KPSCSUTRAS

&
NAMMAKPSC
ACADEMY

COMPUTER
AWARENESS
FOR KPSC EXAMS

BY
PRASHANTH KUMAR HR

www.nammakpsc.com
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

FUNDAMENTALS
 An electronic device that accepts data and processes it into useful information is called
a Computer
 Every computer is a combination of hardware and software

WORKING OF A COMPUTER
The working of a computer can be broadly categorized into following four functions or
steps
(i) Receive input – Accept data/information from user through various input devices like
the keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc
(ii) Process information–Perform
arithmetic or logical operations on
data/ information
(iii) Store information—Store the
information in storage devices like
hard disk, CD, pen drive etc
(iv) Produce output–Communicate
information to the user through any of
the available output devices like monitor, printer, etc

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
 Input Devices: These are the devices that are used to accept data and instructions
from the user. Keyboard, mouse, scanner etc., are the examples of input devices
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) : This is known as the ‘Brain of the Computer’ as it
controls the complete working of the computer
 Memory: The data and instructions are stored in this component of the computer. Hard
disk, DVD, pen drive etc., are the examples of memory storage devices
 Output Devices: These are the devices that are used to display the desired result or
information. Monitor, printer etc., are the examples of output devices

TYPES OF COMPUTER
There are majorly 4 types of computers
1. Super Computer – The computers which are used to process a huge amount of data
at once are called Supercomputers. They are mostly used in scientific and engineering
operations where the processing is complex. They are expensive and complicated to
work. For example – The computers used by NASA to launch space shuttles.
2. Mainframe Computer – Computers designed to be used in large firms and
organisations where a lot of people have to work on the same database are called
mainframe computers. They are almost equally as expensive as Supercomputers and
are the fastest working computers at present. They are mostly used in Banks.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

3. Workstation – Usually a single user system is called a work station. The RAM for
such systems is more, and the processors are quite fast. They are mostly used by an
individual and can be used for multiple purposes.
4. Microcomputer – Designed for personal use only. This type of computers can easily
be moved from one place to the other. They have a personal storage area, input &
output unit and a Central Processing Unit. Examples for microcomputer are desktop,
laptop, mobile phone, tablets, etc.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
1. Ancient Computing Devices (Pre-17th Century):
 Abacus (c. 2400 BCE): An early
counting device that used beads on
rods.
 Antikythera Mechanism (c. 100
BCE): An ancient Greek analog
computer used for astronomical
calculations.
2. The Mechanical Era (17th - 19th
Century):
 Blaise Pascal's Pascaline (1642): A
mechanical calculator for basic
arithmetic functions.
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's Step
Reckoner (1673): Another early
mechanical calculator.
 Charles Babbage's Analytical
Engine (1837): A design for a
mechanical, general-purpose
computer that was never fully built.
3. Early Electromechanical and
Electronic Computers (Late 19th - Early
20th Century):
 Herman Hollerith's Tabulating
Machine (1886): Used punched cards
to process data, especially for the U.S. Census.
 Alan Turing's Turing Machine (1936): A theoretical model of computation, laying
the foundation for modern computing theory.
 Colossus (1943): The world's first programmable digital electronic computer, used
during World War II to break German codes.
4. The Electronic Computer Era (1940s - 1950s):
 ENIAC (1946): The first general-purpose electronic digital computer, developed in
the United States.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 EDVAC (1949): Stored-program computer architecture, with the ability to store

programs in memory.
 UNIVAC I (1951): The first commercially produced computer.
5. The Transistor Revolution (1950s - 1960s):
 Transistor Invention (1947): The invention of the transistor led to smaller, more
efficient computers.
 IBM 1401 (1959): A popular mainframe computer, contributing to the widespread
use of computers in businesses.
6. The Microprocessor and Personal Computer Revolution (1970s - 1980s):
 Intel 4004 (1971): The first microprocessor, leading to the development of
affordable personal computers.
 Altair 8800 (1975): The first successful personal computer kit.
 Apple II (1977): The first pre-assembled personal computer with color graphics.
7. The Rise of Personal Computing (1980s - 1990s):
 IBM PC (1981): IBM's entry into personal computing, setting industry standards.
 Macintosh (1984): Apple's iconic graphical user interface (GUI) computer.
 Microsoft Windows (1985): A significant operating system for personal
computers.
8. The Internet and World Wide Web (1990s):
 World Wide Web (1990): Tim Berners-Lee develops the concept of the World
Wide Web.
 Netscape Navigator (1994): The first widely used web browser.
9. Mobile Computing and the 21st Century:
 Smartphones (2000s): The rise of mobile computing with devices like the iPhone.
 Cloud Computing (2000s): Remote storage and processing of data become
prominent.
 Advancements in Artificial Intelligence (2010s): Machine learning and AI
applications become more prevalent.
JUST TO REMEMBER
INVENTION INVENTOR AND OTHER DETAILS
Analytical Engine Charles Babbage (FATHER OF COMPUTER)
First Computer By Ada Lovelace + world's first computer programmer +
program Mother of computer
Tabulating Machine Herman Hollerith + used in the 1890 U.S. Census + founding
of IBM
Vacuum Tube John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry (ABC computer), Konrad
Computers Zuse (Z3 computer), Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper
(Harvard Mark I computer)
ENIAC - Electronic John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
Numerical Integrator
and Computer
UNIVAC I John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert + first commercially
produced computers
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Integrated Circuits Jack Kilby (independent work at Texas Instruments) and

Robert Noyce (co-founder of Intel)
Computer mouse Douglas Engelbart
Microprocessors Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor (Intel)
Altair 8800 Ed Roberts + first commercially successful personal computer
Apple Computers Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs
TCP/IP Protocol Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn + foundation of the internet
World Wide Web Tim Berners-Lee
Linux Operating Linus Torvalds
System
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Analog Computers
 Work with continuous and physical quantities like temperature, voltage, current,
weight etc
 Not as accurate as digital computers
 Used in engineering and scientific applications
 For example, a blood pressure monitoring machine is a type of analog computer
Digital Computers
 Work with discrete quantities
 Data is converted into binary form i.e., 0s and 1s
 Much faster than the analog computers and are also far more accurate
 Use digital computers for scientific and business applications
 Digitally programmed watches are good examples of digital computers
Hybrid Computers
 These types of computers use both analog and digital technology
 Some calculations may take place in analog manner while others may be in digital
form
 These are used in weather forecasting
Types of Digital Computers
MicroComputers
 Computer that contains a microprocessor chip inside it
 Mainly used in offices, homes, schools, shops etc
 Further categorized as : Mobile Computers + Portable Personal Computers (laptops,
notebooks, tablets) + Desktop PCs (not portable , Used in offices, shops, hospitals,
ticket booking counters)
Minicomputers
 Faster operating speeds and larger storage capacity than microcomputers
 Serve as servers in multiuser environments + support large number of high speed
input/output devices and also many users can simultaneously work on these systems
 Small business organizations having about 50-100 users use minicomputers as their
servers
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Mainframe Computers
 Second largest in terms of the capacity and size of computers
 Huge and very expensive computers but can support hundreds of users at a time
 Used in large organizations like railways where centralized data for the entire railway
reservation system is maintained
Supercomputers
 Supercomputers are the most powerful computers in the world
 Many processors work simultaneously, so they have very high processing speed
 Can process huge volume data and information with ultrafast calculations
 Used in specialized applications like weather forecast, space research, molecular
modeling etc.

