1.

Lab Report: ECG(Electrocardiogram)

Lab Report: Understanding the ECG Machine in Biomedical Instrumentation

Objective:To record the electrical activity of the heart and analyze it to evaluate heart health.

Theory:The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a diagnostic tool used to measure the electrical activity of the heart. It
records the heart's rhythm and electrical signals in the form of a graphical trace. The ECG waveform comprises key
segments and intervals:

1. P wave: Atrial depolarization.

2. QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization.
3. T wave: Ventricular repolarization.

The ECG machine uses electrodes placed on the skin to detect electrical potentials generated by cardiac muscle
contractions. The signals are amplified and filtered for recording and analysis.

Block diagram of an ECG machine:

Electrodes for ECG :

Limbs Electrodes:
The most common type of electrodes routinely used for recording ECG are rectangular or circular
surface electrodes . The material used is German silver, nickel silver or nickel plated steel.
They are applied to the surface of the body with electrode jelly. The typical value of the contact
impedance of these electrodes, which are of normal size, is nearly 2 to 5 kW when measured at
10 Hz. The electrodes are held in position by elastic straps. They are also called limb electrodes as
they are most suitable for application on the four limbs of the body. The size of the limb electrodes
is usually 3 * 5 cm and they are generally made of german silver, an alloy of zinc, copper and
nickel. They are reusable and last several years.
 fig:ECG plate electrode. The electrode is usually fastened to the arm or leg with a perforated rubber strap which keeps it in position during ECG
recording

Floating Electrodes:

● Purpose: Reduce movement issues between electrode and jelly.

● Design: Metal part doesn't touch the skin directly; separated by a flat washer.
● Rechargeable: Jelly can be refilled.
● Spray-On Electrodes: Use a conductive adhesive, very light, no jelly needed, great for exercise or pilots.
● Flexible Electrodes: Made of silver-impregnated rubber, comfortable for long-term use, like in space or
intensive care.

Pregelled Disposable Electrodes:

● Purpose: Used in stress tests or long-term monitoring to handle sweat and movement.
● Design: They have a high-absorbency buffer layer with isotonic electrolyte to reduce artifacts and maintain
signal quality.
● Sweat Resistance: An extra porous layer helps resist sweat and keeps the electrode securely in place.
● Connection: Lead wires snap on and off easily, allowing for a secure connection.
● Material: Made from adhesive-coated foams or non-woven cloth, like those used in first aid.
● Size: Electrode diameters range from 4–6 cm.
● Advantages: Less risk of infection, smaller size means less detachment, and quicker setup for ECG
procedures.

Other components:
Amplifiers: Boost low-amplitude cardiac signals for accurate recording.
Filters: Remove noise (e.g., baseline wander, muscle artifacts).
Display/Printer: Visualize the ECG waveform.
Lead System: Standard configurations include 3-lead, 5-lead, and 12-lead systems, each offering different levels of
detail.

Apparatus Required:

1. ECG machine (3-lead or 12-lead configuration).

2. ECG electrodes and gel.
3. Subject (volunteer).
4. Computer system with ECG analysis software (if available).

Procedure (Simplified):

1. Preparation:

○ Make sure the ECG machine is working and ready.

○ Ask the subject to relax and sit or lie down comfortably.
2. Electrode Placement:

○Clean the skin with alcohol for better contact.

○Apply electrode gel to improve signal quality.
○Attach electrodes:
■ Limbs: Right Arm (RA), Left Arm (LA), Right Leg (RL), Left Leg (LL).
■ Chest: V1 to V6 in standard chest positions.
3. Recording the ECG:

○ Connect the electrodes to the ECG machine.

○ Choose the desired lead (e.g., Lead I, II, III).
○ Record the ECG and check the waveform on the screen.
4. Analysis:

○ Identify the main parts of the ECG (P wave, QRS complex, T wave).
○ Measure durations and amplitudes (e.g., PR interval, QRS duration).
○ Compare with normal values to detect any issues.

Procedure (Simplified):

1.Preparation:

○ Make sure the ECG machine is working and ready.

○ Ask the subject to relax and sit or lie down comfortably.

2.ECG Leads:

Lead:
A lead represents the voltage difference between two electrodes on the body, detecting the heart's electrical
activity.

