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5EC4-03 Control System Rukhsar Zafar

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5EC4-03 Control System Rukhsar Zafar

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Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,

Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA

Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Course Outcomes Competency Level

Bloom's PSO
Course Outcomes PO Indicators
Level Indicators
C5EC4-03.1: Describe various types of 1.1.1, 1.1.2 , 1.2.1,1.3.1, 1.4.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
control systems and 2.1.1,2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.3, 2.3.1, 1.1.3, 1.1.4,
techniques to determine L2 2.4.1, 3.1.1, 3.1.6, 10.1.1, 10.1.2, 1.2.1, 1.2.3,
their transfer function. 10.1.3, 10.2.1, 10.3.1, 12.1.1, 2.2.1
12.1.2, 12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
C5EC4-03.2: Recognize Optimal control 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
1.1.1, 1.1.2 , 1.2.1,1.3.1, 1.4.1,
and Nonlinear control 1.1.3, 1.1.4,
2.1.1,2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.3, 2.3.1,
system. 1.2.1, 1.2.3,
L2 2.4.1, 3.1.1, 10.1.1, 10.1.2,
2.2.1
10.1.3, 10.2.1, 10.3.1, 12.1.1,
12.1.2, 12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
C5EC4-03.3: Interpret time response 1.1.1, 1.1.2 , 1.2.1,1.3.1, 1.4.1 , 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
analysis of first & second 2.1.1,2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.3,2.2.4, 1.1.3, 1.1.4,
order systems. 2.3.2 ,2.4.3,2.4.1,2.4.4, 3.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.2.3,
L3
3.1.6, 10.1.1, 10.1.2, 10.1.3, 2.2.1
10.2.1, 10.3.1, 12.1.1, 12.1.2,
12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
C5EC4-03.4: Examine stability using 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.2.1,1.3.1, 1.4.1 , 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
frequency domain analysis. 2.1.1,2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.3,2.2.4, 1.1.3, 1.1.4,
2.3.2 , 2.4.1,2.4.3,2.4.4, 3.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.2.3,
L4
3.1.6, 10.1.1, 10.1.2, 10.1.3, 2.2.1
10.2.1, 10.3.1, 12.1.1, 12.1.2,
12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
C5EC4-03.5: Analyze state space 1.1.1, 1.1.2 , 1.2.1,1.3.1, 1.4.1 , 1.1.1, 1.1.2,
representation for LTI 2.1.1,2.1.2, 2.1.3, 2.2.3,2.2.4, 1.1.3, 1.1.4,
systems. 2.3.1, 2.3.2 ,2.4.3,2.4.1,2.4.4, 1.2.1, 1.2.3,
L4 2.2.1
3.1.1, 3.1.6, 10.1.1, 10.1.2,
10.1.3, 10.2.1, 10.3.1, 12.1.1,
12.1.2, 12.2.1, 12.2.2, 12.3.1
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

CO-PO-PSO Mapping Using Performance Indicators (PIs)

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO PSO PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO1 3 2 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3 3 1 -
CO2 3 2 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3 3 1 -
CO3 3 3 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3 3 1 -
CO4 3 3 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3 3 1 -
CO5 3 3 1 - - - - - - 3 - 3 3 1 -

. CO-PO-PSO Mapping: Formulation and Justification

The CO-PO/PSO mapping is based on the correlation of course outcome (CO) with Program
Outcome Indicators. These indicators are the breakup statements of broad Program Outcome
statement.

The correlation is calculated as number of correlated indicators of a PO/PSO mapped with CO

divided by total indicators of a PO/PSO. The calculated value represents the correlation level
between a CO & PO/PSO. Detailed formulation and mathematical representation can be seen below
in equation 1:

Input:COi: The ith course outcome of the course

POj: The jth Program Outcome

Ijk: The kth indicator of the jth Program Outcome

 (Ijk, COi): level of CO-PO mapping

= 1, if, 0< <0.33

2, if, 0.33≥<0.66

3, if, 0.66 ≥< 1

: Degree of correlation

( , )
……..equation (1)
,
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

UNIT 1

1
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Introductory Lecture
Objective:

 To provide a basic understanding of the concepts and techniques involved in

designing control schemes for dynamic systems.
 To provide in-depth knowledge of concepts from classical control theory.
 To analyze dynamic systems for their stability and performance.
 To build foundations of time/frequency analysis of systems as well as the feedback
control of such systems.
 To prepare for Competitive examination like GATE, IES,PSU etc.

Introduction

System:

A system is a combination or an arrangement of different components which act together as a

entire unit to achieve certain specific objective.

Example :

 A classroom is a physical system. A room along with the combination of benches,

blackboard, fans, lighting arrangement etc. can be called as a classroom which acts as
elementary system.

 The various component in human digestion system works together.

Definitionof Control System

 A control system is considered to be any system which exists for the purpose of
regulating or controlling a desired outcome.A control system is a system, which
provides the desired response by controlling the output.

Figure: Representation of a control system

Example of Control System:

Rate of fuel Output

flow
(controlled Variable)
Set-point or
Reference input Accelerator
linkage to
Engine
carburetor vehicle

Fig 1.2 An automobile system as a control system

For the automobile driving system the input signal is the “force on the accelerator” which
through linkages causes the carburetor valve to open (close) so as to increase or decrease fuel
flow to the engine bringing the engine vehicle speed (controlled variable) to the desired value.

Suppose in the automobile system driver wants to maintain a constant speed .So in this
case Driver reads the speedometer dial continuously and compares the actual speed with the
desired one mentally (manually) and accordingly he decide to increase/decrease the
pressure on accelerator so as to achieve the desired speed.

Rate of Output
fuel (controlled)
flow Variable
Driver’s
eye and
brain
Accelerato Engine
Desired + r linkage vehicle
speed + to
-
carburetor Actual
Output

Speedometer
Feedback Signal

Fig 1.3 General block diagram of control system

Classification of Control Systems

1. Natural Control System

Universe
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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Human Body

2.Manual Control Systems

Room Temperature regulation Via Electric Fan

Water Level Control

3. Automatic Control System

Room Temperature regulation Via A.C

Human Body Temperature Control

Concept of Automatic Controls

An automatic control system is a pre-set closed-loop control system that requires no operator
(human) action.Automatic control uses application of mechanisms to the operation and
regulation of processes without continuous direct human intervention.This assumes the
process remains in the normal range for the control system.

In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur are:

(i)Measurement (ii) Comparison

(iii)Computation (iv) Correction

Automatic control has played a vital role in the advance of engineering and science.It is
more important in space-vehicle systems, missile-guidance systems, robotic systems, modern
manufacturing and industrial processes.Automatic control helps in attaining optimal
performance of dynamic systems, improving productivity, relieving the drudgery of many
routine repetitive manual operations.It is also essential in industrial operations as controlling
pressure, temperature, humidity, viscosity, and flow in the process industries.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Examples of Automatic Control System

Fig 1.4 Automatic Engine Speed Controller

Fig 1.5 Automatic Water Level Controller

Scope of control system :

 Control systems in Household: Home automation is control and automation of home

appliances using sensors and switches. e.g. Automatic Washing Machine, Automatic
Electric Iron
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

 Control Systems in Agriculture: Control systems can also be used in the field of
agriculture to make smart farms. e.g. Harvesting of Corps, Irrigation control system,

 Control systems in Transportation: Control systems are used to provide services in

the transportation department as traffic management and making the users aware about
safe and smart use of transportation network. e.g. Traffic Light controller, Driver less
Buses.

 Control Systems in Industry: Industrial control systems uses several of the devices
and systems for production in the industry such as PID controllers and supervisory
control and data acquisition(SCADA), e.g. Pipeline monitoring and control, Electrical
power transmission and distribution.

 Control Systems in Defense: Sensors are used to detect unwanted objects and weapon
auto loading and fires the payload on the target with accuracy and precision , e.g. missile
launching and guidance system, Fighter aircraft.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

UNIT 2
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Definition of Control System

 A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands,

directs or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired
results.

 A control system is a collection of components assembled to produce a desired

response for a given input.

 A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling

the output.

Terminology used for Control System

 Controlled Variable: The controlled variable is the quantity or condition that is

measured and controlled.

 Control Signal: The control signal or manipulated variable is the quantity or

conditionthat is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled
variable.

 Plants: a set of machine parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform
a particular operation.

Or physical object, system or process that is to be controlled

 Process: An operation to be controlled.

 Reference (command) input : a signal supplied to the control system which represents
the desired value (or variation) of the controlled output

 Disturbance : An unwanted input that tends to adversely affect the value of the output
of a system

 Controller : a device (or human being) which adjusts the control signals according
to a set of predetermined rules

Classification of Control System

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control systems
based on the feedback path.

Open Loop Control System:

In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the output.

Advantages of open loop control system:

 Simple in construction and design

 Economical

 Easy to maintain

 Generally stable

Disadvantages of open loop control system:

 They are inaccurate

 They are unreliable

 Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically

Example of open loop control system:

 Electric Hand Drier

 Semi Automatic Washing Machine

 Bread Toaster

 Timer Based Clothes Drier

Close Loop Control System

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Advantages of close loop control system:

 Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-linearity

 Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback signal

 Bandwidth range is large

 Facilitates automation

 This system is less affected by noise

Example of close loop control system:

 Automatic Electric Iron

 Servo Voltage Stabilizer

 Water Level Controller

 Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar

 Air Conditioner

 Cooling System in Car

Transfer Function

Input operates through a transfer operation and produces an output. This transfer operation is
called transfer function
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

The transfer function is expressed as the ratio of output quantity to input quantity,

Output and input may be of the different category. In terms of Laplace transform

General Form of Transfer function

Factorize the above expression

Where

is known as the gain factor

s1, s2,……sn are the Zero of transfer function

sa, sb,……sm are the Pole of transfer function

System with Dead time and System Response

Figure shows the typical response of a control system. Dead time is the delay in the response
to a control action. It is the part of transient. System takes some time to respond, this time is
dead time . t2-t1 is dead time.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Block Diagram representation

 A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed

by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the
interrelationships that exist among the various components.

 The transfer function of each element of a control system is represented by a block

diagram and concerned symbol mentioned in the block represents the transfer function
of the element.

Figure shows a typical block diagram of a close loop system.

Open-loop transfer function

Feed forward transfer function

Closed-Loop Transfer Function:

Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Block Diagram Reduction Technique (BDRT)

 Several blocks are inter-connected together for arranging a complete control system

 To find overall transfer function, we use block diagram reduction technique.

 In this technique, we have to follow some set of rule

 Components:

 Signals

 System

 Summing Junction

 Take off point

 Cascade (series) connection

is reduced to

 Parallel connection

is reduced to
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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 Moving a take off point ahead of a block

is reduced to

 Moving a take off point after the block

is reduced to

 Moving summing point beyond the block

is reduced to

 Moving a summing point ahead of a block

is reduced to

 Interchanging two summing points

is reduced to

 Moving a take off point beyond a summing point

is reduced to

 Moving a take off point ahead of a summing point

is reduced to

 Eliminating a forward loop

is reduced to

 Eliminating a feedback loop

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH (SFG)

• Block diagram reduction is the excellent method for determining the transfer function
of the control system. However, in a complicated system, it is very difficult and time-
consuming process.

• That’s why an alternate method, i.e., SFG was developed by S.J Mason which relates
the input and output system variables graphically.