LOCATIONS ON DESKTOP
1. Desktop Icons:
 These are shortcuts to files, folders, applications, or specific locations on your
computer.
 On Windows, common icons include This PC, Recycle Bin, and any shortcuts
you've created.
 On macOS, you might see icons for your hard drive, external drives, or connected
devices.
2. Recycle Bin (Windows) or Trash (macOS):
 This is where deleted files are temporarily stored before being permanently
removed.
 On Windows, the Recycle Bin icon is usually located on the desktop.
 On macOS, the Trash icon is typically found in the Dock.
3. User Files and Folders:
 Your desktop may contain folders such as Documents, Downloads, Pictures, or
any folders you've created.
 These folders often store your personal files and documents.
4. Connected Drives: Icons for external hard drives, USB flash drives, or other
connected storage devices might appear on the desktop when connected.
5. Shortcut Icons: Icons for frequently used applications or programs may be placed on
the desktop for quick access.
6. System Icons: Icons representing system settings or features, like the Network icon
or Sound icon, might be present.
7. Wallpaper: The desktop background or wallpaper is the visual backdrop behind all the
icons and windows.
8. Taskbar (Windows) or Dock (macOS): While not on the desktop itself, the taskbar in
Windows or the dock in macOS is a location for quick access to frequently used
applications.
9. Widgets or Gadgets: Some operating systems support desktop widgets or gadgets
that display information like the time, weather, or system performance.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is used to get data or instructions from the user. This data is then passed
on to CPU for processing so as to produce the desired result
KEYBOARD
The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter with a few additional keys
Generally, we find a QWERTY keyboard with 104 keys on it. The additional keys may be
included in modern multimedia keyboards
Types of Keyboard
1. Ergonomics: Some keyboards are designed with ergonomic features: Split keyboards,
curved keyboards, and mechanical
keyboards are examples. Ergonomic
keyboards aim to reduce strain and
discomfort during extended use.
2. Mechanical Keyboards: Feature individual
mechanical switches under each key. Known
for tactile feedback, durability, and customizable key switches.
3. Gaming Keyboards: Designed for gamers with additional features such as
customizable backlighting and programmable keys
Alphanumeric Keys Letter Keys (A-Z): Used for typing letters and characters
Number Keys (0-9): Used for typing numbers
Function Keys (F1-F12) Perform specific functions depending on the software or
operating system.
Modifier Keys Shift, Ctrl (Control), Alt (Alternate): Modify the functions of
other keys when pressed in combination.
Caps Lock: Used to toggle between uppercase and
lowercase letters.
Tab, Enter, Backspace, Delete: Perform navigation and
editing functions
Cursor Movement Keys Arrow Keys (Up, Down, Left, Right): Navigate within
documents or interfaces.
Home, End, Page Up, Page Down: Move the cursor within a
document or webpage.
Numeric Keypad Mimics the layout of a calculator for numeric input + Useful
for data entry and calculations
Special Keys Spacebar: Inserts a space between words.
Esc (Escape): Often used to cancel an operation or close a
dialog box
Windows (or Command) Opens the Start menu (Windows) or the Apple menu (Mac)
Key
Multimedia Keys Volume Control: Adjusts audio volume.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Play/Pause, Stop, Previous, Next: Control multimedia

playback.
POINTING DEVICES
Mouse  Optical Mouse: Uses optical sensors to detect movement on
surfaces.
 Laser Mouse: Similar to optical mice but uses laser light for more
precise tracking.
 Wireless Mouse: Connects to a computer without the need for a
physical cable.
Touchpad  Built into laptops: Responds to finger movements to control the
cursor
 Multi-touch Support: Allows gestures like pinch-to-zoom and
two-finger scrolling
Trackball  Rotating ball on the top: Users rotate the ball to move the cursor.
 Stationary device: Ideal for limited space or precise control
Graphics Tablet  Used by artists and designers: Allows precise drawing with a
(Digitizer Tablet) stylus.
 Pressure-sensitive: The harder the stylus is pressed, the thicker
the lines drawn
Joystick  Common in gaming devices: Used to control movement in
simulations or games.
 Also used in some specialized applications
Gesture-Based  Microsoft Kinect: Captures user movements without the need for
Input Devices a physical controller
 Leap Motion: Uses hand and finger movements for control
SCANNER
 Input device that can read text or an illustration printed on
paper and translates the information into a form that the
computer can use
 Works by digitizing an image - dividing it into a grid of
boxes and representing each box with either a zero or a
one, depending on whether the box is filled in
 Resulting matrix of bits, called a bit map, can then be
stored in a file, displayed on a screen and manipulated
by programs
OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)
An Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a device that is used for reading text from
paper and translating the images into a form that the computer can understand. An OCR
is used to convert books, magazines and other such printed information into digital form
MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
An MICR can identify characters printed with a special magnetic ink. This device
particularly finds applications in banking industry. The cheques used for transactions have
a unique MICR code that can be scanned by an MICR device
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

OPTICAL MARK RECOGNITION (OMR)

Optical Mark Recognition, also called mark sense reader, is a technology where an OMR
device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is widely
used for assessing the objective examinations involving multiple choice questions.
MICROPHONE: Converts sound waves into electrical signals + Used for voice input,
communication, and audio recording.
WEBCAM: Captures video and images + Used for video conferencing, live streaming,
and video recording.
BIOMETRIC INPUT DEVICES:
 Fingerprint Scanner: Authenticates users based on fingerprint patterns.
 Facial Recognition: Identifies individuals based on facial features.
 Retina Scanner: Authenticates based on the unique patterns of the retina.
BARCODE READER/SCANNER:
 Reads barcodes to input product or item information.
 Commonly used in retail, inventory management, and logistics

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

 ‘Brain of your computer’
 Processes or executes the instructions given to the computer
 Any type of instruction given to the computer using any of the input devices has to be
sent to the CPU for execution
 In a microcomputer, the CPU is based on a single chip called the microprocessor
A typical CPU has the following components:
1. Control Unit (CU)
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
3. Memory Registers
Control Unit (CU)
 Manages the instructions given to the computer
 Coordinates the activities of all the other units in the
system by instructing rest of the components of the
computer about how to carry out a program’s instructions
 Reads and interprets instructions from memory and transforms them in to series of
signals to be executed or stored
 Directs the movement of these electronic signals between memory and ALU or
between CPU and input/output devices. Hence it controls the transfer of data and
information between various units. The user’s program provides the basic control
instructions
 Conceptually, the control unit fetches instructions from the memory, decodes them
and directs the various units to perform the specified functions
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit or ALU performs two types of operations - arithmetic and logical.
Arithmetic operations are the fundamental mathematical operations consisting of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and shifting operations
Logical operations consist of boolean comparisons such as AND, OR and NOT
Memory Registers
 Special memory units of CPU – Help in transferring the processed data with high
speed - movement of data between various units of the computer
 Holds the data and instructions temporarily during processing. Since this is internally
located in the CPU, the processing time is very les
 They often hold data for less than a millisecond. This high speed storage area make
processing more efficient
 To locate the characters of data or instructions in the main memory, the computer
stores them in locations known as addresses
 A unique number designates each address. Addresses can be compared to post office
mailboxes. Their numbers remain the same, but contents continuously change
How the CPU and Memory work together
1. Fetching Instructions: From the computer's memory + Instructions are stored in the
computer's memory as a program.
2. Instruction Execution: Decodes the fetched instructions and executes them +
involves performing arithmetic
and logical operations on data
stored in memory or registers
3. Registers:
 The CPU has a set of high-
speed storage locations
called registers. These
registers are used to store
data temporarily during
processing.
 Registers are faster than accessing data from RAM, so the CPU tries to keep
frequently used data in registers for quick access.
4. Data Movement: Data is moved between RAM and the CPU as needed. For example,
if the CPU needs to perform a calculation on a specific piece of data, it may fetch that
data from RAM into a register, perform the calculation, and then write the result back
to RAM.
5. Address Bus and Data Bus: The CPU communicates with memory using two main
buses: the address bus and the data bus
6. Cache Hierarchy: When the CPU needs data, it first checks whether it's available in
the cache. If it is, this is known as a cache hit, and the data is accessed quickly. If not,
it's a cache miss, and the data must be fetched from main memory.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

7. Memory Hierarchy:
 Modern computer architectures often involve multiple levels of memory hierarchy,
including L1, L2, and sometimes L3 caches. Each level is larger but slower than
the previous one.
 This hierarchy is designed to balance the need for speed with the cost and
complexity of implementing high-speed memory.
8. Memory Management: The operating system is responsible for managing memory
resources. It allocates memory to different processes and ensures that the CPU has
access to the instructions and data it needs

OUTPUT DEVICES
Monitor
 Like a television screen - display data and information
 The standard size is 24 lines by 80 characters
 The output displayed on the monitor is called soft copy
 Monitor is also called as
 Visual Display Unit
 There are two types of monitors
o CRT Monitor : CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) + older
type of monitor + bigger and bulkier monitors +
consumed lot of electricity
o TFT-LCD monitors: Thin Film Transistor - Liquid
Crystal Display + lighter and occupy less space +
commonly referred to as flat screen displays and consume much less electricity
than CRT monitors + LED (Light Emitting Diode) monitors are being used
Printer
Device that produces the output on paper - hard copy + may be in the form of text or
graphics
Types
 Dot Matrix Printer : Uses a print head to print characters on paper + print head strikes
on an ink soaked cloth ribbon that is laid against a paper
 Ink-jet Printer: Work by spraying ionized ink on a sheet of paper + Magnetized plates
in the ink’s path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes + capable of
producing a better print than the dot matrix printers + provides a resolution of 300
dots per inch, although some newer models offer higher resolutions + Line printers -
produced line by line + considerably slower + require a special type of ink that is apt
to smudge on inexpensive
 Laser Printer : Works on the principle of a photocopier + utilizes a laser beam to
produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the
drum wherever it hits + drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked
up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

through a combination of heat and pressure + Since the entire page is transmitted to
a drum before the toner is applied, laser printers are sometimes called page printers
+ very adept at printing graphics +need significant amounts of + speed - 4 to 20 pages
of text per minute (ppm) (A typical rate of 6 ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters
per second (cps))
 Thermal printer: produce images by pushing electrically heated pins against special
heat-sensitive paper + inexpensive and are used in most calculators and many fax
machines + low-quality print + paper tends to curl and fade after a few weeks or
months.
Plotter
Device that is used to draw charts, graphs, maps etc., with two or more automated pens
+ Multi-colour plotters use different-coloured pens to produce a multi-coloured output +
Plotters are considerably more expensive than printers + frequently used for Computer
Aided Engineering (CAE) applications such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) and
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Types
 Drum plotter - paper wrapped around a moving drum and the pens move on the paper
to print the output
 Flatbed
plotter - flat
surface on
which the
paper is
placed and
the pens
move to
draw the
output

