) 3( 24 −1) +10 ( 23 − 1)
6 5
2 2 − 1 + 2 2 − 1 +
= 2(63) + 2(31) + 3(15) +10(7)
= 126 + 62 + 45 + 70 = 303
Example 10.4: ∫C F. dr where F= cos y i – x sin y j and C is curve y = 1 − x 2

in the xy-plane from (1, 0) to (0, 1).
Sol. We know that in xy-plane z = 0
We have r = xi + yj
and dr = dxi + dyj
Then we have
∫C
F. dr = ∫ ( cos yi − x sin y j) .( dxi + dyj)
C
= ∫ ( cos y dx −
C
x sin y dy )
= ∫ d ( x cos y )
C
( 0,1)
= [ x cos y ](1,0)
= – 1
Example 10.5: If F = yzi + zxj – xyk find ∫
C
F. dr , where C is given by x = t,
y = t2, z = t3 from A(0, 0, 0) to B (2, 4, 8).
Sol. Given that F = yzi +zxj – xyk
Along any curve C is
x = t, y = t2, z = t3.
Then we have r = xi + yj + zk
= ti + t2j + t3k
dr
\ = i + 2tj + 3t2k
dt
Also along the given curve C, is
F = (t2. t3)i + (t3 .t)j – (t. t2) k
= t5i + t4j – t3k
At the point A (0, 0, 0), we have t = 0
Solved Examples 351
At the point B(2, 4, 8), we have t = 2
 dr 
\ ∫C
F. dr = ∫C  F.  dt
 dt 
∫ ( t i + t j − t 3k ) . ( i + 2tj + 3t 2k ) dt 
2
5 4
= 0
t 5 + 2t 5 − 3t 5 ) dt
2
= ∫0
2
= ∫0
0.dt = 0
Example 10.6: Evaluate ∫C F. dr where F = zi + xj + yk and C is the arc of the

curve r=cost i+sint j+tk from t = 0 to t = 2π.
Sol. The given curve is
r = cos t i + sin t j + t k .... (10.1)
We know that r = xi + yj +z k
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t .... (10.2)
dr
= – sint i + cost j + k
dt
 dr 
\ ∫C F. dr = ∫C  F. dt  dt
= ∫ ( zi + xj + yk ) . [ − sin ti + cos t j + k ] dt
C
= ∫ ( − z sin t + x cos t + y ) dt
C
∫ ( −t sin t + cos t + sin t ) dt

2p
2
=
0
{Using equation (10.2)}
2p 1 2p 2p
= ∫0
t sin t dt +
2 ∫ (1 + cos 2t )dt + ∫
0 0
sin t dt
2p
1 sin 2t 
= − [ −t cos t + sin t ]0 + [ − cos t ]0
2p 2p
+ t + 
2 2 0
1
= − [ −2p + 0 + 0 − 0] + [ 2p + 0 − 0 − 0] + [ −1+1]
2
= 3p
Example 10.7: Evaluate ∫C F. dr where F = (x2 + y2)i – 2xj curve C is the

rectangular in the xy-plane bounded by y = 0, x = a, y = b, x = 0.
Sol. We know that in the xy-plane z = 0. Thus r = xi + yj and dr = dxi + dyj.
Then we have
∫ ∫ ( x + y 2 ) i − 2 xj. ( dxi + dyj)

2
F. dr =
C C
∫ ( x + y 2 ) dx − 2 xy dy 
2
= C
…(10.3)
R (0, b) Q (a, b)
x
O (0, 0) P (a, 0)
On OP, y = 0, dy = 0 and x = 0 to x = a
On PQ, x = a, dx = 0 and y = 0 to y = b
On QR, y = b, dy = 0 and x = a to x = 0
On RO, x = 0, dx = 0 and y = b to y = 0
By equation (10.3), we have
∫ (x + b 2 ) dx +
a b 0 0
∫ ∫ x 2 dx − ∫ 2ay dy + ∫
2
\ F. dr = 0. dy
C 0 0 a b
a b
 x3   y2   x3 
=   − 2a   +  + b 2 x  0a + 0
 3 0  2 0  3 
= – 2ab2.
C
F. dr where F = xyi + yzj + zxk, C is the arc of the
curve r = a cosq i + a sinq j + aq k from q = 0 to p/2.
Sol. Given that r = a cosq i + a sinq j + aq k

Here x = a cosq, y= a sinq, z= aq …(10.4)
dr
Then
dq
= ( −a sin q ) i + a cos q j + a k
\ ∫C
F. dr = ∫ ( xyi + yzj + zxk ) . ( −a sin q ) i + ( a cos q ) j + ak  d q
C
= ∫ ( −axy sin q + ayz cos q + azx ) d q

C
Solved Examples 353
( −a cos q sin 2 q + a 3 q sin q cos q + a 3q cos q ) d q

p/ 2
∫
3
= 0
Putting values of x, y, z from equation (10.4), we get

p/ 2 1 3 p/ 2 p/ 2
= − a ∫0 sin q cos q d q + a ∫0 q sin 2q d q + a ∫0 q cos q d q
3 2 3
 3  1 3  p / 2 1 3  cos 2q  p / 2 1 p / 2 
2 ∫0
 − a  sin q  + a  −q  − cos 2 q d q 
=  3 0 2  2 0 

=  
+ a 3 ( q sin q )0 − ∫ sin q d q 
p/ 2
 p/ 2

  0  
1 3 1 3 p 1  1  
p/ 2
3 p p/ 2 
= − a + a  +  sin 2q   + a  + ( cos q )0 
3 2  4 2  2 0  2 
1 3 1 3 p 3 p 
= − a + a   + a  − 1
3 2 4 2 
3 1 p p 
= a  − + + − 1
 3 8 2 
3 5 4
= a  p −  .
8 3
Example 10.9. If F = yi – xj, evaluate ∫C

F. dr from (0, 0) to (1, 1) along the
following paths C:
(a) the parabola y = x2
(b) the straight lines from (0, 0) to (1, 0) and then to (1, 1)
(c) the straight line joining (0, 0) to (1,1).
Sol. We have y
P (1, 1)
∫C
F. dr = ∫ ( yi − xj) ( dxi + dyj)
C
= ∫ ( ydx − xdy )
C
…(10.5)
C3
(a) Given that C1 is the arc of parabola
y = x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1)
C1

Then dy= 2xdx and x = 0 to x = 1.
O C2 Q (1, 0) x
1
∫  x 2 dx − x ( 2 x dx ) 
∫
C
F. dr = 0
1
= ∫0
(− x 2 ) dx
1
= − .
3
(b) Given that C2 is the curve consisting of straight lines OQ and QP.
Along OQ, y = 0, dy = 0 and x = 0 to x = 1
QP, x = 1, dx = 0 and y = 0 to y = 1
1 1
∫
C
F. dr = ∫0
0 dx + ∫ ( −1) dy
0
= –1
(c) Given that C3 is the straight line OP. The equation of OP is
1− 0
y–0= ( x − 0 ) i.e., y =
x
1− 0
Then dy = dx and x = 0 to x = 1

1
∫
C
F. dr = ∫ ( x dx − x dx )
0
= 0
Example 10.10: Evaluate ∫∫ F. n dS , where F = yzi + zxj + xyk and S is the
S
part of the surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1, which lies in the first octant.
Solution. A vector normal to the surface S is given by

∇( x2 + y2 + z2) = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk
Therefore n = a unit normal to any point S y
2 xi + 2 y j + 2 z k
=
4 x2 + 4 y 2 + 4 z 2
= xi + yj + zk
Now we have A
o x
dxdy
∫∫ F.n dS
S
= ∫∫ A
F.n
| n.k |
where A is the projection of S on the xy-plane.
Solved Examples 355
The region A is bounded by x-axis, y-axis and the circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0

F. n = (yzi +zxj + xyk) . (xi + yj + zk) = 3xyz
and n.k = (xi + yj + zk).k
= z
|n.k| = z
3 xyz
Thus ∫∫ F.n dS
S
= ∫∫ A
F.n
z
dxdy = 3∫∫ xy dx dy
A
p/ 2 1
= ∫ ∫ ( r cos q ) ( r sin q ) r dr d q
0 0
(To change in the polar form)