• SFG is a graphical representation of the relationship between the variables of a set of

linear algebraic equations. It doesn't require any reduction technique or process.

Characteristics of SFG

• In the signal flow graph, the transfer function is referred to as transmittance.

• It represents a network in which nodes are used for the representation of system variable
which is connected by direct branches.

• SFG is a diagram which represents a set of equations. It consists of nodes and branches
such that each branch of SFG having an arrow which represents the flow of the signal.

It is only applicable to the linear system

Terms Used in SFG

• Node: It represents the system variable which equals to the sum of all signals. Outgoing
signal from the node does not affect the value of node variables.

Fig : A representation of Signal Flow graph

Here in the above diagram X1 and X2 are example of nodes

Branch: Branch is defined as a path from one node to another node, in the direction
indicated by the branch arrow.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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Fig 4.2: A representation of Signal Flow graph

Here in the above diagram a12, a23 ,a34, a43, etc. are example of branches.

• Forward Path: It is a path from an input node to an output node in the direction of
branch arrow.

• Loop: It is a path that starts and ends at the same node.

Fig 4.3: Diagram showing example of loop

• Non-touching loop: Loop is said to be non-touching if they do not have any

common node.

Fig 4.4: A representation of nontouching loop.

Forward path gain: A product of all branches gain along the forward path is called Forward
path gain.

a12 a23 a34 a45 a56 is the forward path gain in the figure 4.1.

Loop Gain: Loop gain is the product of branch gain which travels in the loop.

From the figure 4.2 a23 a32 , a34 a43 are the example of loop gain

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent signal flow graph.

 Represent all the signals, variables, summing points and take-off points of block
diagram as nodes in signal flow graph.

 Represent the blocks of block diagram as branches in signal flow graph.

 Represent the transfer functions inside the blocks of block diagram as gains of the
branches in signal flow graph.

 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram.

 If there is connection between two nodes (but there is no block in between), then
represent the gain of the branch as one.

 For example, between summing points, between summing point and takeoff point,
between input and summing point, between take-off point and output.

 Note: If there is a takeoff point before a summation point then both are replaced
with separate node .

Mason’s Gain Formula

According to Mason’s gain formula, the overall transmittance is

Where, Pk is the forward path transmittance of kth path. In asserting Pk no node

should be encountered more than once.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
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Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
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Δ is the graph determinant which involves closed loop transmittance and mutual
interactions between non-touching loops.

Δ = 1 – [sum of all individual loop transmittances] + [sum of loop transmittance

products of all possible pair of non-touching loops] – [sum of loop transmittance
products of all possible triplets of non-touching loops] + [……] – [……]

Δ k is the path factor associated with the concerned path and involves all closed loop in
the graph which are isolated from the forward path under consideration.

The path factor Δk for the kth path is equal to the value of graph determinant of its signal
flow graph which exists after erasing the kth path from the graph.

Question :Find overall transmittance for given block diagram using SFG

Fig 4.5: Block Diagram

Solution : The signal flow graph is

Fig 4.6: SFG drawn from the block diagram of Fig 4.5

Forward Path=P1 = G1, P2 = G2

Loop= L1 = -G1H, L2 = -G2H

∆1 = 1, ∆2 = 1, ∵ both loops L1 & L2 touch both forward paths G2 & G1

respectively

∆ = 1 − {L1 + L2 } = 1 − {(−G1 H) + (−G2 H)}

= 1 + G1 H + G2 H
𝑪 Pk ∆ k P1 .∆1 +P2 .∆2 G1 +G2
Now, 𝑻 = = ∑2k=1 = =
𝑹 ∆ ∆ 1+G1 H+G2 H

Question 2 : Find the overall transfer function of the following SFG using Mason gain
formula.

Fig 4.7: A representation of Signal Flow graph

Solution:

Forward Path gain = 1:abcde 2: abge

Loop gain = L1= bj, L2=di, L3=cdh , L4=f ,

L5 = gh

Non Touching loop : L1 andL4 = bjf

L1 and L2 = bjdi

Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in this signal
flow graph

Δ=1−(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+(bjdi+bjf)−(0)

There is no loop which is non-touching to the first forward path

So Δ1=1
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
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Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
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Similarly Δ2=1

Substitute, N = 2 in Mason’s gain formula

T=C(s)/R(s)= ∑𝟐𝒊=𝟏 PiΔi

P1Δ1+P2Δ2
=
Δ
C(s) (abcde)1+(abge)1
T= =
R(s) 1-(bj+gh+cdh+di+f)+bjdi+bjf
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

Modeling of Mechanical System

There are two types of mechanical system

1.Translation Mechanical System

Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems mainly
consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and dashpot or damper.

2.Rotational Mechanical System

Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist
of three basic elements. Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

Translation Mechanical System

 Inertial force: fm(t)

Fig 5.1 Force F applied to a mass M

 Dashpot

If a force is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing force due

to friction of the dashpot. This opposing force is proportional to the velocity of the
body. Assume mass and elasticity are negligible.

Fig 5.2 Force F applied to a Dashpot B

 Damping force : fB(t)

Spring

Spring is an element, which stores potential energy. If a force is applied on spring K,

then it is opposed by an opposing force due to elasticity of spring. This opposing force
is proportional to the displacement of the spring. Assume mass and friction are
negligible

Fig 5.5 Force F applied to a Spring with a spring constant K

Spring force: fk(t)

u(t)

x(t)

f(t)
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Simple Translation Mechanical System

u(t)

x(t)

M f(t)

fm(t)
fB(t) M f(t)
fk(t)

Fig 5.8 Direction of forces and displacements on a translation system

D’Alembert’s basic equation for translation

Moment of Inertia

 In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic energy. Similarly, in rotational

mechanical system, moment of inertia stores kinetic energy.

 If a torque is applied on a body having moment of inertia J, then it is opposed by an

opposing torque due to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is proportional to
angular acceleration of the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
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Fig 5.9 Torque applied on a system having moment of inertia

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝑇𝑗 =j =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Torsional Spring:
 In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential energy. Similarly, in
rotational mechanical system, torsional spring stores potential energy.

 If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is opposed by an opposing torque

due to the elasticity of torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular displacement of the torsional spring.

𝑇𝑘 =K 𝜃

Fig 5.10 Torque applied on a Spring

Dashpot

 If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the rotational friction of the dashpot. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular velocity of the body. Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are
negligible.
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Fig 5.11 Torque applied on a dashpot

𝑑𝜃
𝑇𝑘 =B 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡

Rotational Mechanical System

B T

Fig 5.12 Direction of T, 𝜔 , 𝜃 on a translation system

Analogy of Translation and Rotational Mechanical System

By Comparing the coefficients of equation(i) & (ii) We can establish a analogy between
translation and rotational mechanical system.

Translation Rotation

Force (F) Torque (T)

Velocity (u) Angular velocity (ω)
Displacement (x) Angular displacement (θ)
Mass (M) Moment of inertia (J)
Damping constant (B) Rotational damping (B)
Spring constant (K) Rotational spring constant (K)
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Force-voltage analogy

Fig 5.13 A series RLC circuit

By applying KVL to The above circuit.

eq (i)

eq(ii)

By Comparing the coefficients of equation (i) & (iii)

We can establish the given below analogy called force Voltage analogy.

Force Voltage
Force (F) Voltage (V or e)
Velocity (u) Current (i)
Displacement (x) Charge (q)
Mass (M) Inductance(L)
Damping constant (B) Resistance (R)
Reciprocal of capacitance
Spring constant (K) (1/C)

Force Current analogy

Fig 5.14 A parallel RLC circuit

By applying KCL we will obtained the following equation

𝑉 𝑑𝑉 1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 ∫ 𝑉(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 eq (iii)

eq(iv)

By Comparing the coefficients of equation (i)&(iv)

We can establish the given below analogy called force current analogy.
Force Current
Force (F) Current (i)
Velocity (u) Voltage (e)
Displacement (x) Flux (Ψ)
Mass (M) Capacitance (C)
Damping constant (B) Reciprocal of resistance (1/R)
Reciprocal of inductance (1/L)
Spring constant (K)
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Potentiometer Error Detector

• Two identical potentiometers connected in parallel and supplied a voltage V

Fig. 6.1 Potentiometer Error Detector

e= Error

θr = Angular position of input shaft

θ0 = Angular position of output shaft

Ke = Gain of the error detector

Fig.6.2: Circuit Diagram

• e 𝜶 (θr - θ0 )

• E= Ke (θr - θ0 ) = Ke θe

• E(s)= Ke [θr (s)- θ0 (s)]= Ke θe(s)

Fig. 6.3 : Block diagram of potentiometer error detector

Synchro (Selsyn) Error Detector

Fig. 6.4: Synchro Error Detector

Error Detector output: e= Ke sin (θr - θ0 )

• In control system the angular error is usually small, therefore

sin (θr - θ0 ) ≈ (θr - θ0 )

Hence: e= Ke (θr - θ0 ) = Ke θe

E(s) = Ke [θr (s)- θ0 (s)]= Ke θe(s)

Fig. 6.5 Block diagram of Synchro error detector

Servo Motors

 Field controlled DC motor is as :

The related dynamic equations are:

𝐝𝐢𝐟
𝐕𝐟 = 𝐑 𝐟 𝐢𝐟 + 𝐋𝐟
𝐝𝐭
TM = K f If

𝐝𝟐 𝛉𝐦 𝐝𝛉𝐦
𝐓𝐌 = 𝐉𝐦 + 𝐟𝐦
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝛚𝐦
𝐓𝐌 = 𝐉𝐦 + 𝐟𝐦 𝛚𝐦
𝐝𝐭
The corresponding Laplace transformed equations are:

𝐕𝐟 (𝐬) = 𝐑 𝐟 𝐈𝐟 (𝐬) + 𝐬𝐋𝐟 𝐈𝐟 (𝐬)

TM (s) = K f If (s)

𝐓𝐌 (𝐬) = 𝐬𝟐 𝐉𝐦 𝛉𝐦 (𝐬) + 𝐬𝐟𝐦 𝛉𝐦 (𝐬)

𝐓𝐌 (𝐬) = 𝐬𝐉𝐦 𝛚𝐦 (𝐬) + 𝐟𝐦 𝛚𝐦 (𝐬)

𝜽𝒎 (𝒔) 𝑲𝒇
=
𝑽𝒇 (𝒔) 𝒔(𝑹𝒇+ 𝒔𝑳𝒇 ) (𝒔𝑱𝒎 +𝒇𝒎 )

𝒘𝒎 (𝒔) 𝑲𝒇
=
𝑽𝒇 (𝒔) (𝑹𝒇+ 𝒔𝑳𝒇 ) (𝒔𝑱𝒎 +𝒇𝒎 )

Two Phase AC Servo Motor

The related dynamic equations are:

𝐝𝛉𝐦
𝐓𝐌 = 𝐦 + 𝐊𝐕𝐜
𝐝𝐭
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𝐝𝟐 𝛉𝐦 𝐝𝛉𝐦
𝐓𝐌 = 𝐉𝐦 + 𝐟𝐦
𝐝𝐭 𝟐 𝐝𝐭
The corresponding Laplace transformed equations are:

𝑻𝑴 (𝒔) = 𝒔𝒎𝜽𝒎 (𝒔) + 𝑲𝑽𝒄 (𝒔)