 Electrostatic plotter - negatively charged paper on which the drawing is made using a
positively charged toner
Speaker
Types: Stereo speakers, surround sound speakers, headphones
Function: Outputs audio, allowing users to hear sounds and music.
Projector:
Types: LCD projectors, DLP (Digital Light Processing) projectors
Function: Projects computer-generated images or videos onto a screen or surface.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Headphones and Earphones:

Types: Over-ear, on-ear, in-ear
Function: Provides audio output for personal listening
Electronic Whiteboard: Combines a projector and a whiteboard, allowing users to
interact with projected images.
NOTE
Devices that serve both as input and output are often referred to as bidirectional or dual-
purpose devices
1. Touchscreen: Allows users to input data by touching the screen and also displays
output.
2. 2-in-1 Laptops or Convertible Tablets: Can be used as a traditional laptop with a
keyboard and mouse for input and can also be converted into a touchscreen tablet for
direct interaction.
3. Smartphones and Tablets: Incorporate touchscreens for input and display visual and
auditory output.
4. Interactive Whiteboards: Combines input (through touch or stylus) and output
(displaying digital content on a large screen).
5. Game Controllers with Touchpads or Screens: Provide input through buttons and
joysticks and may have built-in touch-sensitive surfaces or screens for additional input
and output in gaming.
6. Some Wearable Devices (Smartwatches, Fitness Trackers): Allow users to interact
with the device (input) through touch or buttons and display notifications or information
(output).
7. Hybrid Devices: Combine the features of a laptop and a tablet, allowing for both input
(keyboard, touchpad) and output (touchscreen). Examples: Microsoft Surface Pro or
similar 2-in-1 devices
8. Digital Cameras: Capture images or videos (output) and may have a touchscreen or
buttons for user input to navigate menus or settings.
9. Voice Assistants (e.g., Amazon Echo, Google Home): Accept voice commands as
input and provide spoken responses or other outputs.
10. Smart TVs: Receive input from a remote control or voice commands and display
output on the screen.

COMPUTER MEMORY
Computer memory is a data storage device where data is
to be processed and instructions required for processing
are stored
How Does Computer Memory Work?
 When you open a program, it is loaded from secondary
memory into primary memory. Because there are
various types of memory and storage, an example
would be moving a program from a solid-state drive
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

(SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed more quickly, the opened
software can connect with the computer’s processor more quickly. The primary
memory is readily accessible from temporary memory slots or other storage sites.
 Memory is volatile, which means that data is only kept temporarily in memory. Data
saved in volatile memory is automatically destroyed when a computing device is
turned off. When you save a file, it is sent to secondary memory for storage.
 There are various kinds of memory accessible. It’s operation will depend upon the
type of primary memory used. but normally, semiconductor-based memory is more
related with memory. Semiconductor memory made up of IC (integrated circuits) with
silicon-based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.
Types of Computer Memory
In general, computer memory is of three
types:
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory
1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of
the computer system. It is used to store
data and programs or
instructions during computer operations.
It uses semiconductor technology and
hence is commonly called semiconductor
memory. Primary memory is of two types:
 RAM (Random Access Memory): It
is a volatile memory. Volatile memory
stores information based on the power
supply. If the power supply fails/
interrupted/stopped, all the data and information on this memory will be lost. RAM is
used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which
has to be executed by the processor. RAM is of two types:
 S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory
are capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory
consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less
access time and hence, it is faster.
 D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores
the data as a charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory
cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This
memory is slower than S RAM.
 ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory (Non-volatile memory stores
information even when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped). ROM is
used to store information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers to
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

read-only memory, we can only read the programs and data that is stored on it. It
contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information. The information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as
permanent memory. ROM is of four types:
 MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection
of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-
cost ROM that works in this way.
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is
modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses
a PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t
be erased once written.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an
extension to PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to
Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here
the written contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and
reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and programming take
very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM
can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and
used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in
secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot
access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Types of Secondary Memory
1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin,
magnetic coating on it that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as
magnetic patches called RECORDS that run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are
recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head, which allows data to be
recorded and read as a sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward
or backward, or rewound.
2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or a plastic plate and these plates
are coated with magnetic material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored in
magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that run in concentric rings. Sectors are
typically used to break tracks into pieces.
Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and cannot be removed by a single
user.
3. Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and read. It is
reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be taken out of the
computer by occasional users
Types of Optical Disks
CD – ROM
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 It’s called compact disk. Only read from memory.

 Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam to burn pits on
the disc surface.
 It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminium.
 The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.
 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.
 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing 2048 bytes of data.
 The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time is around 80
milliseconds.

WORM-(WRITE ONCE READ MANY)

 A user can only write data once.
 The information is written on the disc using a laser beam.
 It is possible to read the written data as many times as desired.
 They keep lasting records of information but access time is high.
 It is possible to rewrite updated or new data to another part of the disc.
 Data that has already been written cannot be changed.
 Usual size – 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch diameter.
 The usual capacity of 5.25 inch disk is 650 MB,5.2GB etc.
DVDs
 The term “DVD” stands for “Digital Versatile/Video Disc,” and there are two sorts
of DVDs:
 DVDR (writable)
 DVDRW (Re-Writable)
 DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs): These are read-only memory (ROM) discs
that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared to CD-ROMs, they can
store a lot more data. It has a thick polycarbonate plastic layer that serves as a
foundation for the other layers. It’s an optical memory that can read and write data.
 DVD-R: DVD-R is a writable optical disc that can be used just once. It’s a DVD that
can be recorded. It’s a lot like WORM. DVD-ROMs have capacities ranging from
4.7 to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5 inch disk is 1.3 GB.
3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster.
Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data
and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently.The size of the cache (amount of
data it can store) is usually small.
Advantages of Cache Memory
 It is faster than the main memory.
 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
 It stores data in temporary use.
Measuring Memory
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 The primary or internal storage unit is made up of several small storage locations
called cells
 Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word length. Each cell has
a unique number assigned to it called the address of the cell and it is used to identify
the cells. Hence we can say that memory is like a large cabinet containing as many
drawers as there are addresses on memory
 Each drawer contains a word and the address is written on outside of the drawer. You
know that data in computer is stored in the form of 0s and 1s. Each of these digits is
known as a bit.
 A collection of 8 bits constitutes a byte
 Each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data. So the capacity is
defined in terms of bytes or words. However higher units of memory are Kilobytes,
Megabytes, Gigabytes etc. 1 Kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes. Thus 64 Kilobyte (KB)
memory is capable of storing 64 × 1024 = 32,768 bytes

MEMORY STORAGE DEVICES

Magnetic tapes :
 Used for large computers like mainframe computers
 large volume of data is stored for a longer time
 used with PCs also
 cost of storing data in tapes is inexpensive
 consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently
 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meter to
1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material
 deck is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from the
tape through the processor
 similar to a cassette tape recorder
Magnetic Disk :
 Circular like a disk and coated with magnetic material + most popular for direct access
storage + Store data both sides
 used in computer are also made on the same principle
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Rotates with very high speed inside the disk drive

 Each disk consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks
 Information is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots.
The presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit (1) and its absence represents
zero bit (0)
 The information stored in a disk can be read many times without affecting the stored
data - reading operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then
the existing data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded

Floppy Disk
 Similar to magnetic disk
 3.5 inch in diameter + capacity of a 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 mega
bytes
 Cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable
 Low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer
system
 Made obsolete because the storage space was very small in floppy disks in
comparison to other storage devices
Hard Disk
 Commonly used secondary storage device
 Generally it is fixed inside the CPU
cabinet but still external hard disks are
also available
 Store huge amount of data and also and
provides relatively quick access to data
stored on it
 Set of numerous disks stacked one
above the other with a cylindrical spindle
in-between
 Data is recorded electromagnetically in
the form of concentric circles called tracks. The tracks are further divided into blocks
 In the hard disk drive, there is a Read/Write head mounted on the arm placed next to
the stacked disks. This head moves horizontally and vertically to read or write data on
the disks
Optical Disk
Device to store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk
storage medium. Optical disks can be divided into the following categories
 Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROMs are made of reflective
metals. A CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser
beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 ½ inches in diameter and can hold over
600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be read only, we cannot write or make changes
into the data contained in it
 Compact Disk - Recordable (CD-R) : These CDs can be used to write data on to them
provided your computer has a CD writer.
The CD writer uses a special laser light
to write data on to a blank CD. Once the
CD-R has been burnt, i.e. data has been
written on it, it cannot be modified. The
information can be added to it but the
parts that have been burnt cannot be
edited
 Compact Disk – Read/Write (CD- R/W):
This type of CD can be used for both
reading and writing. Also these can be
written and erased again and again
 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) : A DVD is
an optical storage disk with much larger
storage capacity than that of CDs. A
single sided DVD can store upto 4.7 GB
of data. Due to its high storage capacity,
DVDs are generally used to store movies and other audio video files.