1
p/ 2  r 
4
= ∫0   cos q sin q d q
3
 4 0
3 p/ 2
= ∫0 sin q cos q d q
4
3 p/ 2
= ∫0 sin 2q d q
8
p/ 2
3  cos 2q 
= −
8  2  0
3  1 1
=− + +
8  2 2 
3
= .
8
Example 10.11: Evaluate ∫∫ F.n dS where F = 2yi + 2xj – zk and S is the

S
surface of the plane 2x + y = 6 in the first octants cut off by the plane z = 4.
Sol. A vector normal to the surface S is given by

∇( 2x + y – 6) = 2i + j
So n = a unit normal vector at any point S
2i + j
=
4 +1
1
= ( 2i + j )
5
dxdz
∫∫S F.n dS = ∫∫S F.n | n.j |
where A is the projection of S on the xz-plane
 2 1 
Now F.n = ( yi + 2 xj − zk ) .  i+ j
 5 5 
2 2
= y+ x
5 5
1 1
and n.j = ( 2i + j) . j =.
5 5
\ The required surface integral is
 2 2 
= ∫∫ 
A
5
y+ x  . 5 dx dz
5 
= ∫∫ 2 ( y + x ) dxdz
A
= 2 ∫∫ [ 6 − 2 x + x ] dx dz , where y =−
6 2x
A
3 4
= 2 ∫
0 ∫ ( 6 − x ) dxdz
0
3 4
= 2 ∫
=x 0=z 0 ∫ ( 6 − x ) dx dz
3
( 6 − x ) [ z ]0
4
= 2 ∫ dx
0
= 8 6 x − x 
2
 2 0
9
= 8 18 −  = 108.
 2
In this question we cannot take the projection in the xy-plane because the
surface S is perpendicular to xy-plane.
Example 10.12: Show that F = (2xy + z3)i + x2j + 3z2xk is a conservative field.
Find its scalar potential and also the work done in moving a particle from
(1, –2, 1) to (3, 1, 4).
Sol. Given that F = (2xy + z3)i + x2j + 3z2xk
For conservative field ∇ × F = 0
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
2 xy + z 3 x2 3z 2 x
Solved Examples 357
2 2
= (0 − 0)i + (3z − 3z )j + (2 x − 2 x)k
= 0
Suppose F = ∇f, then we have
∂f ∂f ∂f
(2 xy + z 3 )i + x 2 j + 3 z 2 xk = i+ j+ k ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
where f is scalar potential of F.
Comparing the coefficient we have
∂f
= 2xy + z3
∂x
∂f
= x2
∂y
∂f
= 3z2x
∂z
∂f ∂f ∂f
Now df = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
3 2 2
= (2 xy + z )dx + ( x )dy + (3 z x)dz
2 3 2
= (2 xydx + x dy ) + (z dx + 3z xdz )
= d ( x 2 y ) + d ( xz 3 )
Integrating both sides, we have
f = x2y + z3
(3, 1, 4)
The work done W = ∫
(1, − 2, 1)
F. dr
(3, 1, 4)
= ∫
(1, − 2, 1)
df
= f(3,1, 4) − f(1, − 2,1)
2 3 3
= 3 + 3(4) − 1(−2) − (1)
= 202
Example 10.13: Evaluate ∫∫∫V

f dV where f = 2x + y, V is the closed region
bounded by the cylinder z = 4 – x2 and the planes x = 0, y = 0, y = 2 and z = 0.
Sol. Given that f = 2x + y
Also it is given that the region of the cylinder z = 4 – x2 and the planes x = 0,
y = 0, y = 2 and z = 0. Thus we have
2 2 4− x2
∫∫∫V
f dV =
=
∫ ∫ ∫
y 0=x 0 =z 0
(2 x + y ) dz dx dy
2 2
4− x2
=
=y 0=
∫ ∫ [ 2 xz + yz ]0
x 0
dx dy
2 2
=
=y 0=
∫ ∫
x 0
 2 x(4 − x 2 ) + y (4 − x 2 )  dx dy
2 2
=
=y 0=
∫ ∫
x 0
8 x − 2 x 3 + 4 y − yx 2  dx dy
2 2
 x2 x4 x3 
= ∫
y =0
8
 2
− 2
4
+ 4 yx − y  dy
3 0
2
 8 
= ∫
y =0
16 − 8 + 8 y − 3 y  dy
 
2
2
 16   16 y 2 
= ∫
y =0


8 + y
3 
dy = 

8 y +
3 2 0

 32  80
= 16 +  = .
 3 3
10.7 Green’s Theorem in a Plane

Let R be a closed bounded region in the xy-plane by a simple closed curve C
and if M (x, y) and N(x, y) are continuous functions having continuous partial
derivative in R, then
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy ) = ∫∫
C R

 ∂x
−  dx dy
∂y 
y
y = f2(x)
D
d
A C
R
y = f1(x)
c
B
x
a b
10.8 Green’s Theorem in the Plane in the Vector Form 359
Proof: Let the equation of the curve ABC be y = f1(x) and equation of the curve
CDA be y = f2(x). We have
 ∂M  b f2 ( x )  ∂M 
∫∫ R
  dx . dy =
 ∂y 
∫ ∫
=x a=y f1 ( x )
  dy dx
 ∂y 
b f2 ( x )
= ∫  M ( x, y )  y = f x dx
x=a 1( )
 M { x, f 2 ( x )} − M { x, f1 ( x )}  dx
b
= ∫x=a
M { x, f 2 ( x )} dx − ∫ M { x, f1 ( x )} dx
b b
= − ∫
x=a a
= −  ∫ M { x, f 2 ( x )} dx + ∫ M { x, f1 ( x )} dx 
a b
 b a 
= − ∫ M ( x, y ) dx
C
= − ∫ Mdx ... (10.6)

C
∂N
Similarly, ∫∫
R∂x
dx dy = ∫ N dy
C
…(10.7)
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy ) = ∫∫  −  dx dy
 ∂x ∂y 
C R
10.8 Green’s Theorem in the Plane in the Vector

Form
We have
∫ C
F. dr =
∫∫ ( ∇× F ) .k dR
C
where F = Mi + Nj
and r = xi + yj, k is a unit vector along the z-axis
and dR = dx dy.
10.9 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem

If F be a continuously differentiable vector point function in a region V and S
is closed surface enclosing the region V, then
∫∫∫
V
∇. F dV = ∫∫ F.n dS
S
…(10.8)
where n is the outwards drawn unit normal vector to surface.
Proof: Suppose F = F1i + F2j + F3k. Then we have

div F = ∇ . F
∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
= + +
∂x xy ∂z
 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 
∫∫∫ V

 ∂x
+
∂y
+  dx dy dz =
∂z  ∫∫ ( F i + F j + F k ) .n dS
S 1 2 3 …(10.9)
To prove equation (10.9), first we find

∂F3
∫∫∫ ∂z dx dy dz
V
S2
z = g(x, y)
y
z = f(x, y)
o
x
We have
∂F3  z = g ( x, y) ∂F3 
∫∫∫V ∂z
dx dy dz = ∫∫  ∫
R z = f ( x, y) ∂z 
dx dy
g ( x, y)
= ∫∫  F3 ( x, y, z )  f x , y dx dy
R ( )
= ∫∫  F3 ( x, y, g ) − F3 ( x, y, f )  dx dy …(10.10)
R
for the portion S2,

we have dx dy = dS2 cosb = n2.k dS2
And for the portion S1,
we have dx dy = – cosα.dS1 = n1. k dS1
10.10 Cartesian Form of Gauss’s Divergence Theorem 361
then ∫∫ F ( x y, g ) dx dy
R 3 = ∫∫ S2
F3 n 2 . k dS 2
and ∫∫ F ( x y, f ) dx dy
R 3 = − ∫∫S1 F3 n1 . k dS1
Putting above these values in equation (10.10), we have