𝐓𝐌 (𝐬) = 𝐬𝟐 𝐉𝐦 𝛉𝐦 (𝐬) + 𝐬𝐟𝐦 𝛉𝐦 (𝐬)

𝛉𝐦 (𝐬) 𝐊𝐦
=
𝐕𝐜 (𝐬) 𝐬(𝟏+𝐬𝐓𝐦 )

𝐊
• Where: motor gain constant 𝐊 𝐦 = (𝐟
𝐦 −𝐦)

𝐉𝐦
• And motor time constant 𝐓𝐦 = (𝐟
𝐦 −𝐦)

Tacho-generator

• DC Tacho-generator Converts rotational speed to DC

e∝𝜔

e= 𝑲𝒕𝒈 𝝎

Where: Ktg is tacho-generator constant

E(s)=𝑲𝒕𝒈 𝝎(s)
𝐄(𝐬)
=𝑲𝒕𝒈
𝝎(𝐬)

• AC tacho-generator Converts rotational speed to AC voltage (Principle of induction

generator)

e∝𝜔

e= 𝑲𝒕𝒈 𝝎
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Where: Ktg is tacho-generator constant V/(rad/sec)

E(s)=𝑲𝒕𝒈 𝝎(s)

𝐄(𝐬)
=𝑲𝒕𝒈
𝝎(𝐬)

Numerical

Q. The diagram given below represents a closed loop control system for regulating the
terminal voltage of d.c. generator. The generator field winding is excited by the amplified
difference between the reference battery voltage E and 10% of the terminal voltage. The
generator terminal voltage falls from 450V to 400V on switching the load, field current being
1.5A. If the generator terminal voltage is to be kept constant within 2% of the full load value
of 400V, calculate the gain of amplifier.
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Solution

The steady state equations developed are us under:

𝐸𝑖 =𝑉𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝑎 …….(1)

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑖𝐿 𝑅𝐿 …….(2)

From eq (1) and (2) following relation is derived:

Vt iL RL iL RL
= =
Ei Vt + iL Ra iL RL t + iL Ra

𝑉𝑡 𝑅𝐿
= …….(3)
𝐸𝑖 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑎

The generator e.m.f. constant is given by

𝐸𝑖 450
𝐾𝑔 = = = 300 V/A
𝑖𝑓 1.5
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The block diagram under steady state conditions for the system is developed as shown in
fig. above

Given :𝑉𝑡 = 400

𝑬𝒊 =450

So from equation (3)

𝑹𝑳 𝑽𝒕 𝟒𝟎𝟎
= = =0.8
𝑹𝑳 + 𝑹𝒂 𝑬𝒊 𝟒𝟓𝟎

Redrawn block diagram

Transfer function relating the error e and reference voltage 𝑬𝒓 is given as

𝑒 1
=
𝐸𝑟 1+𝐾𝐴 𝑋 300 𝑋 0.88 𝑋0.1

𝒆 𝟏
= …………..(4)
𝑬𝒓 𝟏+𝟐𝟔.𝟒 𝑲𝑨

The allowable error is 2%, therefore, the error voltage is

2
e = (400 X 0.1) X 100

e =0.8 volt………………..(5)

The reference voltage is thus: 𝐸𝑟 =(400 X 0.1) + 0.8

𝑬𝒓 = 40.8 volts …….(6)

Substituting (5) and (6) in (4) following relation is obtained

𝟎.𝟖 𝟏
=
𝟒𝟎.𝟖 𝟏+𝟐𝟔.𝟒 𝑲𝑨
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So 𝑲𝑨 = 1.89 A/V Ans.

Numerical

Q A closed-loop speed control system uses a two-phase a.c. motor. The error signal is
amplified by an amplifier the output of which is connected to the motor. The motor shaft is
connected to a load through a gear having a ratio 10 : 1.

The amplifier gain is 20 V/V and tachogenerator used in the feedback path has a gain
constant K tg = 0.2 V/(rad/sec). The moment of inertia and coefficient of viscous friction
referred to motor shaft side are respectively 1.5 x10−4 kg- m2 and 1 x 10−4 Nm/(rad/sec).

The motor has a stall torque of O.12 Nm at 100 V input and the torque decreases by 50%
when the speed increases to 2OO0 r.p.m.

Determine the transfer function of the system.

Solution

Solution. The characteristics of the two phase motor is drawn in Fig.

constants m and K of the motor are

(𝟎.𝟎𝟔−𝟎.𝟏𝟐)
m= = -3 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Nm/(rad/sec).
𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝝅/𝟔𝟎

(𝟎.𝟏𝟐)
K= =12 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 Nm/V
(𝟏𝟎𝟎)

The block diagram for the system is developed and shown in Fig
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Substituting numerical values, the block diagram becomes

Further reducing the block Diagram

Final Transfer Function of system is:

𝟐𝟒
𝝎(𝒔) 𝟏.𝟓𝒔+𝟓 𝟏𝟔
= 𝟐𝟒 = Ans
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏+𝟏.𝟓𝒔+𝟓 𝑿 𝟎.𝟐 𝒔+𝟓.𝟖𝟔
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Control Hardware and their models

 Comparison between Pneumatic Systems and Hydraulic Systems.

 The fluid generally found in pneumatic systems is air; in hydraulic systems it is oil.
And it is primarily the different properties of the fluids involved that characterize
the differences between the two systems. These differences can be listed as follows:

 Air and gases are compressible, whereas oil is incompressible (except at high
pressure).

 Air lacks lubricating property and always contains water vapor. Oil functions as a
hydraulic fluid as well as a lubricator.

 The normal operating pressure of pneumatic systems is very much lower than that
of hydraulic systems.

 Output powers of pneumatic systems are considerably less than those of hydraulic
systems.

 Accuracy of pneumatic actuators is poor at low velocities, whereas accuracy of

hydraulic actuators may be made satisfactory at all velocities.

 In pneumatic systems, external leakage is permissible to a certain extent , but internal

leakage must be avoided because the effective pressure difference is rather small. In
hydraulic systems internal leakage is permissible to a certain extent , but external
leakage must be avoided.

 No return pipes are required in pneumatic systems when air is used , whereas they are
always needed in hydraulic systems.

 Normal operating temperature for pneumatic systems is 5°to 60°C (41°to 140°F).
Pneumatic systems are insensitive to temperature changes, in contrast to hydraulic
systems. Normal operating temperature for hydraulic systems is 20°to 70°C (68° to
158°F).

 Pneumatic systems are fire- and explosion-proof, whereas hydraulic systems are not ,
unless nonflammable liquid is used.

Hydraulic Systems

The widespread use of hydraulic circuitry in machine tool applications, aircraft

control systems and similar operations occurs Because of such factors as
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 Positiveness

 Accuracy

 Flexibility

 High horsepower-to-weight ratio

 Fast starting, stopping

 Reversal with smoothness and precision

 Simplicity

 The operating pressure in hydraulic systems is somewhere between 1 and 35MPa. In

some special applications, the operating pressure may go up 70 Mpa of operations.

 For the same power requirement, the weight and size of the hydraulic unit can be made
smaller by increasing the supply pressure.

 With high-pressure hydraulic systems, very large force can be obtained. Rapid-acting,
accurate positioning of heavy loads is possible with hydraulic systems.

 A combination of electronic and hydraulic systems is widely used because it

combines the advantages of both electronic control and hydraulic power.

 Particular attention is necessary to ensure that the hydraulic system is stable and
satisfactory under all operating conditions Since the viscosity of hydraulic fluid can
greatly affect damping and friction effects of the hydraulic circuits, stability tests must
be carried out at the highest possible operating temperature.

 Note that most hydraulic systems are nonlinear Sometimes, however, it is possible to
linearize nonlinear systems so as to reduce their complexity and permit solutions that
are sufficiently accurate for most purposes.

 Hydraulic Servomotor is essentially a pilot-valve-controlled hydraulic power

amplifier and actuator . The pilot valve is a balanced valve , in the sense that the
pressure forces acting on it are all balanced. A very large power output can be controlled
by a pilot valve , which can be positioned with very little po

 Figure shows a hydraulic servomotor

Fig. 7.1 (a) Hydraulic Servo Motor

b) Valve Orifice Area enlarged

Assuming that the pilot-valve displacement x is the input and the power-piston displacement
y is the output , we find that the transfer function for the hydraulic servomotor is

𝑌(𝑠) 1
H(s) = = 𝑚𝐾 𝑏𝐾 𝐴𝜌 ………..(7.1)
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠[( 𝐴𝐾 2 )𝑠+(𝐴𝐾2 )+(𝐾 )]
1 1 1

𝐾
= …… . .(7.2)
𝑠(𝑇𝑠+1)

Where K is a Constant and T is the time Constant

1 𝑚𝐾2
𝐾= 𝑏𝐾2 𝐴𝜌 and T=
𝑏𝐾2 +𝐴2 𝜌
+
𝐴𝐾1 𝐾1

In the above equations

 K1 and K2 are constants

 M= Load mass

 𝜌= density of oil

 A= piston area and

 b = Valve friction coefficient which is negative.

Electro Hydraulic Valve

 Oil flow q is a function of valve displacement x and pressure difference PL .

q= f ( x, PL)……………………..(7.3)

 From the above diagram flow equation is

𝑞1 = 𝑘 𝑥 √𝑃0 − 𝑃1 x>0………………………(7.4)

Where q1 is the rate of flow through port A and K is a flow coefficient which is a
function of valve and fluid properties.

 In addition to that it follows that

 𝑞2 = 𝑘 𝑥 √𝑃0 x>0………………………….(7.5)

Where q2 is the rate of flow through port B

Since q1 = q2 = q equation reduces to

𝑘
𝑞1 = 𝑥 √𝑃0 − 𝑃 x>0 Where P= P1-P2 ……… (7.6)
√2

 Bysolving the above equations Transfer function of hydraulic Valve is

𝒀(𝒔) 𝑲
= …………………………(7.7)
𝑿(𝒔) 𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

Where
AK1 M
K= (f+A2 )
andT =
K2 f+A2

∂q ∂q
K1 = andK 2 = −
∂x ∂PL

A : Area of piston
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f : coefficient of viscous friction

M : mass of load

Pneumatic Systems

 The past decades have seen a great development in low- pressure pneumatic
controllers for industrial control systems, and today they are used extensively in
industrial processes.

Reasons for

 Their broad appeal include an explosion- proof character,

 Simplicity and ease of maintenance.

 The schematic diagram of Pneumatic flapper valve is as shown below

Fig. 7.4 Pneumatic Flapper Valve

 Pressurized air flow is fed through the orifice and is ejected form the nozzle towards
the flapper. Nozzle back pressure is controlled by the nozzle flapper distance e.

 Flapper valve converts the small changes in the position of the flapper into the
larger changes in the back pressure. A typical curve relating a nozzle back pressure
Pbto a nozzle flapper distance is e is shown in fig. The Linear part of The curve is
utilized in valve operation.
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Fig. 7.5 Flapper Valve Characteristics

 The Transfer Function of Valve is

∆𝑃 𝑠
𝑏 𝑎
(∆𝑥(𝑠) ) = (𝑎+𝑏)K ………………………………(7.8)

𝑎
Where K<0 is the slope of Linear part of the curve and e = ( )x is the nozzle
𝑎+𝑏
flapper distance .

Pneumatic actuator

 It is used to obtained linear displacement of a plunger with pressurized air as input.