FLASH MEMORIES
 Device that retains data in spite of the electricity supply being switched off
 Non- volatile memory
 Devices using flash memories erase data at the block level. A block of flash memory
chip must be erased before data is written on it
 Widely used for storage in consumer devices like mobile phones, USB flash drives,
tablet computers, digital cameras and other solid state drives
 Features - least expensive form of semiconductor memory + consumes very less
power + help speed up performance + increase the scalability of the devices + data
can be erased, modified and rewritten many times + does not require batteries for
solid state storage + very fast access time + higher resistance to kinetic shock as
compared to hard disk drive. It is extremely durable and can withstand extreme
pressure and temperature
 A pen drive is a small portable secondary storage device (somewhat shaped like a
pen) that connects to a computer through a USB port
MEMORY ACCESSING MODES
Refers to the manner in which a given memory location is accessed
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Direct Access or Random Access

 Type of accessing mode in which the
value to be stored in a particular
memory location is obtained directly –
used in random access of memory
 Generally fast and more flexible +
obtained directly by retrieving it from
another memory location
 Web uses direct memory access
mode
Sequential Access memory
 Type of memory in which the stored data is read in sequence
 If you want to display the fourth record, the reading will start from the first record and
then move to second, third and then fourth record
 Time consuming and hence slow + are generally a form of magnetic storage
 Hard disks, CD-ROMs and magnetic tapes use sequential access of memory
PORTS
Connecting points on the CPU. Monitor, keyboard, printer and other peripheral devices
are connected to the computer through ports
What is a port number
 Ports are standardized across all network-connected devices, with each port assigned
a number. Most ports are reserved for certain protocols — for example, all Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) messages go to port 80
 While IP addresses enable messages to go to and from specific devices, port numbers
allow targeting of specific services or applications within those devices
Serial Ports
 Transfers data one bit at a time
 Transmits 8 bits of data
 Also known as COM
ports or RS232C
ports and come in
the form of 9 pin or
25 pin male
connector
 A mouse is
connected to the
CPU through a
serial port
Parallel Port
 Sends or receives 8
bits (1 byte) at a time
 8 bits are transmitted in parallel to each other
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Come in the form of 25-pin female connector

 Generally used to connect devices like printer, scanner, external hard disk drive etc
USB Port
 USB stands for Universal Serial Bus
 Simple and an easy to use port - Most popular
 Connect variety of devices like printers, scanners, mouse, keyboard, speakers etc
InfraRed Port
 Sends and receives a ray of light of infrared frequency from one device to another
 These types of ports are used for wireless data transmission. This is the same
technology that is used for TV remotes and in case of computers, it is used in devices
like wireless keyboard and wireless mouse
Bluetooth
 A Bluetooth is a telecommunication industry specification that is used to connect
mobile phones, computers and other such devices to connect to each other using
short range wireless connection
 The maximum range of Bluetooth communication is 10 meters.
OTHERS
 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) Ports: Used for connecting
audio/video devices, such as monitors, TVs, and projectors.
 Ethernet Port: Used for wired network connections. Commonly used for connecting
to a local area network (LAN) or the internet.
 Audio Jacks: Includes ports for headphones, microphones, and speakers.
 VGA/DVI/DisplayPort: Used for connecting monitors or displays to a computer.
 Thunderbolt Ports: Commonly used for high-speed data transfer and connecting
peripherals, such as external hard drives.
 SD Card Slot: Used for reading SD (Secure Digital) cards from cameras and other
devices
 PS/2 Ports: Used for connecting older-style keyboards and mice.
 Firewire (IEEE 1394) Ports: Used for connecting digital cameras, external hard
drives, and other high-speed peripherals

BINARY LOGIC
 Binary code is a system by which numbers, letters and other information are
represented using only two symbols, or binary digits
 The binary definition to a computer is a 1s and 0s code arranged in ways that the
computer can read, understand, and act upon
 It is the only language computer hardware can understand
 As currently used in computers and devices around the world, binary code was
invented when the German polymath, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716),
introduced a system of using only the binary digits 0 and 1 to perform arithmetic
operations
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

HOW DOES BINARY WORK?

 The 0s and 1s in binary represent OFF or ON, respectively
 In a transistor, a "0" represents no flow of electricity, and a "1" represents electricity is
allowed to flow. This way, numbers are physically represented inside the computing
device, permitting calculations
Why computers use binary
Binary is still the primary language for computers and is used with electronics and
computer hardware for the following reasons.
 It is a simple and elegant design.
 Binary's 0 and 1 method quickly detects an electrical signal's off (false) or on (true)
state.
 Having only two states placed far apart in an electrical signal makes it less susceptible
to electrical interference.
 The positive and negative poles of magnetic media are quickly translated to binary.
 Binary is the most efficient way to control logic circuits.
 The switches that the modern computer use today can only reliably hold two states
(on and off).
Binary numbers
 Combination of two basic numbers (zero and one)
 Has base 2 because all numbers are generated by combination of only two numbers
( 0 and 1)
 The base-2 system is the positional notation with 2 as a radix
Decimal numbers
 Combinations of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
 Has base 10 because all numbers are generated by combination of only ten numbers
( 0 to 9).
Octal Number
 Previously a popular choice for representing digital circuit numbers in a form that is
more compact than binary
 Starts at 0 and goes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 14 15 and so on
 Have base 8
Hexadecimal numbers
 Base 16
 Most popular choice for representing digital circuit numbers in a form that is more
compact than binary
 Sometimes represented by preceding the value with ‘0x’, as in 0x1B84 and
abbreviated as hex
 Hexadecimal counting goes: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10, 11, and so
on
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

CONVERSION FROM ONE SYSTEM TO ANOTHER

1. Decimal to Binary Conversion
Steps for conversion from Decimal to Binary
1. Divide the decimal number by 2.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided into any more.
4. With the bits, record them in order from right to left as that will be the number in base
2.
For example, convert 9 into binary as follows;
9/2 = 4 and remainder = 1 - first remainder is called LSB (least significant bit)
4/2 = 2 and remainder = 0
2/2 = 1 and remainder = 0
1/2 = 0 and remainder = 1 - last remainder is called MSB (Most significant bit)
Now, decimal 9 is equivalent to 1001 binary number

2. Decimal to Octal Conversion

Similar conversion method of decimal to binary. i.e., successive division, which requires
dividing continuously by the base we are converting to until the quotient equals 0.
The remainders compose the answer
Steps for conversion from Decimal to octal
1. Divide the decimal number by 8.
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided any more.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

4. With the bits, record them in order from right to left as that will be the number in base
8.
For example, to convert 19 into Octal follow the steps:
19/8=2 and remainder = 3 first remainder is called LSB (least significant bit)
2/8=0 and remainder = 2 last remainder is called MSB (Most significant bit)
Now decimal number 19 is equivalent to octal number 23
(19)10= (23)8

3.Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

Division method can be
Steps for conversion from Decimal to Hexadecimal
1. Divide the decimal number by 16
2. Take the remainder and record it on the side.
3. Repeat until the decimal number can not be divided into any more.
4. With the bits, record them in order from right to left as that will be the number in base
16.
For example, to convert decimal number 229 into hexadecimal number:
229/16 = 14 and remainder = 5 first remainder is called LSB (least significant bit)
14/16 = 0 and remainder = 14 last remainder is called MSB (Most significant bit)
In hexadecimal 10,11,12,13,14,15 are equivalent to A,B,C,D,E,F respectively So
(229)10= (E5)16

4. Binary to decimal
To find the decimal representation of a binary number simply take the sum of products of
binary digits and the powers of 2 which they represent.
For example, Conversion of (1000)2 into decimal is as follows: (1000)2 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22
+ 0 × 21 + 0 ×20 = 1 × 8 + 0 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 0 × 1 (1000)2 = 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 8

5. Octal to decimal
To find the decimal representation of an octal number simply take the sum of products of
octal digits and the powers of 8 which they represent
For example, Conversion of (1000)8 into decimal is as follows:
(1000)8 = 1 × 83 + 0 × 82 + 0 × 81 + 0 ×80 = 1 × 512 + 0 ×64 + 0 × 8 + 0 × 1
(1000)8 = 512 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 512

6. HexaDecimal to Decimal Conversion

 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Step 1: Write the decimal equivalent of each digit of the number in hexadecimal form

 Step 2: Multiply the digits from right to left with exponents of 16 0, 161, 162, ... in order
starting from the right most digit.
 Step 3: Then add all the products. The resultant sum is the number in the decimal
system.
The hexadecimal digit is expanded to multiply each digit with the power of 16. The power
starts at 0 from the right moving forward towards the right with the increase in power. For
the conversion to complete, the multiplied numbers are added.
Decimal Number = dn-1 × 16r-1+....+ d2 × 162 + d1 × 161 + d0 × 160.
Where,
 n = the number of digits.
 r = placement of the digit (from the right side starting from r = 0)

Let us look at an example to understand this better.