Leads Placement:

○ Bipolar Leads: Measure the voltage difference between two electrodes:

■ Lead I: Right arm (RA) ↔ Left arm (LA)
■ Lead II: Right arm (RA) ↔ Left leg (LL)
■ Lead III: Left arm (LA) ↔ Left leg (LL)
These form the Einthoven triangle, and the right leg serves as the reference point.
○ Unipolar Leads (V Leads): Record the potential of a single electrode compared to a reference
(central terminal).
 ■ Limb Leads:
■ AVR: Right arm compared to (LA + LL)
■ AVL: Left arm compared to (RA + LL)
■ AVF: Left leg compared to (RA + LA)
■ Precordial Leads (Chest Leads): Electrodes placed on the chest (V1–V6) to detect higher
potentials near the heart.

Key Features:

○ Bipolar leads show the vector difference of electrical potentials.

○ Unipolar leads are more sensitive and detect localized electrical activity, especially near the heart.

3. Recording the ECG:

○ Connect the electrodes to the ECG machine.

○ Choose the desired lead (e.g., Lead I, II, III).
○ Record the ECG and check the waveform on the screen.

4. Analysis:

○ Identify the main parts of the ECG (P wave, QRS complex, T wave).
○ Measure durations and amplitudes (e.g., PR interval, QRS duration).
○ Compare with normal values to detect any issues.

Results:

P wave duration: 80 ms

PR interval: 120 ms

QRS complex duration: 100 ms

Heart rate: 72 beats per minute

Conclusion:
The experiment provided a clear understanding of the ECG machine's functionality and its role in biomedical
instrumentation. Recording and analyzing the ECG waveform demonstrated the importance of precision in electrode
placement and signal processing for accurate diagnostics.

Precautions:

1. Ensure proper skin contact and minimal movement during recording.

2. Avoid interference from external electrical devices.
3. Calibrate the machine before use.

References:

1. John G. Webster, Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design.

2. Standard ECG Guidelines by the American Heart Association (AHA).
3. Manufacturer’s manual for the ECG machine.

2. EMG (Electromyography)
Theory:

Electromyography (EMG) measures the electrical activity generated by muscles during contraction and relaxation.
The EMG signal reflects the muscle's response to neural stimulation.Key components of an EMG machine include:

Electrodes: EMG has two main types of electrode

● Surface EMG (sEMG): Electrodes placed on the skin above the muscle.
● Intramuscular EMG: Needle electrodes inserted into the muscle for detailed recording.

To capture muscle electrical signals.

Amplifier: Further amplifies the signal. Modern amplifiers provide a clear and detailed display of the EMG signals.
Display Unit: Usually a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a computer screen to show the EMG waveforms.

Fig:needle types electrodes

Audio Output: Converts EMG signals into sounds, which helps in diagnosing muscle disorders.
Recording Device: Allows playback and study of EMG waveforms.

Procedure:

1. Electrode Placement: Attach the electrodes to the skin over the muscle (surface electrodes) or insert
needle electrodes into the muscle.
2. Signal Acquisition: The electrodes pick up electrical signals generated by muscle contractions.
3. Amplification: The preamplifier and main amplifier enhance these signals for better analysis.
4. Display and Recording: The amplified signals are displayed on the screen and can be recorded for further
analysis.
5. Interpretation: Trained professionals interpret the waveforms and sounds to diagnose muscle and nerve
disorders.

Applications:

1. Medical Diagnosis: Identifying muscle and nerve disorders.

2. Prosthetic Control: Using EMG signals to control artificial limbs.
3. Research: Studying neuromuscular functions and reflex responses.

Conclusion: The EMG machine is a valuable tool in both medical and research fields. It provides detailed
information about muscle activity, helping in the diagnosis of neuromuscular disorders and the development of
prosthetic devices.

3.EEG (Electroencephalogram):
Theory:Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method for recording the electrical activity of the brain. It measures the
fluctuations in voltage resulting from the synchronized electrical activity of neurons within the brain. EEG is widely
used for both clinical and research purposes, providing insights into brain function. The recorded electrical activity is
typically visualized as a series of waves, which can be categorized based on frequency and amplitude.