Input pressure: P Mass of plunger :M

Coefficient of friction: f Spring deflection constant: K

Area of diaphragm : A Displacement : y

UNIT 3
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Unit 3
Introduction

Time response of a control system means as to how a system behaves in accordance with the
time when a specified input test signal is applied.

 Time response of a control system is divided into two parts namely:

(i) Transient response (ii) Steady state response

 The transient part reveals the nature of response and also gives an indication about its
speed.

 Steady state part of time response reveals the accuracy of a control system.

 Steady state error is observed if the actual output does not exactly match with the input.
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INPUT TEST SIGNAL

1. Step input

𝑨, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
r(t)= { 𝟎, 𝒕 < 0 }

𝑨
R(s)= 𝒔

2. Ramp input

𝑨𝒕, 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎
(t)= { 𝟎, 𝒕 < 0 }

𝑨
R(s)= 𝒔𝟐

3. Parabolic input

𝑨𝒕𝟐
, 𝒕≥𝟎
𝟐
r(t)= 𝟎, 𝒕 < 0
{ }
𝟐𝑨
R(s)=
𝒔𝟑

4. Impulse input
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δ(t)=1 Unit impulse

L(δ(t))=1

Time response of first order control system

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
Closed loop transfer function 𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺(𝑠)

1
Open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠)=𝑠𝑇

1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠𝑇 1
Put 𝑮(𝒔) in above equation 𝑅(𝑠) = 1 =1+𝑠𝑇
1+
𝑠𝑇

The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function is of the
first order and the system is said to be the first order system.
𝟏
Response= 𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)𝑹(𝒔)

Where

 C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t)

 R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and

 T is the time constant.

Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system in the time domain.
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Take the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t).

𝟏
 Consider the equation 𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)𝑹(𝒔)

 Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.

 Do partial fractions of c(s) if required.

 Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s)

Impulse Response
Input is impulse function:

r(t)= δ(t) ; R(s) =1

𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)(𝟏) = (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔)= 𝟏 = 𝑪(𝒔)= 𝑻 ( )
𝟏
𝑻(𝒔+ ) 𝒔+
𝑻 𝑻

Taking inverse Laplace Transform

𝒕
𝟏
C(t) = 𝑻 𝒆(−𝑻) u(t)

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’
and it is zero for negative values of ‘t’

Unit Step Response

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.

r(t)= u(t)
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Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

𝟏
R(s) = 𝒔

𝟏
Consider the equation, 𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)𝑹(𝒔)

1
Substitute R(s) = 𝑠 in above equation

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)( 𝒔 ) =𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

Do partial fractions of C(s)

𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
𝑪(𝒔)=𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)= 𝒔 + 𝟏+𝒔𝑻

𝟏 𝑨(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)+𝑩𝒔
= 𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻) = 𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by each other.
Hence, equate the numerator terms.

1 = 𝑨(𝟏 + 𝒔𝑻) + 𝑩𝒔

By equating the constant terms on both the side A=1

Substitute A=1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides

0= T+B

B=-T

Substitute A=1 and B=-T in partial fraction expansion of C(s)

𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝟏
C(s)= 𝒔 - 𝟏+𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔 - 𝟏 = - 𝟏
𝑻(𝒔+ ) 𝒔 (𝒔+ )
𝑻 𝑻

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕
C(t) = (1- 𝒆(−𝑻) ) u(t)

 The unit step response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

 The transient term in the unit step response is:

𝒕
𝒄𝒕𝒓 (t)= −𝒆−(𝑻) ) u(t)

 The steady state term in the unit step response is 𝒄𝒔𝒔 (t)= u(t)

Ramp Response of First Order System

 Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system r(t)= t u(t), R(s)=
𝟏
𝒔𝟐

𝟏
Consider the equation 𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)𝑹(𝒔),

1
 Substitute R(s)= 𝑠2 in above equation

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐂(𝐬)= (𝟏+𝐬𝐓)( 𝐬𝟐 ) = 𝐬𝟐 (𝟏+𝐬𝐓)

Do partial fractions of C(s)

𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
𝑪(𝒔)=𝒔𝟐 (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)= 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏+𝒔𝑻

𝟏 𝑨(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)+𝑩𝒔(𝟏+𝒔𝑻)+𝑪𝒔𝟐
= 𝒔𝟐 (𝟏+𝒔𝑻) = 𝒔𝟐 (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

1 =𝑨(𝟏 + 𝒔𝑻) + 𝑩𝒔(𝟏 + 𝒔𝑻) + 𝑪𝒔𝟐

By equating the constant terms on both the side A=1

Substitute A=1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides

0= T+B

B=-T

Substitute B=-T and equate the coefficient of 𝑠 2 terms on both the sides. You will get C=𝑇 2
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Substitute A=-1 and B=-T and C=𝑇 2 in partial fraction expansion of C(s)

𝟏 𝑻 𝑻𝟐 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻 𝑻𝟐
C(s)= 𝒔𝟐- 𝒔 + 𝟏+𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔 - 𝟏 = 𝒔𝟐 - 𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑻(𝒔+ ) 𝑻(𝒔+ )
𝑻 𝑻

𝟏 𝑻 𝑻
C(s)= - + 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 𝒔 (𝒔+ )
𝑻

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕
C(t) = (t-T+T𝒆(−𝑻) ) u(t)

 The unit ramp response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
𝒕
 The transient term in the unit step response is: 𝒄𝒕𝒓 (t)= 𝑻𝒆−(𝑻) ) u(t)

 The steady state term in the unit step response is : 𝒄𝒔𝒔 (t)= (t-T)u(t)

Parabolic Response of First Order System

𝑡2
 Consider the parabolic signal as an input to the first order system r(t)= u(t)
2

1
 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides R(s)= 𝑠3

𝟏
Consider the equation 𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)𝑹(𝒔)

1
 Substitute R(s)= 𝑠3 in above equation

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑪(𝒔)= (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)( 𝒔𝟑) = 𝒔𝟑 (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)

Do partial fractions of C(s)

𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪 𝑫
𝑪(𝒔)=𝒔𝟑 (𝟏+𝒔𝑻)=𝒔𝟑 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔 + 𝟏+𝒔𝑻
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After Simplification we will get

A=-1, B=-T, C=𝑇 2 , D=-𝑇 2 .

Substituting these in partial fraction expansion of C(s)

𝟏 𝑻 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟑
C(s)= 𝒔𝟑 − + - 𝟏+𝒔𝑻
𝒔𝟐 𝒔

𝟏 𝑻 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐
C(s)= − + - 𝒔+𝟏/𝑻
𝒔𝟑 𝒔𝟐 𝒔

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

𝒕
𝒕𝟐
C(t) = ( 𝟐 -Tt+ 𝑻𝟐 -𝑻𝟐 𝒆(−𝑻) ) u(t)

 The unit parabolic response, c(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.

 The transient term:

𝒕
𝒄𝒕𝒓 (t)= −𝑻𝟐 𝒆−(𝑻) ) u(t)

𝒕𝟐
 The steady state term: 𝒄𝒔𝒔 (t)=( 𝟐 -Tt+ 𝑻𝟐 )u(t)

 From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control systems are not
stable with the ramp and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing
even at infinite amount of time. The first order control systems are stable with impulse
and step inputs because these responses have bounded output. But, the impulse
response doesn’t have steady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time
domain for analysing the control systems from their responses.
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Time response of Second order control system

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)

𝝎𝟐
𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) ( ) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝒔(𝒔+𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 )
=( 𝝎𝟐
)=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒏 𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔+𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝟏+ ( )
𝒔(𝒔+𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 )

𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝑪(𝒔) = 𝟐 𝑹(𝒔)
𝒔 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏
𝝎𝒏 = natural frequency

𝜹= damping ratio

Characteristic Equation 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 =0

Roots of Characteristic Equation

−𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 ±√(𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 −𝟒𝝎𝟐𝒏 −𝟐(𝜹𝝎𝒏 ±𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)

𝒔= =
𝟐 𝟐

𝒔= −𝜹𝝎𝒏 ± 𝝎𝒏 √(𝜹)𝟐 − 𝟏
The two roots are imaginary when 𝜹=0

The two roots are real and equal when 𝜹=1

The two roots are real but not equal when 𝜹 >1
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The two roots are complex conjugate when 0<𝜹 <1

Step Response
1
Consider a unit step signal as an input. Laplace transform of unit step signal is 𝑅(𝑠) = 𝑠

Transfer function of second order system

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

Case 1: 𝜹=0.

So put 𝛿=0 in above equation

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏
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𝒏 𝝎𝟐
C(s)= 𝒔𝟐 +𝝎 𝟐 𝑹(𝒔)
𝒏

1
Put R(s)=𝑠 :

𝒏𝝎𝟐 𝟏 𝒏 𝝎𝟐
C(s)= 𝒔𝟐 +𝝎 𝟐 𝒔 = 𝒔(𝒔𝟐 +𝝎𝟐 )
𝒏 𝒏

𝟏 𝒔
C(s)= 𝒔 - 𝒔𝟐 +𝝎𝟐
𝒏

Taking inverse Laplace of C(s)

C(t)= (1- cos (𝝎𝒏 t)) u(t)

Sustained Oscillations and Imaginary roots

Case 2: 𝛿=1

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐
= 𝒔𝟐 +𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔+𝝎𝟐
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒏 𝒏

𝝎𝟐
C(s)= (𝒔+𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝑹(𝒔)
𝒏)

1
Put R(s)=𝑠 :

𝝎𝟐 𝟏 𝝎𝟐
C(s)= ((𝒔+𝝎𝒏 ) 𝒔 = 𝒔 (𝒔+𝝎𝒏
𝒏 )𝟐 𝒏)
𝟐

Do partial fraction

𝝎𝟐 𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
C(s)= 𝒔 (𝒔+𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒔
= + 𝒔+𝝎 + (𝒔+𝝎 𝟐
𝒏) 𝒏 𝒏)

𝟏 𝟏 𝝎𝒏
After simplifying C(s)= 𝒔 − 𝒔+𝝎 - (𝒔+𝝎 𝟐
𝒏 𝒏)
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Apply inverse Laplace on both side

−𝝎𝒏 𝒕 −𝝎𝒏 𝒕
C(t)= (1- 𝒆 - 𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒆 ) u(t)

 Critically damped

 Real and equal roots

Case 3: 0<δ<1

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

We can modify the denominator term of transfer function as

𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

= {𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐(𝒔)(𝜹𝝎𝒏 ) + (𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 } +𝝎𝟐𝒏 -(𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

=(𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +𝝎𝟐𝒏 (1- 𝜹𝟐 )

Transfer function becomes

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) (𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +𝝎𝟐𝒏 (1- 𝜹𝟐 )

𝝎𝟐𝒏
C(s)= (𝒔+𝜹𝝎 )𝟐 +𝝎𝟐 (1- 𝜹𝟐 )
𝑹(𝒔)
𝒏 𝒏

𝟏
Put R(s)=𝒔
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𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏
C(s)= ((𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 )𝒔
𝒏 ) +𝝎𝒏 (1- 𝜹 )

𝝎𝟐𝒏
=𝒔((𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒏 ) +𝝎𝒏 (1- 𝜹 ))

𝑨 𝑩𝒔+𝑪
Do partial fraction= + (𝒔+𝜹𝝎
𝒔 𝒏)
𝟐 +𝝎𝟐𝒏 (1- 𝜹𝟐 )