For example: Convert hexadecimal number (25)16 to its decimal form.
(25)16 = 2 × 161 + 5 × 160
= 2 × 16 + 5 × 1
= 32 + 5
= 37

ONE’S COMPLEMENT AND TWO’S COMPLEMENT

One’s complement of a binary number can be achieved by changing all 0’ s to 1’ s and 1’
s to 0’ s. Example: There is a binary number 11001 and its 1’s complement would be
00110 after all 0’ s to 1’ s and 1’s to 0’s

Two’s complement of binary number can be obtained by adding 1 to the LSB (Least
Significant Bit) of 1’s complement of binary number. 2’s complement= 1’s complement +1
Example: Binary number: 11001 1’s complement of number: 00110 (i.e. convert all 1’s to
0’s and all 0’s to 1’s) 2’s complement of number= 00110+1=00111

CHARACTER CODING SYSTEM (ASCII, ISCII & UNICODE)

Computer works on character data and this data is not only alphabet but numeric values,
punctuation; spaces, etc., are also character data
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

In common language whatever is on keyboard (except shift, caps lock key) are character
data. As you know computer operates on binary values so these character are also
represented in binary values.
Most common character coding used in India are ASCII, ISCII and UNICODE

ASCII
 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 Computers can only understand numbers, so an ASCII code is the numerical
representation of a character such as ‘A’ has numerical value as 65
Some other characters and its equivalent ASCII values are following:

ASCII value for a to z is

from 97 to 122 i.e., a = 97,

z = 122.

INDIAN SCRIPT CODE FOR INFORMATION

INTERCHANGE (ISCII)
This coding scheme is used for Indian script and its symbols
Using this, it is possible to define a syllable boundary for Indian script word. It was
developed by Bureau of Indian Standards in 1986 and revised to a more compact form in
1988
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

UNICODE
 Developed in 1987
 Provides a unique number for every character of all languages
 Developed to represent characters from a wide range of languages and can thus
represent characters from English, French, Greek, Korean etc., all at the same time
 The first 256 places of Unicode are same as ASCII and it expands the character set
for new and unique characters that may arise in future.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software refers to a collection of programs, data, and instructions that control
and enable the functioning of a computer system
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories: (i) System Software
(ii) Application Software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
General programs written for a computer - pre-
written programs and documentation
Supplied by the manufacturer along with the
computer - Permanently held in the machine
Objectives of this software are to:
(i) enhance the efficiency of hardware utilization - realized by that
component of system software which is commonly known as operating system
(ii) make computers simple to use.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

OPERATING SYSTEM
 Essential software to operate the computer system
 Function: Effective computer resources management + scheduling multiple jobs for
execution + manages the flow of data and instructions
 The set of commands for operating system is often called Job Control Language (JCL)
 Operating system which is used with a micro-computer is called CP/M (control
program for microprocessor)
 Most popularity - WINDOWS
 First operating system : Batch processing operating system + developed for the
second generation computers + executes jobs serially one after another from a batch
of jobs submitted for execution
 Multi programming operating system : handles multiple jobs simultaneously by
overlapping the input/ output and processing cycles of various jobs.
 Popular types at present : ‘multi-processing operating systems’ and ‘real time
operating systems’
 Multi-processing operating system uses multiple CPUs to process multiple jobs
 Real time operating system : interactive operating system with strict time limitation +
quick Receiving and processing data + control, direct or effect the outcome of ongoing
activity + examples - The reservation system used by railway, airlines, and hotel
UTILITY SOFTWARE
 System software which is
used quite often in the
development of a program
 Sort merge programs are
used to sort records in a
particular manner or
sequence + provided by the
manufacturers . The
programmer can also
develop his/her own utility
software and keep it in the
secondary memory of the
computer
Device Drivers: Software that
enables communication
between the operating system
and hardware devices like
printers, graphics cards, and
network adapters
Firmware: Software embedded
in hardware devices to control
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

their operation. For example, the firmware in a router controls its networking functions.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is written to perform a specific task or process, such as accounting,
payroll, mailing list, result preparation and so on. The majority of application software is
written in high-level languages.

Common Application Packages

 Word processor, database processing, spreadsheet calculations, mail-merge,
presentations and communications (email)
 Readily available in the market and one can purchase them, install it on his/her
computer easily and start using the package
 Word Processing Software: Used for creating, editing, and formatting text
documents. Examples include Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and LibreOffice Writer.
 Spreadsheet Software: Used for creating and manipulating numerical data in tables.
Examples include Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets, and LibreOffice Calc.
 Presentation Software: Used to create and display visual presentations with slides,
text, images, and animations. Examples include Microsoft PowerPoint and Google
Slides.
 Graphics and Design Software: Used for creating and editing images, illustrations,
and designs. Examples include Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, and CorelDRAW.
 Web Browsers: Software that allows users to access and view websites on the
internet. Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.
 Email Clients: Software for sending, receiving, and managing emails. Examples
include Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, and Mozilla Thunderbird.
 Media Players: Software for playing audio and video files. Examples include Windows
Media Player, VLC Media Player, and iTunes.
 Database Software: Used to create, manage, and query databases. Examples
include Microsoft Access, MySQL, and Oracle Database.
 Gaming Software: Programs designed for interactive entertainment and gaming.
Examples include Steam, Epic Games Store, and console game software.
 Productivity Software: Tools that help users manage tasks, schedules, and projects.
Examples include task management apps, calendar apps, and note-taking software.
 Educational Software: Software designed to aid in learning and education, including
e-learning platforms, educational games, and language learning apps

COMPUTER LANGUAGE
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Language of programs that computer understands

Machine language consists of only binary digits, i.e. 0 and 1. It was felt quite difficult and
tedious for human beings to think in binary numbers. For communicating with the
computer, it was thought that it is advisable to develop a third language, a programming
language that can be understood by both human beings and the computer

Programming language
 Set of rules that provides a way of instructing the computer to perform certain
operations.
 Said to be lower or higher, depending on whether they are closer to the language the
computer itself uses (lower, which means 0s and 1s) or to the language that people
use (higher, which means more English like)
 Classified as: 1) Machine language 2) Assembly language 3) High level language

MACHINE LANGUAGES
 Programs that have only binary digits
 Difficult to write or understand machine language
 In one system, the letter A is represented as 1000001
 Commas, semicolons and other special characters are also represented as bunches
of 0s and 1s

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES
 In the 1950s, to reduce programming complexity and provide some standardization,
assembly languages were developed
 Also known as symbolic languages
 Use abbreviations or memonic code - codes that are more easily memorized to
replace the 0s and 1s of machine languages
 Do not replace machine languages
 For an assembly language program to be executed, it must be converted to machine
code
 The assembly language KErogram is referred to as a ‘source program’ whereas, the
machine language program is an ‘object program’
 Assembly language code is very similar in the form to machine language code. This
one-to-one correspondence was still laborious
 Advantages: Standardized and easier to use + operate very efficiently + easier to
debug
 Disadvantages: Very long and difficult to debug + complex + machine dependent

The hypothetical machine language segment we saw above is as follows: 11110010

01110011 11010010 00010000 01110000 00101011
This could be expressed in assembly language statement as : PACK 210 (8, 13), 02B
(4,7)
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

. Languages are often referred to as generations, the idea being that machine languages
were the first generation and assembly languages were the second generation

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Reduce number of computer operations details they had to specify, so that they could
concentrate more on the logic needed to solve the problem
All languages above the assembly level.
Three generation: 1) Procedural-oriented or third generation 2) Problem-oriented or fourth
generation 3) Natural or fifth generation Procedural-oriented Languages

Classified according to whether they solve general problems or specific problems

General-purpose programming languages
 Procedural languages or third generation languages
 PBINal, BASIC, COBOL, and FORTRAN
 Designed to express the logic, the procedure, of a problem
 Advantages : Resemble English language + less time is required to develop a program
+ easier to understand and modify + machine-independent
 Disadvantages : executed more slowly + use computer resources less efficiently
Problem-oriented Languages and Application Generators
Designed to solve specific problems or develop specific applications by enabling you to
describe what you want rather than step-by-step procedures for getting there
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS

Kinds of translators
COMPILERS
 High-level languages are called either compiled languages or interpreted languages.
In a compiled language, a translation program is run to convert the high-level language
program (which is called the source code) into a machine language code. This
translation process is called compilation
 The machine language code is called the object code and can be saved and either
run (executed) immediately or later. Some of the most widely used compiled
languages are COBOL, C, C ++, FORTRAN, etc.
INTERPRETERS
 In an interpreted language, a translation program converts each program statement
into machine code just before the program statement is to be executed
 Translation and execution occur immediately, one after another, one statement at a
time. Unlike the compiled language, no object code is stored and there is no
compilation
 The most frequently used interpreted language is BASIC
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

NOTE: Compiled languages are better than interpreted languages as they can be
executed faster and more efficiently once the object code has been obtained. On the
other hand, interpreted languages do not need to create object code and so are usually
easier to develop and test.