∂F3
∫∫∫
V ∂z
dV = ∫∫s2
F3 . n 2 . k dS 2 + ∫∫ F3 . n1 . k dS1
S1
= ∫∫S
F3 n . k dS …(10.11)
Similarly by projecting S on the other coordinates planes, we get
∂F2
∂y ∫∫∫
dV = ∫∫ F2n . j dS
V S
…(10.12)
∂F
∫∫∫V ∂x1 dV = ∫∫S F1n . i dS …(10.13)
Adding equations (10.11), (10.12) and (10.13), we have

 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 
∫∫∫
 ∂z + ∂z + ∂z  dV =
 V

∫∫ ( F i + F j + F k ) .n dS
S 1 2 3
= ∫∫ F .ndS .
S
∫∫∫
V ∫∫ F .ndS
∇.F dV =
S
10.10 Cartesian Form of Gauss’s Divergence

Theorem
Suppose α, b, γ are the angles which outward drawn unit normal n makes with
positive direction of x, y, z-axis, then cos α, cos ß, cos γ cosines of n and we
have
n = cosαi +cosβj + cosγk
\ F.n = (F1i + F2j + F3k) . (cos α i + cosb j + cosγ k)
= F1cosα + F2cosb + F3cosγ
Putting these values in equation (10.9) of above artical (10.9), we get

 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 
∫∫∫
V
 + +
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 dx dy dz = ∫∫ ( F cos α + F cos b + F cos γ ) dS
S 1 2 3
= ∫∫ ( F dy dz + F dz dx + F dx dy ).
S 1 2 3
10.11 Stoke’s Theorem
If F is any continuous differentiable vector function and S is a surface enclosed
by a curve C, then
∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) .n dS ∫ C
F.dr =
S
= ∫∫ ( curl F ) . dS
S
where n is the unit normal vector at any point.
10.12 Cartesian Form of Stoke’s Theorem

Let F = F1i + F2j + F3k and α, b, γ are the angles which outward drawn unit
normal n makes with positive direction of x, y, z-axis, then cos α, cos b, cos γ
are direction cosines of n and we have
n = cos αi + cos βj + cosγk
curl F = ∇ × F
i j k
= ∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
F1 F2 F3
=  ∂F3 − ∂F3  i +  ∂F1 − ∂F3  j +  ∂F2 − ∂F1  k

     
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

 ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F 
curl F. n =  3 − 2  cos α +  1 − 3  cos b +  2 − 1  cos γ
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 
and F. dr = ( F1i + F2 j + F3k ) . ( dx i + dy j + dz k )
= F1dx + F2 dy + F3 dz
Using Stoke’s theorem, we have
∫ ( F dx + F dy + F dz )
C 1 2 3
 ∂F3 ∂F2   ∂F1 ∂F3   ∂F ∂F  

= ∫∫  ∂y − ∂z
S
 cos α + 
  ∂z
− 
∂x 
cos b +  2 − 1  cos γ  ds
 ∂x ∂y  
or ∫ ( F dx + F dy + F dz )
C 1 2 3
 ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F  
= ∫∫S  3 − 2  dy dz +  1 − 3  dz dx +  2 − 1  dxdy  .
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y  
Solved Examples 363
Solved Examples
Example 10.14: Using Green’s theorem evaluate ∫ ( x 2 ydx + x 2 dy ) , where
C
C is the boundary described counter clockwise of the triangle with vertices
(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1).
Sol. By Green’s theorem in plane, we have
y
B(1, 1)
y=x
x
O (0, 0) A(1, 0) x
 ∂N ∂M 
∫∫  −  dx dy = ∫ ( Mdx + Ndy ) ....(10.14)
R
 ∂x ∂y 
Here M = x2y, N = x2
∂M 2 ∂N
\ = x2,x = 2x
∂y ∂x
Then by equation (10.14), we have
∫ ∫ ( 2 x − x ) dx dy ∫ ( 2 x − x )  ∫ dy  dx
1 x 1 x
2 2
=
0 0 0 0 
∫ ( 2x − x ) x dx
1
2
= 0
∫ ( 2x − x ) dx
1
2 3
= 0
1
 2 x3 x 4 
=  − 
 3 4 0
2 1 5
=  −  =
 3 4  12
Example 10.15: Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫ ( x 2 + xy ) dx + ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy ,
C
where C is the square formed by the lines y = ± 1, x = ± 1.
Sol. We know that the Green’s theorem in plane is
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy )
C
= ∫∫ R
 −  dxdy
 ∂x ∂y 
…(10.15)
Given that M = x2 + xy, N = x2 + y2 …(10.16)

∂M ∂N
\ = x, = 2x …(10.17)
∂y ∂x
Using equations (10.15), (10.16) and (10.17), we have
1 1
∫ ( 2x − x ) dx dy
−1
= ∫−1
x dx dy
1 1
= ∫−1
x dx ∫ dy
−1
1
= ∫ x dx [ y ] 1−1
−1
1
= ∫−1
2 xdx
=  x  −1 = 1 – 1 = 0
2 1
Example 10.16: Verify Green’s theorem in plane for

∫ C ( 3x − 8 y ) dx + ( 4 y − 6 xy ) dy  , where C is the boundary of the region
2 2
defined by x = 0, y = 0 and x + y = 1.
Sol. We know that the Green’s theorem in plane is
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy )
C
= ∫∫ −
 ∂x ∂y R
 dxdy …(10.18)
Given that M = 3 x 2 − 8 y 2 , N =−4 y 6 xy …(10.19)

∂M ∂N
\ = − 16 y, −6y
= …(10.20)
∂y ∂x
y
(0, 1)
Q
y=1–x
O x
y=0 P
(0, 0)
(1, 0)
Let R be the region bounded by C and the curve C consists of straight line OP,
PQ and QO, where coordinates of A and B are (1, 0) and (0, 1) respectively.
Using equations (10.18), (10.19) and (10.20), we have
∫ ( 3x − 8 y 2 ) dx + ( 4 y − 6 xy ) dy = ∫∫
2
(−6 y + 16 y ) dx dy …(10.21)
C R
Solved Examples 365
First we solve right hand side of equation (10.21).

1 1− x
∫∫C ( −6 y +16 y ) dx dy = ∫∫
0 0
10 y dy dx
1 1− x
= 10 ∫0 ∫0 y dy dx
1− x
1  y2 
= 10 ∫   dx
0
 2 0
1
= 5∫0 (1 − x ) dx
2
1
1 3 5
= 5  (1 − x )  = ....(10.22)
3 0 3
Now we solve Left hand side of equation (10.21).

Along OP, y = 0, then dy = 0 and x = 0 to x = 1
Along PQ, x = 1 – y, then dx = – dy and y = 0 to y = 1
Along QO, x = 0 then dx = 0 and y = 1 to y = 0.
\ ∫ ( 3x − 8 y 2 ) dx + ( 4 y − 6 xy ) dy  + ∫ ( 3 x 2 − 8 y 2 ) dx + ( 4 y − 6 xy ) dy 
2
OP PO
+ ∫ ( 3 x 2 − 8 y 2 ) dx + ( 4 y − 6 xy ) dy 
QO
1 1 0
dx + ∫ 3 (1 − y ) − 8 y 2  ( − dy ) +  4 y − 6 (1 − y ) y  dy + ∫ 4 y dy
2
∫ 3x
2
= 0 0   1
0
 y2 
( )
1
2 1
=  x  0 + ∫0
2
11 y − 4 y − 3 dy + 4  
 2 1
1
11 4
= 1 +  y 3 + y 2 − 3 y  + 2 [ 0 − 1]
3 2 
 0
11 5
+ 2 −3− 2 =
= 1+ ....(10.23)
3 3
The equation (10.22) and (10.23) are equal and hence Green’s theorem is
verified.
Example 10.17: If F = ( x2 − y 2 ) i + 2 xy j and r =

xi + yj, find the value of
∫ F. dr around the rectangular boundary x = 0, y = 0, x =a, y = b.
C
Sol. Given that F = (x2 – y2)i + 2xyj
and r = xi + yj
(0, b) Q (a, b)
R
dx dy R
x
O (0, 0) P (a, 0)
Than dr = dxi + dyj
∫ F. dr = ∫ ( x − y 2 ) i + 2 xyj . ( dxi + dyj)

2
We have C C
∫ ( x − y 2 ) dx + 2 xy dy 
2
= C
∂ ∂ 2 2 
= ∫∫C  ∂x ( 2 xy ) − ∂y ( x − y ) 
 
(Using Green’s theorem)
= ∫∫ ( 2 y + 2 y ) dx dy
C
= 4 ∫∫R y dx dy
a b
∫x
= 4= ∫
0=y 0
y dx dy
= 4 ∫0  ∫0 y dy  dx
a b
 
b
a  y2 
= 4 ∫0   dx
 2 0
a
= 2 ∫0 b dx
2
= 2b 2 [ x ] 0a = ab2.
Example 10.18: A vector field F is given by F = sin y i + x (1 + cos y) j.