𝟏 𝒔+𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏
After Simplifying C(s)= 𝒔 − (𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒏 ) +𝝎𝒏 (1- 𝜹 )

𝟏 𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏
C(s)= 𝒔 − (𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
-
𝒏 ) +𝝎𝒏 (1- 𝜹 )
𝜹𝝎𝒏
(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +𝝎𝟐𝒏 (1- 𝜹𝟐 )

𝟏 𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝜹
C(s)= 𝒔 − 𝟐 -
(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +(𝝎𝒏 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐 ) √𝟏−𝜹𝟐

𝝎𝒏 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐
𝟐
(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +(𝝎𝒏 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐 )

Substitute ωn √1 − δ2 as ωd
𝟏 𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝜹 𝝎𝒅
C(s)= 𝒔 − (𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝟐 𝟐
-
𝒏 ) +(𝝎𝒅 ) √𝟏−𝜹𝟐 (𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 +(𝝎𝒅 )𝟐

Apply inverse Laplace on both side

−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕 𝜹 −𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕
C(t)= (1- 𝒆 cos𝝎𝒅 t) - 𝒆 sin(𝝎𝒅 t)) u(t)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

−𝜹𝝎 𝒕
𝒆 𝒏
C(t)= (1- ((√𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 )cos(𝝎𝒅 t) -𝜹sin(𝝎𝒅 t))) u(t)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

If √𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 = sin θ then 𝜹= cos θ

−𝜹𝝎 𝒕
𝒆 𝒏
C(t)= (1- ((sin θ cos(𝝎𝒅 t) -cos θsin(𝝎𝒅 t))) u(t)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

−𝜹𝝎 𝒕
𝒆 𝒏
C(t)= (1- ( ) (sin 𝝎𝒅 t + θ)) u(t)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

Under damped response

Complex conjugate roots

Case 4: δ>1

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏

We can modify the denominator term of transfer function as

𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏 = {𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐(𝒔)(𝜹𝝎𝒏 ) + (𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 } +𝝎𝟐𝒏 - (𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐

=(𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 -𝝎𝟐𝒏 ( 𝜹𝟐 - 1)

𝑪(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏
=
𝑹(𝒔) (𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 -𝝎𝟐𝒏 ( 𝜹𝟐 - 1)

𝝎𝟐𝒏
C(s)= (𝒔+𝜹𝝎 𝑹(𝒔)
𝒏)
𝟐 -𝝎𝟐𝒏 ( 𝜹𝟐 - 1)

𝝎𝟐𝒏 𝟏
C(s)= 𝟐
(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 )𝟐 -(𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏) 𝒔

𝝎𝟐𝒏
C(s)=
𝒔(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 +𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 −𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)

Do Partial Fraction:

𝑨 𝑩 𝑪
+ +
𝒔 (𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 + 𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 − 𝟏) (𝒔 + 𝜹𝝎𝒏 − 𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 − 𝟏)

After simplifying we will get A, B, and C respectively

𝟏 −𝟏
A=1 B= C=
𝟐(𝜹+√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏) 𝟐(𝜹−√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)

So
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
C(s)= 𝒔 + ( )−
𝟐(𝜹+√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏) (𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 +𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)

𝟏 𝟏
( )( )
𝟐(𝜹−√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏) (𝒔+𝜹𝝎𝒏 −𝝎𝒏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)

Applying inverse Laplace Transform:

𝟏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)𝒕 𝟏 √𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)𝒕

C(t)= (1+ ( )𝒆−(𝜹𝝎𝒏 +𝝎𝒏 - ( ) 𝒆−(𝜹𝝎𝒏−𝝎𝒏 )
𝟐(𝜹+√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏) 𝟐(𝜹−√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)(√𝜹𝟐 −𝟏)
u(t)

 Over damped

 Real roots but not equal

Transient response specification of second order control system

Rise Time (tr) : The rise time is the time needed for response to reach from 0 to 100% (for
under-damped) or 10-90% (for over-damped) of the desired value of the output at the very
first instant
𝛑−𝛗
𝒕𝒓 =
𝛚𝐧 √𝟏−𝛅𝟐

√𝟏−𝜹𝟐
where: 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝜹

At t= 𝒕𝟏 =0, c(t)=0 .

We know that the final value of the step response in one.

So at t= 𝒕𝟐 value of the step response in one

Substitute values in following equation

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕
C(t)= 1- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 t+ θ)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝟐
C(𝒕𝟐 )=1=1- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + θ)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝟐
( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + θ) =0
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + θ) =0

𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝟐 + θ = π

π −θ
𝒕𝟐 = 𝝎𝒅

Substitute 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 values in the following equation of rise time.

𝒕𝒓 =𝒕𝟐 -𝒕𝟏

π −θ
So, 𝒕𝒓 =
𝝎𝒅

Maximum overshoot (MP): The maximum positive deviation of the output with respect to its
desired value is known as maximum overshoot
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
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𝑴𝑷 = 𝒄(𝒕)𝒎𝒂𝒙 - 1
−𝜹𝝅

𝑴𝑷 = 𝒆√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

Peak time (tP): The time needed to reach the maximum overshoot is called peak time.
π
𝒕𝒑 =
𝝎𝒏 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐

We know the step response of second order system fro under damped case

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕
C(t)= 1- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 t+ θ)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

Differentiate c(t) with respect to t

𝒅𝒄(𝒕) 𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕 −𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕

= -( ) 𝝎𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒅 t+ θ)- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 t+ θ)
𝒅𝒕 √𝟏−𝜹 𝟐 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐

𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
Substitute t= 𝑡𝑝 and = 0 in above equation
𝑑𝑡

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕
0= -( ) [𝝎𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)−𝜹𝝎𝒏 sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)]
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

𝝎𝒏 √𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)−𝜹𝝎𝒏 sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ) = 0

√𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)−𝜹sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ) = 0

𝐬𝐢𝐧 θ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 θsin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ) = 0

𝒔𝒊𝒏 (θ − 𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ) =0

Sin(−𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) =0

-Sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) =0

Sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 ) =0

𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 = π

π
𝒕𝒑 =
𝝎𝒅

Mathematically we can write, 𝑴𝒑 =𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) – c(∞)

Where, 𝒄(𝒕𝒑 ) is peak value of response

c(∞) is final steady state value of response

𝒆−𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒕𝒑
At t= 𝑡𝑝 the response C(t)= 1- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 𝒕𝒑 + θ)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

π
Substitute 𝑡𝑝 = in RHS of above equation
𝜔𝑑

π
−𝜹𝝎𝒏 ( )
𝒆 𝝎𝒅 π
C(t)= 1- ( ) sin(𝝎𝒅 (𝝎 )+ θ)
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐 𝒅

𝜹π
−( )
𝒆 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐
C(𝒕𝒑 )= 1- ( ) (− 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽))
√𝟏−𝜹𝟐

We know that 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) = √𝟏 − 𝜹𝟐

𝜹π
−( )
So we will get C(𝑡𝑝 ) as C(𝒕𝒑 )= 1+ 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐

Substitute the value of 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) and c(∞) in the peak overshoot equation

𝜹π
−( )
𝑴𝒑 = 1+ 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐 -1

𝜹π
−( )
𝑴𝒑 = 𝒆 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐

Percentage of peak overshoot % 𝑀𝑝 can be calculated as

𝑴𝒑
% 𝑴𝒑 = c(∞) x 100%

By substituting the value of 𝑀𝑝 and c(∞) in above formula we get the percentage of peak
overshoot % 𝑀𝑝 as

𝜹π
−( )
% 𝑴𝒑 = (𝒆 √𝟏−𝜹𝟐 ) x100%

Settling time (ts): The time needed to settle down aforesaid oscillations within 2% of desired
value of the output is known as settling time.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

𝟏
𝒕𝒔 = 4T= 𝜹𝝎
𝒏

Steady state error

 Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state error in response to certain
types of inputs.

 A system may have no steady-state error to a step input, but the same system may
exhibit nonzero steady-state error to a ramp input.

 Whether a given system will exhibit steady-state error for a given type of input depends
on the type of open-loop transfer function of the system.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

 Control systems may be classified according to their ability to follow step inputs,
ramp inputs, parabolic inputs, and so on.

 The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these individual inputs are indicative
of the goodness of the system.

 Consider the unity-feedback control system with the following open-loop transfer
function

𝑲 (𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)……(𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)

G(s) = 𝒔𝑵(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……(𝑻𝒎𝒔+𝟏)
𝟏 𝟐 𝒑

• It involves the term sN in the denominator, representing N poles at the origin.

• A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ... , if N=0, N=1, N=2, ... , respectively.

• As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved.

• However, increasing the type number aggravates the stability problem.

• A compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative stability is always

necessary.

Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems

 Consider the system shown in following figure.

 The closed-loop transfer function is

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
= 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔)

𝑬(𝒔)
 The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the input signal R(s) is 𝑹(𝒔)
𝟏
= 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)

 The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find the steady-state

performance of a stable system.
𝟏
 Since E(s) is 𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔)
𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)

 The steady state error is

𝒔 𝑹(𝒔)
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒆(𝒕) = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑬(𝒔) =𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔)
𝒕→∞ 𝒔→0 𝒔→0

Static Error Constants

1. The static error constants are figures of merit of control systems. The higher the
constants, the smaller the steady-state error.

2. In a given system, the output may be the position, velocity, pressure, temperature, or
the like.

3. Therefore, in what follows, we shall call the output “position,” the rate of change of
the output “velocity,” and so on.

4. This means that in a temperature control system “position” represents the output
temperature, “velocity” represents the rate of change of the output temperature, and
so on.

Static Position Error Constant (Kp)

 The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is

𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔) 𝒔 = 𝟏+𝑮(𝟎)
𝒔→0

 The static position error constant Kp is defined by

𝑲𝒑 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 G(s)= 𝑮(𝟎)

𝒔→0

Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position error constant Kp is given by
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏+𝑲
𝒑

For a Type 0 system

𝑲 (𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

𝑲𝒑 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =K
𝒔→0 (𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……

For Type 1 or higher systems

𝑲 (𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)……
𝑲𝒑 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑵(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)…… = ∞ N ≥1
𝒔→0 𝟏 𝟐

For a unit step input the steady state error ess is

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏+𝑲 , For a Type 0 system
𝒑

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 0, For Type 1 or higher systems

Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)

𝒔 𝟏
 The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp input is 𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐
𝒔→0
𝟏
= 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑮(𝒔)
𝒔→0

 The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by

𝑲𝒗 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 sG(s)
𝒔→0

 Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error constant Kv is given by
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲
𝒗

 For a Type 0 system

𝒔𝑲 (𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

 𝑲𝒗 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =0
𝒔→0 (𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……

 For Type 1 systems

𝒔𝑲 (𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

 𝑲𝒗 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =K
𝒔→0 𝒔(𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……

 For type 2 or higher systems

𝒔𝑲 (𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻 𝒔+𝟏)……
 𝑲𝒗 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑵(𝑻 𝒂𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻 𝒃𝒔+𝟏)…… = ∞ for N≥2
𝒔→0 𝟏 𝟐

 For a ramp input the steady state error ess is

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌 =∞ for type 0 system
𝒗

𝟏 𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = = for type 1 system
𝒌𝒗 𝒌

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌 =0 for type 2 and higher system
𝒗

Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)

 The steady-state error of the system for parabolic input is

𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝟏+𝑮(𝒔) 𝒔𝟑= 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝟐 𝑮(𝒔)
𝒔→0 𝒔→0

 The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by

𝑲𝒂 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒔𝟐 G(s)
𝒔→0

 Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static acceleration error constant Ka is given
1
by 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘
𝑎

𝒔𝟐 𝑲(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

 For a Type 0 system 𝑲𝒂 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =𝟎
𝒔→0 (𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……

𝒔𝟐 𝑲(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

 For Type 1 systems 𝑲𝒂 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =𝟎
𝒔→0 𝒔(𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……

𝒔𝟐 𝑲(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)……

 For type 2 systems 𝑲𝒂 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 =𝑲
𝒔→0 𝒔𝟐 (𝑻𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)……
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

 For type 3 or higher systems

𝒔𝟐 𝑲(𝑻𝒂 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝒃 𝒔+𝟏)..