OPERATING SYSTEMS
NOTE: Intro has been discussed earlier
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Process Management
 A program that is in an execution state is
called a process. For example, a word
processing program like MS-Word being run
by a user on a personal computer is a
process
 A system task, such as sending output to a
printer, can also be a process
 Helps in the allocation of resources to each
process
 Allocation of the CPU time - limited time, which may be a fraction of a second +
process scheduling
 Responsible for creation, deletion, and scheduling of various processes that are being
executed at any point of time
Memory Management
 Keeps track of every memory location, that is either assigned to some process or is
free
 Checks how much memory should be assigned to each process.
Input/Output Management
 Provides a generic, consistent, convenient and reliable way to access I/O devices
 Responds to the user keystrokes, mouse clicks and other input formats
File and Disk Management
 Responsible for allocating space for files on secondary storage media
 Keeps track of the memory location allocated to each piece of the file on the storage
disk. The operating system is thus responsible for the organisation of the file system
 Guarantees that the read and write operations performed on the secondary storage
device are secure and reliable
 Operating systems like DOS, Windows, Macintosh and Unix follow the hierarchical
structure to store files and folders, e.g. in case of windows, a file is placed in the
desired folder or a subfolder
User Interface
 A User Interface (UI) - part of an operating system, program or device + used by user
to input and receive data
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Text User Interface (TUI) or Command Line Interface (CLI) allows users to interact
with an operating system by typing commands in a terminal or console window
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) - easy to use interface + uses graphics, along with a
keyboard and a mouse, to provide an easy-to-use interface to a program + Examples
of GUI operating systems are Windows, Linux, and Solaris
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
MICROSOFT WINDOWS
 Windows is an operating system designed by Microsoft
 Most popular OS for home PCs
 Recent ones include Windows 10 (released in 2015), Windows 8 (2012), Windows 7
(2009), Windows Vista (2007)
Features of Microsoft Windows
 GUI based operating system, i.e., interaction with the computer is done by clicking
with mouse on the icons
 Eliminate the need to memorize commands for the command line (MS-DOS)
 Supports multiprogramming and multitasking
LINUX
 Open-source (program code which is freely available and its source code is available
to developers or users for modification) operating system
 Provides two GUIs: KDE and Gnome
 Companies - Red Hat, SuSE, Ubuntu, Xandros etc
 Allows Multi-user system that supports multiple users at once or different times
 Customizable in a way that Windows is not
Components
(i) Kernel - Core part of Linux. It is responsible for major activities of operating system
(ii) System library - It has special functions using which application programs access
Kernel’s features
(iii) System utility - It is responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks
UNIX
 Developed in the 1960s
 Stable, multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops, and laptops
 Most popular versions of UNIX are Sun Solaris and MacOS X
Features of UNIX Operating System
(a) UNIX is a flexible operating system. It can be installed on many different types of
machines like main-frame computers, supercomputers, and microcomputers
(b) UNIX has better built-in security and permissions features than Windows
SMARTPHONE OPERATING SYSTEMS
Smartphones are using operating systems too. This development has brought many
advanced functions on mobile which were already available on our computer
Mobile phones or smartphones are not just a device to make phone calls or send some
texts, but they are close to handheld computers that enable us to send email, play games,
watch news, do video calls and much more
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iOS
 Apple iOS is a multi-touch, multi-tasking operating system that runs on Apple iPhone,
iPad, and iPod.
 Gives the response on the user’s touch
 Allows them to tap on the screen to open a program, enlarge an image, or swipe a
finger on the screen to change the pages
 Apple iOS can only be used by products made by Apple
 Comes with the Safari web browser for internet access
ANDROID
 Android is an open source mobile operating system owned by Google
 It provides unlimited access to anyone who wants to develop apps for the phone and
puts less restriction on its licensing, so users benefit from the free content
WINDOWS PHONE
 Microsoft released its Windows platform for mobile phones in late 2010
 The Windows phone home screen resembles a Window’s Desktop start menu.
Windows phone is recognizable from its tile-based interface
 The content like photos, music, etc. from various applications are automatically
grouped together by the aggregator feature called hubs

DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING
DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication and networking involve the transmission of data between devices
and the establishment of networks to facilitate communication
Basic Elements of Communication System

Transmission Modes
 Simplex: In this type of transmission, data can be sent only in one direction i.e., it’s a
uni-directional mode. The receiver only receives the data, but can not communicate
back to the sender
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 Half Duplex: In half duplex system, we can send data in both directions but sender
can either receive the data or send the data at a particular time. So when the sender
is sending the data, it cannot receive the data and vice versa
 Full Duplex: In this mode, we can send data in both directions as it is bidirectional
mode. We can send and receive data at the same time.
COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGY
E-M SPECTRUM
 Range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
 Extends from the low frequencies used for modem radio communication to gamma
radiation at the short wavelength (high frequency) end, covering wavelengths from
thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom
 Not all the frequencies are suitable to purposes of human communications.

BANDWIDTH
Range of frequencies that make up a signal
A. Narrowband
 Accommodate 64Kbps, which is also known as the DS-0 (Digital Signal level 0)
channel
 If we combine these 64Kbps channels together, we can achieve wideband
transmission rates
B. Wideband - Wideband is a transmission medium or channel that has a wider bandwidth
than the voice channel i. e., more than 64Kbps. This term is usually contrasted with
narrowband
C. Broadband
 The most modern bandwidth used has broadband capacities
 Defined in different ways, depending on what part of the industry you are talking about.
Technically speaking, it has been defined as being anything over 2Mbps
 Refers to any type of transmission technique that carries several data channels over
a common wire. For example, in home networking, broadband constitutes any form of
high-speed Internet access using this transmission technique
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media refer to the physical pathways through which data signals are
transmitted from one device to another in a data communication network. These media
can be classified into two main types: guided media (also known as bounded or wired
media) and unguided media (also known as unbounded or wireless media).
1. Guided Media:
 Twisted Pair Cable:
 Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
 Commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet networks.
 Two types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
 Coaxial Cable:
 Consists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and
an outer insulating layer.
 Commonly used in cable television (CATV) and broadband Internet
connections.
 Optical Fiber:
 Uses light signals to transmit data.
 Consists of a core (glass or plastic fiber that carries light), cladding (surrounds
the core and reflects light inward), and a protective outer layer.
 Offers high bandwidth, low attenuation, and resistance to electromagnetic
interference.
 Commonly used in long-distance communication, such as in
telecommunications networks
2. Unguided Media:
 Microwave Transmission: In microwave transmission the waves travel in straight
lines. It gives a much higher signal noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving
antennas must be accurately aligned with each other
 Radio Waves: Radio waves can be broadcasted in all directions from the source i.e.,
Omni-directional so that the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully
aligned physically
 Infrared Waves: Infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication. The
remote controls used on television, VCRs and stereos use infrared communication
 Communication Satellite: In satellite communication, signal transferring between the
sender and receiver is done with the help of satellite. In this process, the signal which
is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the
satellite amplifies the signal and sends it back to the receiver’s antenna present on
the earth’s surface. So, all the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type
of communication is known as space communication
 Bluetooth: Bluetooth is a WPAN technology. Accordingly its radio characteristics
include low power, short range, and medium transmission speed. It effectively
exchanges data over short range. Today the Bluetooth market focuses on professional
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

and field workers, who need to travel offsite but still require access to corporate
communication and information
 Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a Local Area Network (LAN) - you will know more about LAN, later in
this lesson. Wi-Fi depends on a high energy intake to offer a 100 meter range and
much higher transmission rate. This speed makes Wi-Fi much more faster Bluetooth
and similar to a high speed modem. For large file transfer and quick Internet access,
Wi-Fi outperforms Bluetooth.
Characteristics and Considerations:
 Bandwidth: The capacity of a transmission medium to carry data.
 Attenuation: The loss of signal strength as it travels through the medium.
 Interference: The impact of external signals on the transmitted data.
 Transmission Speed: The rate at which data can be transmitted through the
medium.
 Cost and Installation: The cost and complexity of installing and maintaining the
medium.