Evaluate the line integral ∫ F.dr , where C is the circular path given
C
x2 + y2 = a2.
Sol. Given are F= sin y i + x (1 + cos y) j
r = xi + yj
dr = dxi + dyj
Solved Examples 367
We have
∫ C
F.dr = ∫ C sin yi + x (1 + cos y ) j . ( dx i + dy j)
= ∫ C sin y dx + x (1 + cos y ) dy 
∂ ∂ 
= ∫∫   x (1 + cos y )  − ( sin y ) 
R ∂x ∂y
 
(Using Green’s theorem)
= ∫∫ (1 + cos y ) − cos y  dx dy
R
= ∫∫ R
dx dy = Area of the circle
= pa2.
Example 10.19: For any closed surface S, prove that ∫∫ curl F.ndS = 0 .
S
Sol. Using divergence theorem, we have
∫∫ curl F.ndS
S
= ∫∫∫ ( div curl F ) dV
V
= 0, Since div curl F = 0
Example. 10.20: Prove that ∫∫∫ V

∇ f . A dV= ∫∫ fA .ndS − ∫∫∫
S V
f∇ . A dV .
∫∫∫ ∇ ( fA ) dV = ∫∫ fA .ndS
V S
....(10.24)
Now ∇(fA) =
∫∫∫ ∇ ( fA ) dVV
Also ∇(fA).n = f(A.n)

Using equation (10.24), we get
∫∫∫ ( ∇f ) . A + f ( ∇ . A ) dV = ∫∫ fA .ndS

V S
or ∫∫∫ ( ∇f ) .dV = ∫∫ fA .ndS − ∫∫∫

V S C
f∇. A dV .
Example. 10.21: Evaluate ∫∫ r. n dS , where S is a closed surface.

S
∫∫ r. n dS
S
= ∫∫∫ V
∇. r dV
= ∫∫∫ V
3dV , since ∇ . r= div r= 3
= 3V, where V is the volume enclosed by S
Example 10.22: If F = axi + byj + czk, a, b, c are constant show that

4
∫∫C F .ndS = 3 p ( a + b + c ) , where S is the surface of a unit surface.
∫∫ F.n dS
S = ∫∫∫ ( ∇. F ) dV
V
where V is the volume enclosed by S
= ∫∫∫ V  . ( axi + by j + cz k )  dV
∇
∂ ∂ ∂ 
=
= ∫∫∫ V  ∂x ( ax ) + ∂y ( by ) + ∂z ( cz )  dV
 
= ∫∫∫ ( a + b + c ) dV
V
= ( a + b + c )V
4
= ( a + b + c ) p
3
Since, the volume V enclosed a sphere, radius is 1.
4
p (1)
3
Then V =
3
4
= p
3
Example 10.23: If F = xi – yj + (z2 – 1) k, find the value of ∫∫ F.ndS , where
S
S is the closed surface bounded by the planes z = 0, z = 1, and the cylinder

x2 + y2 = 4.
∫∫ F.ndS
S
= ∫∫∫ V
div F. dV
∂ ∂ ∂
Here div F = ( x ) + ( − y ) + ( z 2 − 1) = 1 −1+ 2 z = 2 z
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 2 4− y2
\ ∫∫∫V div F dV = ∫ ∫ ∫
z=
0 y= − 4− y2
−2 x =
2 z dx dy dz
1 2 4− y2
= ∫ ∫ [ 2 zx]
0 −2 − 4− y2
dydz
1 2
= ∫∫
0 −2
4 z 4 − y 2 dy dz
Solved Examples 369
1
2  z2 
= ∫−2
2
4 4 − y dy  
 2 0
2
= 4 ∫ 4 − y 2 dy
0
2
y y
= 4  4 − y 2 + 2sin −1 
2 2 0
= 4  2sin 1
−1
p
= 4 ( 2 ) . = 4p
2
Example 10.24: Evaluate ∫∫ F.ndS

S
over the entire surface of the region
above the xy-plane bounded by the cone z2 = x2 + y2 and the plane z = 4, if
F = 4xzi + xyz2j + 3zk.
∫∫ F.ndS
S
= ∫∫∫ V
div F dV
where V is the volume enclosed by S
Now we have
∂ ∂ ∂
( 4 xz ) + ( xyz 2 ) + ( 3z )
div F = ∂x ∂y ∂z
= 4z + xz2 + 3
Given V is the region bounded by the surfaces z2 = x2 + y2 and z = 4. Thus we
have
∫∫∫ ∫∫∫ ( 4 z + xz + 3) dx dy dz
2
div FdV =
V V
( 4 z + xz + 3) dxdydz
4 z z2 − y2
∫∫ ∫
2
= 0 − z − z2 − y2

(z − y2 )
2 3
 4
= ∫0 ∫− z ( 4 z + 3)
z
( z2 − y2 +) 2
z2


(z − y2 )
2 2

+ ( 4 z + 3) z − y −
2 2 2
z  dydz
2

4 z
= 2 ∫0 ∫ ( 4 z + 3)
−z
z 2 − y 2 dy dz
4 z
= 4 ∫
0 ∫ ( 4 z + 3)
0
z 2 − y 2 dy dz
z
4 y z2 
= 4 ∫0 ( 4 z + 3)  z 2 − y 2 + sin −1 y  dz
2 2 0
4  z2 
∫0 ( 4 z + 3)  2 sin z  dz
−1
=
 
= p [ 256 + 64] dz
= 320 p.
Example 10.25: Apply Gauss’s theorem to evaluate ∫ ( xi + yj + zk ) n dS .

C
where S denotes the surface of the cube bounded by the planes x = 0, x = a,
y = 0, y = a, and z = 0, z = a.
Sol. Suppose V be the volume enclosed by S. Then using divergence theorem,
we have
∫∫ ( xi + yj + zk ) .n dS = ∫∫∫ div ( xi + yj + zk ) dV
S V
= ∫∫∫ V
3dV = 3V
= 3 ( Volume of the cube, each edge = a )

= 3a3
∫∫ { xz }
dy dz + ( x 2 y − z 3 ) dz dx + ( 2 xy + y 2 z ) dxdy ,
2
S
where S is the surface of hemispherical region bounded by z= a − x − y2

2 2
and z = 0.
 ∂f1 ∂f 2 ∂f 3 
∫∫ S
f1 dy dz + f 2 dz dx + f 3 dx=
dy ∫∫∫
V
 + +
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 dx dy dz
where S is a closed surface bounding a volume V.
∫∫ xz 2 dy dz + ( x 2 y − z 3 ) dz dx + ( 2 xy + y 2 z ) dx
S
∂ ∂ 2 ∂ 
∫∫∫  ∂x ( xz ) + ∂y ( x y − z ) + ∂z ( 2 xy + y z )  dx dy dz
2 3 2
=
V
 