𝑲𝒂 =𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝑵(𝑻 =∞ for N≥3
𝒔→0 𝟏 𝒔+𝟏)(𝑻𝟐 𝒔+𝟏)…

 For a parabolic input the steady state error ess is

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = ∞ for type 0 and type 1 system

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒌 for type 2 system

𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 0 for type 3 and higher system

Step Input R(t)=1 Ramp Input Acceleration input

r(t) =t r(t)= ½ 𝒕𝟐

Type 0 system 1 ∞ ∞
1+𝐾
Type 1 system 0 1 ∞
𝐾
Type 2 system 0 0 1
𝐾
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Root locus
Root locus analysis is a graphical method for examining how the roots of a system change
with variation of a certain system parameter.

•It can be used to describe qualitatively the performance of a system as various parameters are
changed.

•It gives graphic representation of a system’s transient response and also stability.

•We can see the range of stability, instability, and the conditions that cause a system to break
into oscillation.

Evaluation of K from characteristic equation for a closed loop system

• For the close loop system as shown below:

The transfer function is

For a given K, s* is a pole if:

Which is equivalent to:

Since K is real and positive these conditions would be equivalent to:

Rules for drawing Root Locus

1. Root locus symmetrical about real axis

2. The root locus starts from an open loop pole with k=0

3. The root locus will terminate either on open loop zeros or an infinity with k=

4. If N=number of separate locii

P=Number of finite poles

Z=Number of finite zeros

Number of root locii will be equal to the number of poles P if P>Z

N=P if P>Z

N=Z if Z>P

N=P=Z if Z=P

5. If the total number of open loop poles and zeros on the right of a point is odd then that
point is the part of root locus
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6. Asymptotes:

The branches of root locus tends to infinity along a set of straight line called
asymptotes. These asymptotes make an angle with real axis and is given by

(2𝑚 + 1)180𝑜
𝜙=
𝑃−𝑍

Where, m=0,1,2,3..

The total number of asymptote = P-Z

7. Centroid of asymptotes:
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The point of intersection of asymptotes with real axis is called centroid of

asymptotes and is given by

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

𝜎𝐴 =
𝑃−𝑍

8. Angle of departure from open loop pole

Angle of arrival at open loop zero

9. Break away point on real axis

𝑑𝐾
=0
𝑑𝑠
K
If G(s)H(s) =
s(s 2 +6s+10)

1 + 𝐺 (𝑠 ) 𝐻 (𝑠 )
=1
K
+
s(s 2 + 6s + 10)
=0
𝐾 = −𝑠 3 − 6𝑠 2 − 10𝑠
𝑑𝐾
= −3𝑠 2 − 12𝑠 − 10
𝑑𝑠
=0
𝑠1 = −1.1835, 𝑠2
= −2.815
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10. ϳω-axis crossing

• use Routh Hurwitzto find jw axis crossings.

• When we have jw axis crossings, the Routh Table has all zeros at a row.

• Find the K value for which a row of zeros is achieved in the Routh table.

• Let a transfer function

The row 𝑠1 is zero for K=9.65

For this K, the previous row polynomial is ;

(90-K)𝑠 2 + 21K = 80.35𝑠 2 + 202.7

Where root is s=± − 𝑗1.59

14
Q 1. obtain the root locus plot for the unity feedback system with transfer function
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𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠+2)

Q2. obtain the root locus plot for the unity feedback system with transfer function
𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠+5)(𝑠+10)

Q 3. plot root locus graph for a unity gain feedback system with the open loop transfer

function is given as
𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠+2+2𝑗)(𝑠+2−2𝑗)

Q 4.plot root locus graph for a unity gain feedback system with the open loop transfer

function is given as

𝐾(𝑠+2)
G(s)=(𝑠+1+𝑗√3)(𝑠+1−𝑗√3)
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UNIT 4
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Transient and Steady State of System

 If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time, then it is called

the time response of the control system. The time response consists of two parts.

Transient response and Steady state response

 The response of control system in time domain is shown in the following figure.

Fig16.1: Response of Control System In Time Domain .

 The responses corresponding to these states are known as transient and steady state

responses.

 Mathematically, we can write the time response c(t) as

C(t)= ctr (t) + css (t)

Where,

 ctr(t) is the transient response

 css(t) is the steady state response

Transient State of System

 After applying input to the control system, output takes certain time to reach steady

state. So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a steady state. Therefore, the
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response of the control system during the transient state is known as transient

response.

 The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally, this value of ‘t’ is

infinity and practically, it is five times constant. Mathematically, we can write it as

lim ctr (t) =0

t→∞

 Transient State Accuracy means when a system achieves its steady state in desired

time and does not lock into oscillations .

Steady State Response

 The part of the time response that remains even after the transient response has zero

value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state response. This means, the

transient response will be zero even during the steady state.

 Now Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time response of the control

system c(t)=10+5e−t

 Here, the second term 5e−t will be zero as t denotes infinity. So, this is the transient

term. And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So, this is the steady

state term.

 So steady state accuracy may be defined as how close a system approaches towards its

steady state value(desired output)

Relative Stability

 A system may be absolutely stable i.e. it may have passed the Routh Stability test.

 As a result their response decays to zero under zero input conditions

 The ratio at which these decay to zero is important to check the concept of “ Relative

Stability”

 When the poles are located far away from jw axis in LHP of s-plane, the response

decays to zero much faster, as compared to the poles close to jw axis.

 The more the poles are located far away from jw axis, the more is the system relatively

stable.

Feedback Control System

 A feedback control system is a system whose output is controlled using its measurement

as a feedback signal.

 This feedback signal is compared with a reference signal to generate an error signal

which is filtered by a controller to produce the system's control input.

 The block diagram below illustrates a general feedback system.

Block Diagram
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 The plant is the system or process through which a particular quantity or condition is

controlled. This is also called the controlled system.

 The control elements are components needed to generate the appropriate control signal

applied to the plant. These elements are also called the “controller.”

 The feedback elements are components needed to identify the functional relationship

between the feedback signal and the controlled output.

 The reference point is an external signal applied to the summing point of the control

system to cause the plant to produce a specified action. This signal represents the

desired value of a controlled variable and is also called the “setpoint.”

 The controlled output is the quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled. This

signal represents the controlled variable.

 The feedback signal is a function of the output signal. It is sent to the summing point

and algebraically added to the reference input signal to obtain the actuating signal.
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 The actuating signal represents the control action of the control loop and is equal to the

algebraic sum of the reference input signal and feedback signal. This is also called the

“error signal.”

 The manipulated variable is the variable of the process acted upon to maintain the plant

output (controlled variable) at the desired value.

 The disturbance is an undesirable input signal that upsets the value of the controlled

output of the plant.

Disturbance Rejection

 With feedback, the controller is able to use the output to shape the input of the system.

 In this way, various disturbances don't affect the system as much and do not create such

huge deviations from our desired output. Thus, our system can "reject" the disturbance.

 So A feedback control system has a ability to reject the external disturbances and drive

the system to achieve the desired output.

Example of Disturbance Rejection

 If there is an automobile system (Bike or car) based on open-loop control system it

could only try to get itself to a particular velocity by using some sort of schedule to

accelerate itself. However, in this case, it would not know how to adjust for any

disturbances (such as the presence of a hill) that would affect the velocity as well.

 Thus, by closing the loop on the system, It continually measures its velocity to

determine how much it should accelerate to achieve its desired velocity. This feedback

allows the system to reject (not be affected by) the disturbance of the hill.

Robustness and Insensitivity.

 Robustness is the ability of the closed loop system to be insensitive to component

variations.

 It is one of the most useful properties of feedback. Robustness is also what make it

possible to design feedback system based on strongly simplified models.

 In control theory , robust control is an approach to controller design that explicitly deals

with uncertainty.

 A controller designed for a particular set of parameters is said to be robust if it also

works well under a different set of assumptions.

 High-gain feedback is a simple example of a robust control method; with sufficiently

high gain, the effect of any parameter variations will be negligible

Feedback control system

 Corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates from the set point,

regardless of the source and type of disturbance.

 Feedback control does not provide predictive control action to compensate for the

effects of known or measurable disturbances

Feedforward Control

 The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important disturbance variables

and take corrective action before they upset the process.

 A process controller equipped with sensors capable of measuring precursors to

upcoming disturbances can operate faster and pre-emptively. There is no need to wait

for the results of past control efforts to appear in measurements. Sensors and controllers

work together to observe coming disturbances and feed the information forward to help

calculate future control efforts.

 Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a result of steam demands made by downstream

processing units.

 The feedforward control scheme can provide better control of the liquid level. Here the

steam flow rate is measured, and the feedforward controller adjusts the feedwater flow

rate.
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Feedforward-feedback control

• In practical applications, feedback control system and feedforward control system

works in combination to each other.

• Feedforward control is used to reduce the effects of measurable disturbances in advance

while feedback control compensates unmeasured disturbances

Multiloop control system

 Each manipulated variable depends on only a single controlled variable

 In practical control problems there typically are a number of process variables which

must be controlled and a number of variables which can be manipulated.

 Example: product quality and throughput must usually be controlled.

Multiloop Control Strategy

 Control system design

 Select controlled and manipulated variables.

 Select pairing of controlled and manipulated variables.

 Specify types of FB controllers.

Two possible controller pairings:

U1 with Y1, U2 with Y2 (1-1/2-2 pairing)

U1 with Y2, U2 with Y1 (1-2/2-1 pairing)

Block Diagram for 2x2 Multiloop Control

Proportional Integral and Derivatives (PID) System

Four Modes of Controllers

Each mode of control has specific advantages and limitations:

 On-OFF control

 Proportional (P)

 Proportional Plus Integral (PI)

 Proportional Plus Derivative (PD)

 Proportional Plus Integral Plus (PID)

On-OFF control

 On-Off control is the simplest form of feedback control.

 Which switches ON when the error is positive and switches OFF when the error is zero

or negative.

 An on-off controller doesn’t have intermediate states but only fully ON or fully

OFF states.

 A common example of on-off control is the temperature control in a domestic heating

system.

 On-Off control is the simplest form of feedback control.

 Which switches ON when the error is positive and switches OFF when the error is zero

or negative.

 An on-off controller doesn’t have intermediate states but only fully ON or fully

OFF states.