COMUTER NETWORKS
Computer networks are interconnected systems that
enable communication and data exchange between
computers and other devices. Networks allow devices to
share resources, collaborate, and access information,
often facilitating communication over long distances.
Here's an overview of computer networks:
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
 Scope: Limited geographical area, such as a single building or a campus.
 Characteristics:
 High data transfer rates.
 Typically owned, set up, and maintained by a single organization.
 Commonly used for connecting computers, printers, and servers within an
office or a building.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
 Scope: Spans a larger geographical area, such as a city, country, or even
globally.
 Characteristics:
 Lower data transfer rates compared to LANs.
 Connects LANs over long distances.
 Relies on public and private network infrastructure.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 Scope: Covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN,
typically within a city.
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 Characteristics:
 Provides connectivity to multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
 Can be used for high-speed data transfer between corporate offices.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN):
 Scope: Connects devices within the personal space of an individual, typically
within a range of a few meters.
 Characteristics:
 Examples include Bluetooth and infrared connections.
 Used for connecting devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
5. Campus Area Network (CAN):
 Scope: Larger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN, typically covering a university
campus or a business park.
 Characteristics:
 Connects multiple buildings within a defined geographic area.
6. Home Area Network (HAN):
 Scope: Connects devices within a single household.
 Characteristics:
 Commonly used for connecting devices like computers, smart TVs, and
smart home devices.
7. Client-Server Network:
 Architecture: Involves a central server that provides resources and services to
client devices.
 Characteristics:
 Clients request services, and servers fulfill those requests.
 Commonly used in business environments for centralized data storage and
management.
8. Peer-to-Peer Network:
 Architecture: Devices are connected directly to each other without a central
server.
 Characteristics:
 Each device can act as both a client and a server.
 Commonly used for file sharing and decentralized applications.
9. Internet:
 Scope: A global network of networks, connecting millions of devices worldwide.
 Characteristics:
 Uses the TCP/IP protocol suite.
 Provides access to various services, including the World Wide Web, email,
and file transfer.
10. Intranet:
 Scope: A private network within an organization that uses the same technologies
as the Internet.
 Characteristics:
 Accessible only to authorized users within the organization.
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 Facilitates internal communication, document sharing, and collaboration.

11. Extranet:
 Scope: An extension of an intranet that allows limited access to external users,
such as partners or customers.
 Characteristics:
 Provides controlled access to specific resources for external parties.
12. Virtual Private Network (VPN):
 Scope: Utilizes public networks (e.g., the Internet) to create secure private
networks.
 Characteristics:
 Ensures secure communication over an untrusted network.
 Often used for remote access to corporate networks.
NOTE : Network Components:
 Nodes: Devices connected to the network, such as computers, servers, printers,
routers, switches, and IoT devices.
 Links: Physical or wireless connections that allow data to travel between nodes.
Ethernet cables, fiber-optic cables, and wireless signals are common link types
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
1. Bus Topology:
 Description: All devices share a single communication line or cable (the bus).
 Advantages:
 Simple and easy to implement.
 Cost-effective for small networks.
 Disadvantages:
 Performance degrades as more
devices are added.
 If the main cable fails, the entire
network may be affected.
2. Ring Topology:
 Description: Devices are connected in a circular fashion, forming a ring.
 Advantages:
 Easy to install and configure.
 Each device has equal access to the network.
 Disadvantages:
 Failure in one device can disrupt the entire network.
 Adding or removing devices can be challenging.
3. Star Topology:
 Description: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Advantages:
 Easy to install and manage.
 Failure in one device does not affect others.

 Disadvantages:
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 Dependence on the central hub; if it fails, the entire network may be affected.
 Requires more cabling compared to bus topology.
4. Mesh Topology:
 Description: Every device is connected to every other device in the network.
 Advantages:
 High redundancy; failure in one link does not necessarily disrupt the entire
network.
 Supports high traffic volume.
 Disadvantages:
 Complex and expensive to implement.
 Maintenance and troubleshooting can be challenging.
5. Tree Topology:
 Description: Combination of star and bus topologies, forming a hierarchy.
 Advantages:
 Scalable and can cover large geographical areas.
 Provides a balance between redundancy and cost.
 Disadvantages:
 Failure in the central hub can affect the entire branch.
 Complex to design and manage.
6. Hybrid Topology:
 Description: Combines two or more different topologies.
 Advantages:
 Offers flexibility and customization.
 Can provide a balance between cost and performance.
 Disadvantages:
 Complex to design and implement.
 Requires careful planning and management.
7. Point-to-Point Topology:
 Description: Each device is directly connected to another without the need for a
central hub.
 Advantages:
 Simple and easy to implement.
 Suitable for small-scale connections.
 Disadvantages:
 Limited scalability.
 Not suitable for large networks.
8. Full Mesh Topology:
 Description: Every device is directly connected to every other device in the
network.
 Advantages:
 High redundancy and fault tolerance.
 Supports high traffic loads.
 Disadvantages:
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 Requires a large number of connections.

 Cost and complexity increase with the number of devices.
IP ADDRESSING
IP addressing is a fundamental aspect of computer networking that enables devices to
communicate with each other on a network using the Internet Protocol (IP). IP addresses
serve as unique identifiers for devices, allowing data to be sent and received between
them
There are two main versions of the Internet Protocol in use today: IPv4 (Internet Protocol
version 4) and IPv6 (Internet Protocol
version 6).
1. IPv4 Addressing:
 IPv4 addresses are 32-bit
numerical labels written in
decimal format, separated by
periods (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
 There are approximately 4.3
billion unique IPv4 addresses,
which has led to the exhaustion of
available addresses.
 IPv4 addresses are typically
divided into network and host
portions. Subnetting is commonly
used to create smaller network
segments.
2. IPv6 Addressing:
 IPv6 was introduced to address
the limitations of IPv4 and provide
a vastly expanded address
space.
 IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and are usually represented as eight groups
of four hexadecimal digits (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
 The larger address space of IPv6 allows for an almost unlimited number of unique
addresses
TYPES
Private and Public IP Addresses:
 Private IP addresses are reserved for use within a private network and are not
routable on the public Internet. Common private IP address ranges include
192.168.x.x and 10.x.x.x.
 Public IP addresses are globally unique and are used for communication over the
Internet.
Dynamic and Static IP Addresses:
 Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) server and may change over time.
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 Static addresses are manually assigned and do not change unless modified by an
administrator
Other highlights
 SUBNETTING: Involves dividing an IP network into sub-networks to improve
performance and security. It helps to efficiently allocate IP addresses and manage
network traffic
 IP Address Classes: IPv4 addresses were traditionally divided into classes (A, B, C,
D, and E), but classful addressing has largely been replaced by Classless Inter-
Domain Routing (CIDR).
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): ARP is used to map an IP address to a
physical MAC (Media Access Control) address on a local network
 IPv4 to IPv6 Transition: Due to the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses, there has been a
gradual transition to IPv6, which provides a much larger address space.
NETWORKING DEVICES
Networking devices play a crucial role in facilitating communication and data transfer
within computer networks. These devices perform various functions to ensure the smooth
operation and efficiency of the network
1. Router:
 Function: Connects different
networks and directs data between
them. Routers operate at the
network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI
model.
 Features:
 Determines the best path
for data packets to reach
their destination.
 Supports NAT (Network
Address Translation) for
translating private IP addresses to a public IP address.
2. Switch:
 Function: Connects multiple devices within the same local network. Switches
operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
 Features:
 Learns the MAC addresses of connected devices and uses them to
forward data only to the appropriate destination.
 Provides full-duplex communication, allowing data to be transmitted and
received simultaneously.
3. Hub:
 Function: Connects multiple devices in a network, but unlike switches, hubs
operate at the physical layer (Layer 1) and do not filter or manage data traffic.
 Features:
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 Broadcasts data to all connected devices, which can lead to network

congestion.
 Generally considered outdated due to limited functionality compared to
switches.
4. Access Point (AP):
 Function: Enables wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi.
 Features:
 Acts as a bridge between wired and wireless networks.
 Supports multiple wireless devices within its range