∫∫∫ ( z + x 2 + y 2 ) dx dy dz
2
=
V
Solved Examples 371
Suppose x = r sin q cos f, y = r sin q sin f, z = r cosθ
∫∫∫ r ( sin q dr d q d f )
4
=
2p p/ 2 a
= ∫0
df ∫
0
sin q d q ∫ 0
r 4 dr
a
 r5 
= ( f )0 ( − cos q )0
2p p/ 2
dq  
 5 0
a5
= 2p ( −0 + 1)
5
2pa 5
=
5
Example 10.27: Verify divergence theorem, given that F = 4xzi – y2j + yzk
and S is the surface of the cube bounded by the planes x = 0, x = 1, y = 0,
y = 1, z = 0, z = 1.
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∇. F =  i + j + k  . ( 4xzi − y j + yzk )
2
Sol. We have
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= 4z – 2y + y
= 4z – y
Using divergence theorem, we have
∫∫ F.ndS
S
= ∫∫∫ V
div F dV , where V is the volume
Now we have
∫∫∫V
div F dV = ∫∫∫ ( 4z − y ) dx dy dz
1 1 1
= ∫0
dx ∫ 0
dy ∫ ( 4 z − y ) dz
0
1 1 1
∫0 dx ∫0 dy 2 z − yz  0
2
=
1 1
= ∫ dx ∫ ( 2 − y ) dy
0 0
1
 y2  1
= ∫0 dx  2 y − 
 2 0
1  1
= ∫0 dx  2 − 2 
 
3 1
2 ∫0
= dx
3
= ....(10.25)
2
Now we evaluate ∫∫S F. ndS , where S consists of six planes surfaces.

Over the face OABC, z = 0, dz = 0, n = –k, dS = dx dy
∫ ( −4 j) .( −k ) dx dy =
1
2
∫∫ F. ndS = 0
0
Over the face BCDE, y = 1, dy = 0, n = j, dS = dx dz
1 1
∫∫ F. ndS
S
= ∫ ∫ ( 4 xzi − j + zk ) . ( − j) dx dz
0 0
1 1
= ∫ ∫ ( −1) dxdz
0 0
1 1
= − ∫0 dx ∫0 dz
= − [ x ]0 [ z ]0
1 1
= – (1)(1) = – 1
Over the face DEFG, z = 1, dz = 0, n = k, dS = dx dy
1 1
∫∫ F. ndS = ∫∫  4 x (1) i − y 2 j + y (1) k  . ( k ) dx dy
0 0
1 1
= ∫∫
0 0
y dx dy
1 1
= ∫0
dx ∫ y dy
0
1
 y2 
= [ − x ]0
1
 
 2 0
1
=
2
z
(0, 0, 1) G D
F
E
O y
C
A (0, 1, 0)
x (1, 0, 0) B
Over the face OCDG, x = 0, dx = 0, n = –i, dS = dydz
∫ ∫ ( xi − y j + yz k ) . ( −i ) dy dz =
1 1
∫∫ F. ndS
2
= 0
0 0
Solved Examples 373
Over the AOGF, y = 0, dy = 0, n= –j, dS = dx dz

1 1
∫∫ F. ndS = ∫ ∫ ( 4 xzi ) . ( − j) dx dz =
0 0
0
Over the ABEF, x = 1, dx = 0, n = i, dS = dydz
1 1
∫∫ F. ndS = ∫∫  4 xzi − y 2 j + yzk  . ( i ) dy dz
0 0
1 1
= ∫ ∫ 4z dy dz
0 0
[Q x = 1]
1 1
= ∫
0
dy ∫
0
4 zdz
1 1
= ∫
0
dy  2 z 2 
0
1
= 2 ∫ dy
0
= 2 [ y ]0 = 2
1
Adding, we see that over the whole surface

 1 
=  0 −1+ + 0 + 2
 2 
∫∫ F. ndS
3
= 2 ....(10.26)
Using (10.25) and (10.26), we have
∫∫∫
V
∇ . F dV = ∫∫ F .n dS
S
Hence verified the divergence theorem.
Example 10.28: Evaluate surface integral ∫∫S F .n dS , where

F= ( x + y + z ) ( i + j + k ) , S is the surface of the tetrahedron x = 0, y = 0,
2 2 2
z = 0, x + y + z = 2 and n is the unit normal in the outward direction to the

closed surface S.
∫∫ F .n dS
S
= ∫∫∫ V
div F. dV
where S is the surface of tetrahedron x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, x + y + z = 2.
Now we have
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∫∫∫ div F. dV = ∫∫∫  i+ j + k  . ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ( i + j + k ) dV
V V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= 2 ∫∫∫V ( x + y + z ) dx dy dz
Q 0, 2, 0
2, 0, 0
O 2
x
P
R
0, 0, 2
z
= 2 ∫ dx ∫ dy ∫ ( x + y + z ) dz
2− x − y
2 2− x  z2 
= 2 ∫0 dx ∫0 dy  xz + yz + 
 2 0
 (2 − x − y) 
2
2 2− x
= 2 ∫ dx ∫ dy ( x + y )( 2 − x − y ) + 
0 0
 2 
 ( x + y) − 2 x + y 
2
2 2− x
dy  2 ( x + y ) − ( x + y ) + 2 + ( )
2
= 2 ∫ dx ∫
0 0
 2 
2 2− x
 4 − ( x + y )2  dy
= ∫0
dx ∫
0  
2− x
 ( x + y) 
3
2
= ∫0
dx  4 y −
 3 

0
 ( x + 2 − x) x3 
3
2
= ∫0
dx 8 − 4 x −
 3
+ 
3 
2  8 x3 
= ∫0
dx 8 − 4 x − + 
 3 3
2 16 x3 
= ∫0
dx  − 4 x +  dx
3 3
Solved Examples 375
2
16 2 x4 
=  x − 2 x + 
3 12  0
32 16
= −8+ =4
3 12
Example 10.29: Using divergence theorem to evaluate ∫S A .dS, where

A = x 3i + y 3 j + z 3k and S is the surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
∫∫S
A. dS = ∫∫∫V
div A. dV
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∫∫∫  i + j + k  . ( x i + y j + z k ) dV
3 3 3
= V
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∫∫∫ ( 3x + 3 y 2 + 3 z 2 ) dV
2
= V
= 3 ∫∫∫V ( x + y + z ) dV
2 2 2
Putting x = r sin q cos f, y = r sin q sin f, z = cos q, we get

= 3 ∫∫∫ r 2 (r 2 sin q d q d f)
V
p/ 2 p/ 2 a
= 3× 8 ∫ df ∫ sin q d q ∫ r 4 dr
0 0 0
a
 r5 
= 24 [ f]0 [ − cos q]0
p/ 2 p/ 2
 
 5 0
p  a5 
= 24.   ( −0 + 1)  
2  5 
12pa 5
= .
5
Example 10.30: Using the divergence theorem to evaluate

∫∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy ) ,
S
where S is the portion of the plane
x + 2y + 3z = 6, which lies in the first octant.
∫∫ F.ndS
S
= ∫∫∫V
div F. dV
 ∂f1 ∂f 2 ∂f 3 
or ∫∫S ( f1 dy dz + f 2 dz dx + f3 dx dy ) = ∫∫∫
V

 ∂x
+ +
∂y ∂z 
 dx dy dz
R (0, 2, 0)
3 Q
6 y
P (0, 3, 0)
(6, 0, 0)
x
where S is a closed surface bounding a volume V.