Key aspects of EEG include:

● Electrical Signals: Neurons in the brain communicate through electrical impulses, which are recorded by
electrodes placed on the scalp.
● Montages: A montage is a specific arrangement of electrodes used to record the brain’s electrical activity.
The 10/20 system is a widely used standard for placing electrodes on the scalp.
● Waveforms: The EEG signal is composed of different brainwave frequencies such as alpha, beta, delta, and
theta, which reflect different states of brain activity.Key Components of EEG Systems:
1. Electrodes:
Electrodes are the primary interface between the brain's electrical activity and the EEG machine. These
electrodes can be:
○ Surface Electrodes: These are placed on the scalp and detect brain activity from the outer layers of
the brain.
○ Needle Electrodes: These are inserted into the brain tissue to record more localized electrical
activity, though they are not commonly used for routine EEG monitoring.
2. Preamplifier:
The signals recorded by the electrodes are typically very small (in microvolts) and need to be amplified for
analysis. The preamplifier amplifies these small signals while maintaining high fidelity to the original signal,
ensuring that noise and interference are minimized.
3. Filters:
Filters are used to clean the signal by removing unwanted noise:
○ Low-pass filters eliminate high-frequency noise such as muscle artifacts.
○ High-pass filters remove low-frequency interference like drift in the signal.
○ Notch filters are used to remove specific frequencies, such as the 50 Hz mains interference caused
by electrical equipment in the environment.
4. Sensitivity Control:
Sensitivity control adjusts the amplification of the EEG signal. By altering sensitivity, the EEG machine can
enhance or reduce the visibility of the brain's electrical waves, ensuring the signal is within the optimal range
for analysis.
5. Channels and Signal Processing:
Modern EEG systems have the capability to record multiple channels (e.g., 8–32 channels) simultaneously.
Each channel corresponds to a pair of electrodes placed on the scalp. These channels allow for a detailed
view of brain activity from different regions of the brain, helping to create a more comprehensive image of
electrical activity.
6. Computerized Display and Analysis:
Modern EEG systems convert the analog signals into digital form for display on a computer. This allows for
advanced analysis of the signals, including the breakdown of the signals into their frequency components
(e.g., alpha, beta waves) and their amplitudes. Advanced software can also provide real-time analysis,
enabling quick identification of abnormal brain activity patterns.

Signal Types and Montages in EEG Systems:

● Montage Selection:
Montages define how the electrical signals from different electrode pairs are processed. Common types of
montages include:
○ Bipolar Montage: In this setup, the signals from adjacent electrode pairs are subtracted from one
another. This montage is useful for detecting localized activity in a specific brain region.
○ Referential Montage: In this setup, signals from each electrode are compared to a common
reference electrode (usually located on the forehead or earlobe). This montage is ideal for providing
a broader view of brain activity.
● Types of Montages:
○ 10/20 System: A standard method for electrode placement on the scalp, where electrodes are
placed at distances of 10% and 20% of the measured distances between anatomical landmarks on
the head. This system ensures symmetry and is widely adopted for EEG studies.
○ Closely Spaced Electrodes: A newer approach where electrodes are placed at 5% intervals around
the cranium, providing more precise data for specific brain regions.

Frequency and Amplitude Analysis:

1. Frequency Analysis:
The frequency of EEG signals is crucial for understanding brain activity. Common frequency bands include:
○ Delta Waves (0.5–4 Hz): Associated with deep sleep.
○ Theta Waves (4–8 Hz): Seen in light sleep or relaxed states.
○ Alpha Waves (8–12 Hz): Present during relaxed but awake states.
○ Beta Waves (13–30 Hz): Indicate active thinking and focus.
○ Gamma Waves (30–100 Hz): Associated with higher-level cognitive functions such as memory
processing.
2. Amplitude Analysis:
The amplitude of EEG waves is an indication of the strength or intensity of brain activity. High amplitude
waves may indicate more intense brain activity, while low amplitude waves could suggest decreased brain
function. Amplitude analysis is essential in identifying abnormal patterns, such as those seen in epilepsy.

Modern EEG Systems:

● Computerized Systems:
Modern EEG systems are often computer-based, offering advantages such as real-time data analysis,
automated processing, and enhanced storage of large volumes of data for long-term monitoring.
Computerized EEG systems also provide tools for frequency and amplitude analysis, allowing for faster
interpretation of brain activity.
● Signal Visualization:
The digitized EEG signal is typically displayed on a computer monitor as a series of waveforms, which can
be analyzed for patterns. Advanced systems allow users to adjust the display to visualize different frequency
bands or zoom in on specific time intervals.
Conclusion:

The EEG machine is a sophisticated biomedical instrument used to monitor and record the electrical activity of the
brain.

Reference: biomedical instrumentation book