 A common example of on-off control is the temperature control in a domestic heating

system.
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Proportional Control

 In proportional mode, there is continuous linear relation between value of the controlled

variable and position of the final control element

 The proportional controller produces an output, which is proportional to error signal

 Output of proportional controller is: 𝑐𝑝 (t) = 𝐾𝑝 e(t)

𝑐𝑝 (s)
 The transfer function can be written as: = 𝐾𝑝
𝐸(𝑠)

 So the required block diagram representation of this system can be drawn as given

below
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 The sluggish overdamped response of a control system can be made faster by using

proportional controller in the system the increase in forward path gain reduces the

steady state error but at the same time maximum overshoot is increased. For satisfactory

performance of a control system a convenient adjustment has to be made between the

maximum overshoot and steady state error.

 Without sacrificing the steady state accuracy the maximum overshoot can be reduced

to some extent by modifying the actuating signal with the introduction of Derivative

control in the system.

Proportional Plus Derivative Control (PD)

 Derivative controller reduces the initial overshoot of the measured variable and

therefore helps in stabilizing the process sooner.

 This control mode is called Proportional plus derivative control because the derivative

section responds to the rate of change of error signal.

 The control output of this system will be the summation of proportional error signal

and derivative of the error signal

𝑑
𝑐𝑝𝑑 (t) = 𝐾𝑝 e(t) +𝐾𝑑 e(t)
𝑑𝑡

Apply Laplace transform on both sides

U(s)= (Kp+KdS) E(s)

𝑈(𝑠)
= (Kp+KdS)
𝐸(𝑠)

Therefore the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is (Kp+KdS)

So the block diagram of PD system can be drawn as given below

 The stability and overshoot problems that arise when a proportional controller is used

at a high gain can be reduced by adding a term proportional to the time derivative of

the error signal.

 Rise time is reduced when PD controller is used

 But the steady state error is not affected by derivative control action . As the derivative

of the error is used in actuating signal and as such if the error varies with the time then

in that case the derivative control reduces the error.

Proportional Plus Integral Controller (PI)

 Integral Control describes a controller in which the output consist of proportional error

signal added with integral of the error signal .

 Integral signal is sum of all instantaneous values, so when integral and proportional

terms are added the movement gets accelerated towards the set point.

 Output of the controller in this case will be proportional error signal added with integral

of the error signal

𝑐𝑝𝑖 (t) = 𝐾𝑝 e(t) +𝐾𝑖 ∫ e(t)dt

 Apply Laplace transform on both sides

𝐾𝑖
𝑈(𝑠) = (𝐾𝑝 + )E(s)
𝑆

𝑈(𝑠) 𝐾𝑖
= (𝐾𝑝 + )
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑆

𝐾𝑖
Therefore the transfer function of the proportional derivative controller is (𝐾𝑝 + )
𝑆

So the required block diagram representation of this system can be drawn as given below

Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Control (PID)

Although PD control deals neatly with overshoot and ringing problems associated with

proportional control it does not cure the problem with the steady state error. Fortunately it is

possible to eliminate this while using relatively low gain by adding an integral term to the

control function .

For PID control the actuating signal consist of proportional error signal added with derivative

and integral of the error signal . Therefore the actuating signal for PID control is

𝑑
𝑐𝑝𝑖𝑑 (t) = 𝐾𝑝 e(t) +𝐾𝑖 ∫ e(t) dt + 𝐾𝑑 e(t)
𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transform of this function

1
𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑑 (s)= (𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑑 s )E(S)

𝐶𝑝𝑖𝑑 (s) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑑 s
𝐸(𝑠)

1
Therefore the transfer function of the PID controller is : ( 𝐾𝑝 + 𝐾𝑖 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑑 s )

So the required block diagram representation of this system can be drawn as given below
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Characteristics of P, I, D Controllers

CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING S-S ERROR

TIME

𝐾𝑃 DECREASE INCREASE SMALL DECREASE

CHANGE

𝐾𝑖 DECREASE INCREASE INCREASE ELIMINATE

𝐾𝑑 SMALL DECREASE DECREASE SMALL

CHANGE CHANGE
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19
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
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Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
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Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
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Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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UNIT 5

20
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Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
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Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
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Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

21:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

22:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

23:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

24:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

27:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

UNIT 6

28
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

29:
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
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30:
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Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
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UNIT 7

Optimal Control system and its example

• The classical control theory concerned with single input and single output (SISO) is

mainly based on Laplace transforms theory and its use in system representation in block

diagram form.

• Transfer function in classical control theory

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

Block diagram in classical control theory

Where s is Laplace variable and we use

𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)𝐺𝑃 (𝑠)

• The input u(t) to the plant is determined by the error e(t) and the compensator

• All the variables are not readily available for feedback. In most cases only one output

variable is available for feedback.

• Whereas, The modern control theory concerned with multiple inputs and multiple

outputs (MIMO) is based on state variable representation in terms of a set of first order

differential (or difference) equations.

• The system (plant) is characterized by state variables,

• Linear time invariant form

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐷𝑢(𝑡)

Where x(t): n dimensional state vector

u(t): r dimensional control vector

y(t): m dimensional output vector

A : n x n state matrix

B : n x r input matrix

C : m x n output matrix

D : m x r transfer matrix

• Similarly, a nonlinearsystem is characterized by

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)

• The modern theory dictates that all the state variables should be fed back after suitable

weighting.

• Modern control configuration

• The input u(t) is determined by the controller (consisting of error detector and

compensator) driven by system states x(t) and reference signal r ( t )

• All or most of the state variables are available for control.

• It depends on well-established matrix theory, which is amenable for large scale

computer simulation.

Components of modern control

• The first stage of any control system theory is to obtain or formulate the dynamics or

modeling in terms of dynamical equations such as differential or difference equations.

The system dynamics is largely based on the Lagrangian function.

• Next, the system is analyzed for its performance to find out mainly stability of the

system and the contributions of Lyapunov to stability theory are well known.

• Finally, if the system performance is not according to our specifications, we resort to

design.

• Optimization
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• Optimization is a very desirable feature in day-to-day life. We like to work and use

our time in an optimum manner, use resources optimally and so on.

• optimization can be classified as static optimization and dynamic optimization.

• Static Optimization is concerned with controlling a plant under steady state

conditions, i.e., the system variables are not changing with respect to time. The plant

is then described by algebraic equations. Techniques used are ordinary calculus,

Lagrange multipliers, linear and nonlinear programming.

• Dynamic Optimization concerns with the optimal control of plants under dynamic

conditions, i.e., the system variables are changing with respect to time and thus the

time is involved in system description. Then the plant is described by differential (or

difference) equations. Techniques used are search techniques, dynamic programming,

variational calculus (or calculus of variations) and Pontryagin principle.

The main objective of the optimal control is to determine the control signal that

• Minimizes a cost or

• Maximizes a chosen performance index, while

• The plant states satisfy some physical constraints

The formulation of optimal control problem requires

1. A mathematical description (or model) of the process to be controlled (generally in

state variable form)

2. A specification of the performance index, and

3. A statement of boundary conditions and the physical constraints on the states and/or

controls.
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Plant: For the purpose of optimization, we describe a physical plant by a set of linear or

nonlinear differential or difference equations.

Performance Index: In classical control system, typical performance criteria are system time

response to step or ramp input characterized by rise time, settling time, peak overshoot, and

steady state accuracy; and the frequency response of the system characterized by gain and

phase margins, and bandwidth.

Performance Index: In modern control theory, the optimal control problem is to find a

control which causes the dynamical system to reach a target or follow a state variable (or

trajectory) and at the same time extremize a performance index.

The form of performance index:

1. Performance Index for Time-Optimal Control System: We try to transfer a system

from an arbitrary initial state 𝑥(𝑡0 ) to a specified final state 𝑥(𝑡𝑓 )in minimum time.

The corresponding performance index (PI) is

𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡0 = 𝑡 ∗
𝑡0

2. Performance Index for Fuel-Optimal Control System: Consider a spacecraft

problem. Let u(t) be the thrust of a rocket engine and assume that the magnitude |u( t)|

of the thrust is proportional to the rate of fuel consumption. In order to minimize the

total expenditure of fuel, we may formulate the performance index as

𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = ∫ |𝑢(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

For several control

𝑡𝑓 𝑚
𝐽 = ∫ ∑ 𝑅𝑖 |𝑢𝑖 (𝑡)|𝑑𝑡
𝑡0 𝑖=1

Where R is a weighting factor

3. Performance Index for Minimum-Energy Control System: Consider 𝑢𝑖 (𝑡)as the

current in the ith loop of an electric network. Then ∑𝑚 2

𝑖=1 𝑢𝑖 (𝑡)𝑟𝑖 is the total power or

the total rate of energy expenditure of the network. Then, for minimization of the total

expended energy, we have a performance criterion as

𝑡𝑓 𝑚
𝐽 = ∫ ∑ 𝑢𝑖2 (𝑡)𝑟𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0 𝑖=1

Or in general
𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑢′ (𝑡)𝑹𝑢(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

where, R is a positive definite matrix and prime (') denotes

transpose

Minimization of the integral of the squared error of a tracking system.

𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝑸𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

where, 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡) is the desired value, 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is the actual value, and 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡), is the

error. Here, Q is a weighting matrix, which can be positive semi-definite.

4. Performance Index for Terminal Control System: Ina terminal target problem, we

are interested in minimizing the error between the desired target position 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 ) and

the actual target position 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡𝑓 ) at the end of the maneuver or at the final time 𝑡𝑓 .The
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terminal (final) error is 𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) = 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡𝑓 ) − 𝑥𝑑 (𝑡𝑓 ). Taking care of positive and

negative values of error and weighting factors, we structure the cost function as

𝐽 = 𝑋 ′ (𝑡𝑓 )𝑭𝑥(𝑡𝑓 )

which is also called the terminal cost function. Here, F is a positive semi-definite matrix.

5. Performance Index for General Optimal Control System: Combining the above

formulations, we have a performance index in general form as

𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = 𝑋 (𝑡𝑓 )𝑭𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝑸𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡)𝑹𝑢(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
′
𝑡0

Or
𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = 𝑆(𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ), 𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ 𝑉(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

• where, R is a positive definite matrix, and Q and F are positive semidefinite matrices,

respectively.

• The matrices Q and R may be time varying.

• The particular form of performance index is called quadratic form.

𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = 𝑆(𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ), 𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ 𝑉(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

• The problems arising in optimal control are classified based on the structure of the

performance index J .

• If the PI in above equation contains the terminal cost function S(x(t), u(t), t) only, it is

called the Mayer problem.

• If the PI has only the integral cost term, it is called the Lagrange problem.
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• The problem is of the Bolza type if the PI contains both the terminal cost term and the

integral cost term.

Constraints:

• The control u(t) and state x(t) vectors are either unconstrained or constrained

depending upon the physical situation.

• The unconstrained problem is less involved and gives rise to some elegant results.

• From the physical considerations, often we have the controls and states, such as

currents and voltages in an electrical circuit, speed of a motor, thrust of a rocket,

constrained as

𝑈+ ≤ 𝑢(𝑡) ≤ 𝑈− and 𝑥+ ≤ 𝑥(𝑡) ≤ 𝑥−

Optimal control problem

Formal Statement of Optimal Control System:

The optimal control problem is to find the optimal control u*(t) (* indicates extremal or

optimal value) which causes the linear time-invariant plant (system)

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡)

to give the trajectory x* (t) that optimizes or extremizes (minimizes or maximizes) a

performance index
𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = 𝑋 ′ (𝑡𝑓 )𝑭𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)𝑸𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡)𝑹𝑢(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

or which causes the nonlinear system

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)

to give the state x*(t) that optimizes the general performance index
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𝑡𝑓
𝐽 = 𝑆(𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ), 𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ 𝑉(𝑥(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡), 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

with some constraints on the control variables u(t) and/or the state variables x(t). The final

time 𝑡𝑓 may be fixed, or free, and the final (target) state may be fully or partially fixed or free.