 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
\ ∫∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx dy )
S
= ∫∫∫ V
 + +  dx dy dz
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∫∫∫ [1 + 1 + 1] dx dy dz
V
= 3 ∫∫∫V dx dy dz
= 3 (Volume of tetrahedron OPQR)
1  1  
= 3   × 6 × 3  × 2 
3  2  
= 18
Example 10.31: Using the divergence theorem of evaluate ∫∫ S
F . ndS , where
S is the surface of the cylinder x2+y2=a2 bounded by the planes z = 0, z = b
and where F = xi – yj – zk.
∫∫
S
F . ndS , = ∫∫∫ V
divF. dV
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= ∫∫∫  i + j + k  . ( xi + yj + zk ) dV
V ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
= ∫∫∫ V
 − +  . dV
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Solved Examples 377
= ∫∫∫ (1 − 1 + 1) dV
V
= ∫∫∫ dV
V
= ∫∫∫ dx dy dz = ( Volume of the cylinder )

V
= pa2b.
Example 10.32: Using the divergence theorem to evaluate ∫∫ F. ndS , where

S
F =4 xi − 2 y 2 j + z 2k and S is the surface bounding the region x2+y2 = 4, z = 0
and z = 3.
∫∫S
F. ndS = ∫∫∫ V
divF. dV
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
= ∫∫∫  i + j + k  . ( 4 xi − 2 y 2 j + z 2k ) dV
V ∂x ∂y ∂z 

= ∫∫∫ ( 4 − 4 y + 2 z ) dx dy dz .
V
3
= ∫∫ dx dy ∫ [ 4 − 4 y + 2 z ] dz
0
3
∫∫ dx dy 4 z − 4 yz + z 
2
= 0
= ∫∫ (12 −12 y + 9 ) dx dy
= ∫∫ ( 21 − 12 y ) dx dy
Putting x = r cos q, y = r sin q, we have
= ∫∫ ( 21 − 12r sin q ) r d q dr
∫ ∫ ( 21r − 12r sin q ) dr d q
2p 2
2
= 0 0
2
2p  21r 2 
= ∫0 
 2
− 4r 3 sin q  d q
0
2p
= ∫ ( 42 − 32sin q ) d q
0
= [ 42q + 32cos q]0

2p
= 84p + 32 − 32 = 84p
Example 10.33: Show that ∫ C r. dr = 0.
Sol. Using Stoke’s theorem, we have
∫ C
r. dr = ∫∫ ( curl r ) . n dS
S
= 0, since curl r = 0
∫ ( e dx + 2 ydy − dz ) , where
x
Example 10.34: Evaluate by the Stoke’s theorem C
C is the curve x2 +y2 = 4, z = 2.
∫ ( e dx + 2 ydy − dz )
x
So. We have C
= ∫ ( e i + 2 yj − k ) . ( dx i + dy j + dz k )
x
C
= ∫ C
F .dr, where F = e x i + 2 yj − k
Now we have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = = 0i + 0 j + 0k = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
ex 2y −1
Using Stoke’s theorem, we have
∫ F. dr
=
C
( curl F ) . ndS
∫ =C
since curl F 0.
0=
Example 10.35: Verify Stoke’s theorem for F= yi +zj + xk, S is the upper half
surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 and C is its boundary.
Sol. Let the boundary C of S is a circle in the xy-plane of radius unity and
centre origin. The equations of the curve C are x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0 and suppose
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, 0 < t < 2 p are parametric equation of C. Then we have
∫
C
F. dr = ∫ ( yi + zj + xk ) . ( dx i + dy j + dz k )
C
= ∫ ( y dx + z dy + x dz )
C
= ∫ y dx, {since on C
= dz 0}
, z 0,=
C
2p dx
= ∫0
sin t
dt
dt
Solved Examples 379
2p
= ∫0
− sin 2 t dt
1 2p
(1 − cos 2t ) dt
2 ∫0
= −
2p
1 sin 2t 
= − t −
2 2  0
= – p …(10.27)
Now we have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y z x
= – i – j – k.
If S1 is the plane region bounded by the circle C, then by an application of
divergence theorem, we have
∫∫ curl F.ndS
S
= ∫∫ curl F.k. dS
S
= ∫∫ ( −i − j − k ) . kdS
S
= ∫∫ ( −1) dS =
S1
−S 1
But we know that S1 = Area of a circle of radius 1

= π(1)2 = π
\ ∫∫ curl F.ndS =
S
−p …(10.28)
Using equations (10.27) and (10.28), we see that the Stoke’s theorem is verified.
Example 10.36: Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = –y3i + x3j, where S is the
circular disc x2+y2 ≤ 1, z = 0,
Sol. Given that the boundary C of S is a circle in xy-plane of radius one and
centre at origin suppose x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π are parametric
equations of C.
Then we have
∫ ∫ ( − y i + x j) . ( dx i + dy j + dz k )
3 3
F . dr =
C C
∫ ( − y dx + x dy )
3 3
= C
2p  3 dx dy 
= ∫0 −y
 dt
+ x 3  dt
dt 
2p
= ∫  − sin 3 t ( − sin t ) + cos3 t ( cos t )  dt
0
∫ ( sin t + cos 4 t ) dt
2p
4
= 0
( sin t + cos 4 t ) dt
p/ 2
= 4 ∫ 4
0
 3.1.p 3.1 p 
= 4  + 
 4.2.2 4.2.2 
3p
=
2
Now we have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F =
∂x ∂y
=
∂z
( 3x 2
+ 3y2 ) k
−y x3 0
Here n = k because the surface S is the xy-plane.
\ (∇ × F) . n = ( 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 ) k . k =
3( x2 + y 2 )
\ ∫∫ ( ∇× F ) .ndS
S
= 3∫∫ ( x 2 + y 2 ) dS
C
2p 1
= 3 ∫0 ∫0
r 2 . r d q dr ( changing to polars )
1
2p  r4 
= 3 ∫   dq
0
 4 0
3 2p
4 ∫0
= dq
3 3p
= ( 2p ) =
4 2
3p
Thus we have ∫
C
F. d=
r ∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) .ndS
C
=
2
.
Hence the Stoke’s theorem is verified.
Example 10.37: Using Stoke’s theorem show that div curl F = 0.

Sol. Let us consider V be any volume enclosed by a closed surface. Using
divergence theorem, we have
Solved Examples 381
∫∫∫
V
∇ . ( curl F ) dV = ∫∫ ( curl F ) .ndS
C
Divide the surface S into two portions S1 and S2 by a closed curve C. Then we
have
∫∫ ( curl F ) .ndS
S
= ∫∫ ( curl F ) .ndS + ∫∫ ( curl F ) .ndS
S1 1 S2 2
…(10.29)
Using Stoke’s theorem in right hand side of equation (10.29), we get
= ∫
C
F.dr − ∫
C
F. dr =
0
It is noted that the negative sign has been taken in the second integral because
the positive direction about the boundaries of the two surfaces are opposite.
\ ∫∫∫V
∇. (Curl F ) dV =
0 in this equation is true for all volume elements V.
S2
S1
Thus we have
∇. ( Curl F ) = F 0.
dV 0 or div Curl=
Example 10.38: Evaluate ∫

C
F.dr by Stoke’s theorem where F = y2i + x2j –
(x + z) k and C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices at (0, 0, 0),
(1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0).
Sol. Using Stoke’s theorem, we have
∫C
F.dr = ∫∫ ( Curl F ) .ndS
S
…(10.30)
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
Now we have Curl F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y2 x2 −( x + z)
= 0i +j + 2(x – y) k
= j + 2(x – 1) k
It is noted that z coordinate of each vertex of the triangle is zero. Therefore the
triangle lies in the xy-plane. So n = k.
\ curl F. n = [j + 2(x – y)k].k

= 2(x – y)
y
Q (1, 1)
0 x
P (1, 0)
The equation of the line OQ is y = x, using equation (10.30), we have

1 x
∫
C
F.dr = ∫ ∫ 2 ( x − y ) dxdy
= x 0=y 0
x
1  y2 
= 2 ∫  xy −  dx
0
 2 0
1  x2 
= 2 ∫  x 2 −  dx
0
 2
1 x2
= 2 ∫0 dx
2
1
= ∫0
x 2 dx
1
= .
3
Example 10.39: Evaluate the surface integral ∫∫S curl F. ndS by transforming
it into a line integral S being that part of the surface of the paraboloid
z = 1 – x2 – y2 for which z ≥0, and F= yi + zj + xk.
Sol. Given that the boundary C of the surface S is the circle x2 + y2 = 1,
z = 0. Suppose x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π are parametric equations of
C. Using Stoke’s theorem, we have
∫∫ curl F.ndS
S
= ∫ C
F.dr
Solved Examples 383
= ∫ ( yi + zj + xk ) . ( i dx + j dy + k dz )
C
= ∫ ( y dx + z dy + x dz )
C
(Q and dz 0 )
on C, z 0=
=
= ∫C
y dx
2p dx
= ∫0
y
dt
dt
2p
= ∫ sin t ( − sin t ) dt
0
2p
= ∫0
sin 2 t dt
p/ 2
= −4 ∫ sin 2 t dt
0
1 p
= −4 × × =–p
2 2
Example 10.40: Apply Stoke’s theorem to show that

2 2 2
− 2 2 pa 2 , where C is the curve given x + y + z –2ax
∫C ( y dx + z dy + x dz ) =
– 2ay = 0, x + y = 2a and begins at the point (21, 0, 0) and goes a first below
the z-plane.
Sol. Given that the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 2ax – 2ay=0.
Center points (a, a, 0), since the plane x + y = 2a passes through the point (a,
a, 0). Therefore the circle C is great circle of this sphere.
\ Radius of the circle C = radius of the sphere
= a2 + a2 =
a 2
Now we have
∫ ( y dx + z dy + x dz )
C
= ∫ ( yi + zj + xk ) . dr
C
= ∫∫ curl ( yi + zj + xk )  . ndS
C
where S is any surface of which circle

Now we have
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl (yi + zj + xk) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y z x
= –i – j – k
= –(i + j + k)
Let us consider take S as the surface of the plane x + y = 2a bounded by the
circle C. Then a vector normal to S is grad (x + y) = i + j.
1
n = Unit normal to S = ( i + j)
2
 i j 
\ ∫ ( ydx + zdy + xdz )
C
= ∫∫ − ( i + j + k ) .
C
2
+  dS
2
2
= − ∫∫ dS
2 C
2
= −
2
(
area of the circle of radius 2 )
= − 2 ( 2pa ) .
2
Exercise 10
1. Find the work done by the force
= F ( y cos x + z )i + (2 y sin x − 4) j + (3 xz + 2)k in moving a particle
2 3 2
from A(0, 1, –1) to B(p/2, –1, 2).
∫ [( x
2
2. Evaluate the line integral + xy ) dx + ( x 2 + y 2 dy )], where C is the
C
square formed by the lines y = ±1, x = ±1.
3. If F = 3xy i – y2 j, evaluate ∫C
F .dr , where C is the curve in the
xy-plane y = 2x2, from (0, 0) to (1, 2).
4. Evaluate ∫ ( xdy − ydx ) around the circle x2 + y2 = 1.
Evaluate ∫ F .dr , where F = xyi + ( x + y ) j and curve C is the arc of
2 2
5. C
y = x2 – 4 from (2, 0) to (4, 12).
6. Evaluate ∫C
F x 2 i + y 3 j and curve C is the arc of parabola
F .dr , where =
y = x2 in the xy-plane from (0, 0) to (1, 1).
7. Evaluate ∫C F .dr , where F =xyi + yzi + zxk and curve C is r = t i + t2j +

t3k, t varying –1 to 1.
8. If F =( 3 x + 6 y ) i −14 yz j + 20 xz k , evaluate ∫ F .dr , where C is a
2 2
C
straight line joining (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).
Exercise 10 385
9. Find the circulation of F around the curve where F = y i + zj + xk and

C is the circle x2 + y2 = 1, z = 0.
10. Find the circulation of F around the curve where F = (x – y)i + (x + y)j
and C is the circle x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0.
11. If F = (2x + y)i + (3y – x)j evaluate ∫C F .dr , where C is the curve in the
xy-plane consisting of the straight lines from (0, 0) to (2, 0) and then
to (3, 2).
12. Evaluate ∫C
F .dr , where F = yzi + zxj + xyk and the C is the portion of
the curve r = a cos t i + b sin r j + ct k, from t=0 to t=p/2.
13. Evaluate ∫∫ C
F .n dS, where F = zi + xj − 3 y 2 zk and S is the surface of
the cylinder included in the first octant between z=0 and z=5.
14. If F = (2x2 – 2z)i – 2xy j – 4z j, then evaluate ∫∫∫ V
∇.F dV where V
is the closed region bounded by the planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and
2x + 2y + z = 4.
15. Evaluate ∫∫C fdV, where f =45 x y and V is the closed region bounded
2
by the planes 4x + 2y + z = 8, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0.
16. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for ∫ ( xy + y 2 ) dx + x 2 dy , where
C
C is the closed curve of the region bounded by y = x and y = x2.

17. Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫ ( cos x sin y − xy ) dx + sin x cos y dy ,
C
where C is the circle x2 +y2 = 1.
18. Evaluate by Green’s theorem ∫ ( x − cosh y ) dx + ( y + sin x ) dy,
2
C
where C is the rectangle with vertices (0, 0), (π, 0), (π, 1), (0, 1).
19. Show that the area bounded by a simple closed curve C is given by
1
( xdy − ydx ). Hence also find the area of the ellipse x = a cosq,
2 ∫ C
y = b sin q.
20. Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for ∫ (x − xy 3 ) dx + ( y 2 − 2 xy ) dy
2
C
where C is the square with vertices (0,0), (2, 0), (2, 2), (0, 2).
21. Applying Gauss’s divergence theorem to evaluate
∫∫s ( x − yz ) dydz − 2 x ydzdx + zdxdy  over the surface of a cube
 
3 2
bounded by the coordinate planes and the planes x = y = z = a.

22. If S is any closed surface enclosing a volume V and F = xi + 2yj
+ 3zk, prove that ∫∫S F. ndS = 6V .
∫∫ ( x i + y j + z 2k ). ndS =
2 2
23. Show that 0, where S denotes the surface
C
x2 y 2 z 2
of the ellipsoid. + + = 1.
a 2 b2 c2
24. Evaluate ∫∫ x 2 dydz + y 2 dz dx + 2 z ( xy − x − y )dxdy , where S is the
C
surface of the cube 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z, ≤1.

25. ∫∫ C
A. nds , where A = (2x + 3z)i – (xz + y)j + (y2 + 2z)k and S is the
surface of the sphere having centre at (3, –1, 2) and radius 3.
26. By converting the surface integral into a volume integral, evaluate
∫∫ ( x dy dz + y dz dx + z dx. dy ) where S is the surface of the sphere
3 3 3
C
x2 + y2 + z2= 1.
27. Verify divergence theorem for F = (x2 – yz) i + (y2 – zx) j
+ (z2 – xy) k taken over the rectangular parallelepiped 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ b,
0 ≤ z ≤ c.
28. By stoke’s theorem prove that curl grad f = 0.
29. Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = (2x – y) i – yz2j – y2zk, where S is the
upper half surface of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 =1 and C is its boundary.
30. Evaluate by Stoke’s theorem ∫ (yz dx + xz dy + xy dz), where C is the
C
curve x2 + y2 =1, z = y2.
31. Evaluate by Stoke’s theorem ∫ C (sin z dx – cos x dy + sin y dz), where
C is the boundary of the rectangle 0 ≤ x ≤ p, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, z = 3.
32. Verify Stoke’s theorem for F = (x2 + y2)i + 2 xyj taken around the
rectangle bounded by x = ± a, y = 0, y = b.
33. Evaluate ∫ ( xy dx + xy dy ) by Stoke’s theorem, where C is the
2
C
positively oriented square with vertices (1, 0), (–1, 0), (0, 1) and (0, 1).
Answers
7
1. 4p + 15 2. 0 3. – 4. 2p
6
7 10 13
5. 732 6. 7. 8.
12 7 3
9. –p 10. 8p 11. 11 12. 0

Recapitulation 387
8
13. 90 14. 15. 128 17. 0
3
2a 
3
1
18. cos h(1) – 1 19. pab 21. a  + a  24.
 3  2
12
25. 108p 26. p 30. 0 31. 2
5
1
33. –
3
Recapitulation
1. A closed curve which does not intersect itself anywhere is known as
simple closed curve.
2. A region in which any closed curve lying entirely within the region
can be contracted continuously to a point of the region without any
portion of the curve going out of the region is called the simple
connected region, otherwise the region is called the multi-connected
region.
3. Let F(t) be a vector function and r be the position vector of a point
on the curve C, then the integral ∫C F.dr is called the line integral of
F along the curve C.
4. If ∫ F.dr = 0 , the F is called irrotational force field.