The entire problem statement is also shown pictorially

we are basically interested in finding the control u*(t) which when applied to the plant, gives

an optimal performance index J*.

The optimal control systems are studied in three stages.

1. We just consider the performance index and use the well-known theory of calculus of

variations to obtain optimal functions.

2. We bring in the plant and try to address the problem of finding optimal control u*(t)

which will drive the plant and at the same time optimize the performance Index

3. Constraints on the controls and states is considered along with the plant and

performance index to obtain optimal control.

Example: Consider a spacecraft aiming to

 (primary task) land at a specific position with a specific velocity in finite time. While

 (costs/performance-index) Minimize the fuel consumption and time.

 (physical constraint)

• Thrusters have a limited capacity

• Upper bound on the maximum attainable speed

• Cannot go below the ground

The formulation of the optimal control problem requires:

 Plant dynamics

 A given performance index or cost

 Boundary conditions

 The physical constraints

Output regulator, Regulator problem, Tracking Problem

Linear quadratic optimal control

The closed-loop optimal control of linear plants or systems with quadratic performance index

or measure is presented. This leads to the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) system dealing with

state regulation, output regulation, and tracking.

Problem Formulation:

Consider a linear, time-varying (LTV) system

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡)
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Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

A(t) is nxn state matrix, B(t) is nxr control matrix, and C(t) is mxn output matrix.

We assume that the control u(t) is unconstrained,

0 < m ≤ r ≤ n, and all the states and/or outputs are completely measurable.

with a cost functional (CF) or performance index (PI)

𝑱(𝒖(𝒕)) = 𝑱(𝒙(𝒕𝟎 ), 𝒖(𝒕), 𝒕𝟎 )

𝟏 ′
= [𝒛(𝒕𝒇 ) − 𝒚(𝒕𝒇 )] 𝑭(𝒕𝒇 )[𝒛(𝒕𝒇 ) − 𝒚(𝒕𝒇 )]
𝟐

𝟏 𝒕𝒇
+ ∫ [[𝒛(𝒕) − 𝒚(𝒕)]′]𝑸(𝒕)[𝒛(𝒕) − 𝒚(𝒕)] + 𝒖′ (𝒕)𝑹(𝒕)𝒖(𝒕)]𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝒕𝟎

where, x(t) is nth state vector, y(t) is mth output vector, z(t) is mth reference or desired output

vector (or nth desired state vector, if the state x(t) is available), u(t) is rth control vector, and

e(t) = z(t) - y(t) (or e(t) = z(t) - x(t), if the state x(t) is directly available) is the mth error vector.

• The preceding cost functional contains quadratic terms in error e(t) and control u(t) and

hence called the quadratic cost functional.

• The optimal control u(t) is a function of the state x(t) or the output y(t). Also, depending

on the final time 𝑡𝑓 being finite (infinite), the system is called finite- (infinite-) time

horizon system.

We have the following categories of systems:

1. If our objective is to keep the state x(t) near zero (i.e., z(t)=0 and C = I), then we call it

state regulator system.

• The objective is to obtain a control u(t) which takes the plant from a nonzero state to

zero state.
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

• This situation may arise when a plant is subjected to unwanted disturbances that perturb

the state.

• example, sudden load changes in an electrical voltage regulator system

• If our interest is to keep the output y(t) near zero (i.e., z(t) = 0), then it is termed the

output regulator system.

• If we try to keep the output or state near a desired state or output, then we are dealing

with a tracking system.

• We see that in both state and output regulator systems, the desired or reference state is

zero and in tracking system the error is to be made zero. For example, the antenna

control system to track an aircraft.

Various matrices in the cost functional:

1. The error weighted matrix Q : The error must be Q>0.

2. The control weighted matrix R: R>0, incur a larger cost for a larger control effort.

3. The control signal u(t): The control signal is not usually unconstrained.

4. The terminal cost: To ensure that the error e(t) at the final time 𝑡𝑓 is as small as possible.

Finite time linear quadratic regulator

Problem statement:

Given the plant as

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

The performance index as

1 ′ 1 𝑡𝑓 ′
𝐽 = 𝑥 (𝑡𝑓 )𝐹(𝑡𝑓 )𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ [𝑥 (𝑡)𝑄(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡)𝑅(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
2 2 𝑡0
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

And the boundary conditions as

𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑥0 , 𝑡𝑓 is fixed and 𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) is free.

Find the optimal control, state and performance index.

Solution:

Step1. Solve the matrix differential Riccati equation

𝑃̇ (𝑡) = −𝑃(𝑡)𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐴′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡) − 𝑄(𝑡) + 𝑃(𝑡)𝐵(𝑡)𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)

with final condition 𝑃(𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 ) = 𝐹(𝑡𝑓 )

Step2. Solve the optimal state x* (t) from

𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) = [𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐵(𝑡)𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵 ′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)]𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)

with initial condition 𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑋0 .

Step3. Obtain the optimal control u*(t) as

𝑢∗ (𝑡) = −𝐾(𝑡)𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)

where, K(𝑡) = 𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵 ′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)

Step4. Obtain the optimal performance index from

1 ′
𝐽∗ = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)
2

Trajectory Following Systems

In tracking (trajectory following) systems, we require that the output of a system track or follow

a desired trajectory in some optimal sense.

Thus, we see that this is a generalization of regulator system in the sense that the desired

trajectory for the regulator is simply the zero state.

Linear Quadratic Tracking System: Finite Time Case

The linear quadratic tracking (LQT)system: To maintain the output as close as possible to the

desired output with minimum control energy.

Problem statement: Given the plant as

𝑥̇ (𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶(𝑡)𝑥(𝑡), 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑧(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡) The performance index

1 ′ 1 𝑡𝑓 ′
𝐽 = 𝑒 (𝑡𝑓 )𝐹(𝑡𝑓 )𝑒(𝑡𝑓 ) + ∫ [𝑒 (𝑡)𝑄(𝑡)𝑒(𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡)𝑅(𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
2 2 𝑡0

And the boundary conditions as

𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑋0 , 𝑡𝑓 is fixed and 𝑥(𝑡𝑓 ) is free.

Find the optimal control, state and performance index.

Solution:

Step1. Solve the matrix differential Riccati equation

𝑃̇(𝑡) = −𝑃(𝑡)𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐴′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡) + 𝑃(𝑡)𝐸(𝑡)𝑃(𝑡) − 𝑉(𝑡)

with final condition

𝑃(𝑡𝑓 ) = 𝐶 ′ (𝑡𝑓 )𝐹(𝑡𝑓 )𝐶(𝑡𝑓 )

and the non-homogeneous vector differential equation

𝑔̇ (𝑡) = −[𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐸(𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)]′ 𝑔(𝑡) − 𝑊(𝑡)𝑧(𝑡)

with final condition 𝑔(𝑡𝑓 ) = 𝐶 ′ (𝑡𝑓 )𝐹(𝑡𝑓 )𝑧(𝑡𝑓 )

Where 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐵(𝑡)𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵 ′ (𝑡), 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐶 ′ (𝑡)𝑄(𝑡)𝐶(𝑡)

𝑊(𝑡) = 𝐶 ′ (𝑡)𝑄(𝑡)

Step2. Solve the optimal state x* (t) from

𝑥 ∗̇ (𝑡) = [𝐴(𝑡) − 𝐸(𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)]𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) + 𝐸(𝑡)𝑔(𝑡)

with initial condition 𝑥(𝑡0 ) = 𝑋0 .

Step3. Obtain optimal control u*(t) from

𝑢∗ (𝑡) = −𝐾(𝑡)𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) + 𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵′ (𝑡)𝑔(𝑡)

Where, 𝐾(𝑡) = 𝑅 −1 (𝑡)𝐵 ′ (𝑡)𝑃(𝑡)

Step4. The optimal cost 𝐽∗ (𝑡0 ) is

1 ∗′
𝐽∗ (𝑡0 ) = 𝑥 (𝑡0 )𝑃(𝑡0 )𝑥 ∗ (𝑡0 ) − 𝑥 ∗ (𝑡0 )𝑔(𝑡0 ) + ℎ(𝑡0 )
2

where h(t) is the solution of

1 1
ℎ̇(𝑡) = − 𝑔′ (𝑡)𝐸(𝑡)𝑔(𝑡) − 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)𝑄(𝑡)𝑧(𝑡)
2 2

with final condition ℎ(𝑡𝑓 ) = −𝑧 ′ (𝑡𝑓 )𝑃(𝑡𝑓 )𝑧(𝑡𝑓 ).

NONLINEAR SYSTEMS
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

37
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in
Question Bank 1

1. The signal flow graph of a system is shown in figure. The transfer function
C(S)/R(S) of the system is:

2. The equivalent of the block diagram in Figure is given in:

3. The transfer function of the block diagram of Fig. is _____.

4. For the system shown in figure the transfer function C(S)/R(S) is equal to:

6.
7.

8. For the following system:

20. Transfer function of zero order hold response is:

a) ( 1 / s ) × ( 1 - est )
b) ( 1 / s ) × ( 1 + e-st )
c) ( s ) × ( 1 - est )
d) ( 1 / s ) × e-st

10. Find the system equation for system shown in the fig. And also determine f-v and f-i
analogies
Question Bank 4

Part - A (Short Answer Questions)

1. What are the advantages of state space analysis?

2. What are draw backs of transfer function model analysis
3. Define state variable?
4. What are the properties of state transition matrix?
5. Define observability?
6. Define controllability?
7. What is lead compensator?
8. What is lag-lead compensator?
9. What are draw backs of transfer function model analysis?
10. What is state, state variable and state vector?
Part – B (Long Answer Questions)
1. Explain the state variable and state transition matrix?
2. Write shot notes on formulation of state equations?
3. Derive the expression for the calculation of the transfer function from the state variables
for the analysis of system?
4. Write short notes on canonical form of representation .list its advantages and
disadvantages?
5. Obtain the state transition Matrix for a system matrix given by

9
Question Bank 5

1. What are the incidental nonlinearities? Describe each of them.

2. Define regulator problem and its solution.
3. What is the need of optimum control system? What are the constraints to design it?
4. What is treking problem? Explain it.
5. Define nonlinear control system.
6. How can you classify nonlinearities of a control system?
7. How controllability and observability of a control system can be calculated?
8. Which compensator should be use to improve steady state error of a control system?
Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology, Management & Gramothan,
Ramnagaria, Jagatpura, Jaipur-302017, INDIA
Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Government of India
Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) of the UGC Act, 1956
Tel. : +91-0141- 5160400Fax: +91-0141-2759555
E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.skit.ac.in

f. LIST of BOOKS and REFERENCES

Pre-requisite of course

Prerequisite of Course:
Knowledge of “Network Theory and Circuits” and “Basic Engineering Mathematics”.

List of TEXT BOOK:

1. Control Systems engineering, Nagrath, Gopal, New age.

2. B.S. Manke, Khanna Publishers

List of REFERENCE BOOK:

1. Control Systems Engineering, Norman S. Nise, Wiley.

2. Modern Control Engineering, Katsuhiko Ogata, Pearson Education Inc.

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