5. The integral ∫ F.dr is called circulation.
C
6. Any integral which is to be evaluated over a surface S is called a
surface integral.
7. If ∫∫ F. n dS = 0 , then F is called solenoid vector point function

S
8. The normal surface integral of continuous vector point function F
over a closed surface S i.e., ∫∫S F. dS is called the flux of F across the
surface S.
9. Let V be the volume enclosed by a closed surface S and D is the
enclosed region by S, then the integral ∫∫∫V dV is called the volume

integral
10. Let R be a closed bounded region in the xy-plane by a simple
closed curve C and if M (x, y) and N(x, y) are continuous
functions having continuous partial derivative in R, then
 ∂N ∂M 
∫ C ( Mdx + Ndy )= ∫∫R  ∂x − ∂y  dx dy.
11. The expression ∫ C F.= dr ∫∫ ( ∇× F ) . k dR where F = Mi + Nj and

C
r = xi + yj, k is a unit vector along the z-axis and dR = dxdy, is called
the Green’s theorem in the plane in the vector form.
12. If F be a continuously differentiable vector point function in a region
V and S is closed surface enclosing the region V, then
∫∫∫ V ∫∫ F.n dS , where n is the outwards drawn unit normal

∇. F dV =
S
vector to surface.
13. The expression
 ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3 
 + ∫∫∫
+  dx dy
= dz ∫∫ ( F dy dz + F dz dx + F dx dy )
1 2 3
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
V
is called the cartesian form of Gauss’s divergence theorem.

14. If F is any continuous differentiable vector function and S is a
surface enclosed by a curve C, then ∫ F.=

dr
C ∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) .n dS
S
= ∫∫ ( curl F ) . dS , where n is the unit normal vector at any point.

S
15. The expression
∫ ( F1dx + F2 dy + F3dz ) =

C
 ∂F3 ∂F2   ∂F1 ∂F3   ∂F ∂F  

∫∫  ∂y − ∂z
S
 dy dz + 
  ∂z
− 
∂x 
dz dx +  2 − 1  dxdy 
 ∂x ∂y  

is called the cartesian form of Stoke’s theorem.
Exercises 10.1
10.1 The integral ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dS represents
S
(a) volume integral (b) line integral

(c) surface integral (d) None of these
10.2 The expression ∫∫∫ V ∫∫ F.ndS is governed by

∇.FdV =
S
(a) Green theorem (b) Gauss’s theorem
(c) Stoke’s theorem (d) None of these.
Exercises 10.1 389
10.3 The expression ∫ F.d=

r
C ∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) .n dS
S
is governed by
(a) Green theorem (b) Gauss’s theorem
(c) Stoke’s theorem (d) None of these.
10.4 The value of ∫ ( xdy − ydx ) around the circle x2 + y2 = 1 is equals to
(a) 2 p (b) 0
(c) p (d) None of these.
10.5 For any closed surface S, the value of ∫∫ r × n dS
S
is equal to
(a) n (b) r
State True or False

10.1 If ∫ F.dr = 0 , the F is called irrotational force field.
10.2 If ∫∫ F. n dS = 0 , then F is called solenoid vector point function.
S
10.3 If the initial and terminal points of a curve coincide, the curve is a
closed curve.
10.4. The integral ∫∫ f ( x, y, z ) dS
S
is a volume integral.
10.5 The integration ∫ r. dr = 0.C
10.6 The integral ∫ f ( x, y, z ) dV

V
is a volume integral.
Fill in the Blanks

10.1 A closed curve which does not intersect itself anywhere is known as
………………. curve.
10.2 A curve is said to the ……………. if it is made up of a finite number
of smooth curves.
10.3 The integral ∫ F.dr = 0 is called ……………..
 ∂N ∂M 
10.4 ...........................
= ∫∫
R

 ∂x
−  dx dy
∂y 
10.5 ∫∫ F.n dS =is 0called the ……………………… dF over S.

S
10.6. If S is a closed surface, then ∫∫ curl F. n dS ……………….

S
Answers
10.1 (c) 10.2 (b) 10.3 (c) 10.4 (a)
10.5 (c)
State True or False

10.1 T 10.2 T 10.3 T 10.4 F
10.5 T 10.6 T
Fill in the Blanks

10.1 simple closed 10.2 piecewise smooth
10.3 circulation 10.4 ∫ ( Mdx + Ndy )
10.5 surface integral of normal components
10.6 0
qqq

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1

Beta and Gamma Functions

After going through the chapter, the reader will be able to

1.2 Improper Integrals

1.3 Beta function

where m, n are positive numbers, integral or fractional.

1.4 Gamma function

1.5 Elementary Properties of Beta Functions

1.5.1 Symmetry of Beta function, i.e., B(m, n) = B(n, m).

1.5.2 If m or n is a positive integer, B(m, n) can be evaluated in

Suppose if n = 1, then from equation (1.2) we have

Now suppose if n > 1, then from equation (1.2) we have

Taking (1 – x)n–1 as the first function and integrating by parts

Case II: When m is a positive integer

Case III: When both m and n are positive integer

Multiplying both Numerator and Denominator by (m – 1)!, we get

1.6 Elementary Properties of Gamma Functions

Using the definition of Gamma function, we have

Integrating by parts (taking xn as first function), we get

Put n = 1 in equation (1.4), we get

1.6.3 Γ(n + 1 ) = n!, for n ≥ 0

= n(n − 1)Γ {(n − 2) + 1}

= n(n − 1)(n − 2)Γ(n − 2)

1.7 Alternative form of Beta function

Proof: Using the definition of Beta function, we have

1.8 Transformation of Gamma Function

1.9 Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions

Multiplying both sides of equation (1.5) by e − x x n −1 and integrating with

1.10 Some Special Properties of Beta and Gamma

Using equations (1.6) and (1.7), we have

1.10.2 Γ(1 / 2) =π.

Proof: We know that

Example 1.3: Evaluate the following integrals:

= B(9, 15) – B(15, 9)

1.11 Some other Special Properties of Beta and

Put sin 2 θ = x so that 2sin θ cos θ d θ =dx

 where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a ) .

(a – ib)–m = ( r cos θ − ir sin θ )

where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a )

Put the value of ( a − ib )

Equating real and imaginary parts of both sides, we get

Note: If we put m=1, then Γ(m) =

Using equations (1.16) and (1.17), we have

Put n = m in equation (1.18), we get

Now putting=x sin 2 θ and dx= 2sin θ cos θ d θ

Again put 2q = f and d θ = d φ , we get

 (by the property of definite integral)

Sol. We know that

π /2 sin 2 m −1 θ cos 2 n −1 θ d θ 1 Γ ( m)Γ ( n )

15. Show that B (m, n) = B (m + 1, n) + B (m, n + 1) .

π sin θ {Γ(3 / 4)}2

Gamma function, denoted by Γ(n).

4. The relation between Beta and Gamma Functions is defined as

(a) n > 0 (b) n < 0

(a) Γ(n + 1) (b) Γ(n)

6. For m > 0, n > 0 .

(c) π (d) None of these.

State True or False

1.5.2 If m or n is a positive integer, B(m, n) can be evaluated in

1.10 Some Special Properties of Beta and Gamma

1.11 Some other Special Properties of Beta and

where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a ) .

where=r a 2 + b 2 and θ = tan −1 (b / a )

(by the property of definite integral)

2.5 Surface formulae for different form of

2.6 Volume of Solid of Revolution about x and

2.7 Volume formulae for different form of

3. The sequence < −n 2 > is bounded above by – 1 but not bounded

8. All sub sequences of a convergent sequence converge to the same