5. Bridge:
 Function: Connects and filters traffic between two or more network segments at
the data link layer.
 Features:
 Helps reduce collision domains in a network.
 Segments a network into smaller parts for better performance.
6. Gateway:
 Function: Connects different types of networks, translating data between different
communication protocols.
 Features: Allows communication between networks with different architectures,
such as connecting a LAN to the Internet.
7. Firewall:
 Function: Implements security policies to control incoming and outgoing network
traffic, providing protection against unauthorized access and cyber threats.
 Features:
 Filters traffic based on predefined rules.
 Acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and an untrusted
external network.
8. Modem:
 Function: Converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for
transmission over analog communication lines (such as telephone lines) and vice
versa.
 Features: Commonly used for broadband Internet connections (DSL, cable).
9. Repeater:
 Function: Extends the range of a network by amplifying and retransmitting signals.
 Features: Helps overcome signal attenuation (weakening) over long distances.
10. Load Balancer:
 Function: Distributes incoming network traffic across multiple servers to ensure
optimal resource utilization and prevent server overload.
 Features: Enhances the performance, scalability, and availability of web
applications.
11. Proxy Server:
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 Function: Acts as an intermediary between clients and servers, forwarding

requests and responses.
 Features: Can be used for caching, content filtering, and enhancing security by
masking the identity of clients.
12. Network Attached Storage (NAS):
 Function: Dedicated storage device connected to the network, providing file-based
data storage services.
 Features: Enables centralized storage and file sharing in the network
13. RJ45 Connector: RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking.
It looks similar to a telephone jack, but is slightly wider. Since Ethernet cable have a
RJ45 connector on each end, Ethernet cables are sometimes also called RJ45 cables.
The ‘RJ’ in RJ45 stands for ‘registered jack’ since it is a standardized network
interface. The ‘45’ simply refers to the number of the interface standard
14. Ethernet card
 Kind of network adapter
 Support the Ethernet standard for high-speed network connections via cables
 Sometimes known as network interface cards (NICs)
 Most commonly used local network technology deployed with transmission speeds
heading upwards into the gigabits range
 Most widely installed local area network (LAN) technology
WIRELESS NETWORKING
Wireless networking refers to the technology that enables devices to communicate and
exchange data without the need for physical cables or wires
Wireless Communication Technologies:
 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A technology that allows devices to connect to a local
area network (LAN) wirelessly. Wi-Fi is commonly used in homes, offices, and
public spaces.
 Bluetooth: A short-range wireless communication technology used for connecting
devices such as smartphones, laptops, and peripherals.
 NFC (Near Field Communication): Enables short-range wireless communication
between devices by bringing them close together.
 Zigbee and Z-Wave: Wireless communication protocols designed for low-power,
short-range communication in IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
Wireless Network Components:
 Access Point (AP): A device that enables wireless devices to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi.
 Wireless Router: Combines the functions of a router and an access point,
providing both wired and wireless connectivity.
 Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC): Hardware component in devices (e.g.,
laptops, smartphones) that enables wireless communication.
Wi-Fi Standards:
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 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax: These are standards defined by the IEEE (Institute of

Electrical and Electronics Engineers) for wireless communication. Each standard
has its own specifications, such as frequency bands, data rates, and modulation
techniques.
Wireless Security:
 WPA3 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 3): The latest security protocol for Wi-Fi networks,
providing stronger encryption and protection against brute-force attacks.
 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), WPA2: Older
security protocols, with WPA2 being widely used before the introduction of WPA3.

Wireless Network Topologies:

 Infrastructure Mode: Devices connect to a central access point, forming a basic
wireless network infrastructure.
 Ad-Hoc Mode: Devices communicate directly with each other without the need for
a central access point.
Wireless Range and Coverage:
 The effective range of a wireless network depends on factors such as signal
strength, interference, and the presence of obstacles. Range extenders and mesh
networks can be used to expand coverage.
Wireless Site Surveys:
 The process of assessing and planning the deployment of wireless networks to
ensure optimal coverage, performance, and reliability.
Wireless LAN (WLAN) and Wireless WAN (WWAN):
 WLAN: A local area network that uses wireless communication technologies, such
as Wi-Fi.
 WWAN: A wide area network that provides wireless connectivity over larger
geographical areas, often using cellular networks.
Mobile Networks:
 3G, 4G, 5G: Generations of mobile networks that provide increasing data speeds
and capabilities. 5G, the latest generation, offers high-speed data transfer, low
latency, and support for a massive number of connected devices.
Wireless Challenges and Solutions:
 Interference: Interference from other electronic devices or neighboring networks
can impact performance. Solutions include selecting optimal channels and using
interference-resistant technologies.
 Security Concerns: Implementing strong encryption, secure authentication
methods, and regular security audits address security challenges in wireless
networks.

INTERNET
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

The internet, short for "interconnected networks," is a global network of computer

networks that connects billions of devices worldwide, enabling them to communicate and
share information
History and Evolution of the Internet
1. Precursors to the Internet (1960s):
 The concept of a global computer network was first envisioned in the 1960s as a
response to the Cold War, with the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) playing a pivotal role.
 ARPANET, created in 1969, is often considered the precursor to the modern
internet. It linked together four major research universities and allowed researchers
to share information electronically.

2. The Birth of the Internet (1970s):

 ARPANET expanded rapidly during the 1970s, connecting universities and
research institutions across the United States.
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was developed in 1974, laying the
foundation for reliable data transmission
over interconnected networks.
 In 1977, the term "internet" was first used
to describe a global network of networks.
3. The Spread of the Internet (1980s):
 The adoption of TCP/IP as a standard
protocol in 1982 marked a significant
milestone in the internet's evolution.
 In 1983, ARPANET switched to using
TCP/IP, and the domain name system
(DNS) was introduced, enabling human-
readable web addresses.
 The first commercial email services and online bulletin board systems (BBS)
emerged during this decade.
4. World Wide Web (1990s):
 In 1989, British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee proposed the World Wide Web
(WWW) as a way to organize and link information on the internet.
 The first website and web browser were created in 1990. By 1993, the web began
to gain mainstream attention.
 The introduction of graphical web browsers like Mosaic and Netscape Navigator
made the internet more accessible and user-friendly.
 E-commerce and search engines like Yahoo! and Google emerged, shaping the
internet into a platform for information retrieval and online commerce.
5. Dot-Com Boom and Bust (late 1990s - early 2000s):
 The late 1990s saw the dot-com boom, with a surge in internet-based startups and
investments.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 However, the bubble burst in the early 2000s, leading to the collapse of many
internet companies.
6. Broadband and Mobile Internet (2000s):
 Broadband internet became widely available, offering high-speed connectivity to
homes and businesses.
 The proliferation of mobile devices and the launch of 3G and 4G networks enabled
internet access on smartphones and tablets.
7. Social Media and Web 2.0 (mid-2000s):
 The mid-2000s witnessed the rise of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter,
and YouTube, transforming the internet into a platform for user-generated content
and social interaction.
 The term "Web 2.0" was coined to describe this shift towards user participation
and collaboration
8. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Beyond (2010s - Present):
 The 2010s saw the emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT), connecting everyday
objects and devices to the internet.
 The expansion of cloud computing, big data, and artificial intelligence has further
transformed the internet into a powerful platform for data storage, analysis, and
automation.
9. Future Developments:
 The internet continues to evolve, with developments such as 5G connectivity,
increased cybersecurity measures, and the exploration of new technologies like
blockchain and quantum computing

INTERNET TERMINOLOGIES
Webpage
The document that can be viewed in the web browser is known as the web page
Website
 The collection of web pages interlinked with each other through hyperlinks is known
as website
 The first page of a website is known as the home page
World Wide Web (WWW)
 System of Internet servers that support documents formatted using HTML
 May contain links to other documents (hyperlinks), text, graphics, audio or video files.
So, a user can search for the desired data or information by navigating from one web
page to another
Web Browser
 Free software application that is used to view web pages, graphics and almost any
other online content
 Specifically designed to convert HTML and XML into readable document
 Helps us to navigate through the World Wide Web
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 Some of the common web browsers are Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome,
Netscape Navigator and Safari
Web Server
Server on the World Wide Web that responds to the request made by the web browsers
URL
Every web page or file has a unique address assigned to it. This special format of the
address is known as Uniform Resource Locator or URL
Specifies the unique address assigned to each web resource (viz., web page, video,
image, song etc.)
The general format of URL
type:// address/path
In the above format
type – specifies the type of server or protocol
address – specifies the name / address of the server on the Internet
path – specifies the location of file on the server
For example, consider the following URL www.airindia.in/travel-info.html
In the above example http identifies both protocol and server followed by a colon (: ) and
two forward slashes (//). www.airindia.in is the name of the server and travel-info.htm is
the name of the HTML file on the server. This type of character based naming system is
known as Domain Name System(DNS)
Here, it should be mentioned that names of the servers commonly begin with ‘www’ for
World Wide Web. Types of domain names are given in the table below:

In addition to the above table, sometimes, a two letter abbreviation indicating the country
name is also used. For example, in the domain name www.yahoo.co.in, ‘in’ indicates the
country India
IP Address
 Every computer on the network also has a unique address. This is called the IP
address where IP stands for Internet Protocol.
 Any computer’s IP address is a fourpart or eight- part electronic serial number with
each part separated by dots (.) or colons(:). For example ‘212.30.0.220’ is an IP
address
HTML
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

 Specifies how to display text, pictures, images, videos or even hyperlinks in the
browser
 ‘Hypertext’ refers to the
hyperlinks that an HTML page
may contain and the ‘markup
language’ refers to the way tags
are used to define the page
layout and the elements within
the page and also to make the
document interactive through
hyperlinks
 Defines how web pages are
formatted and displayed in the
web browser
XML
 Acronym - Extensible Markup
Language
 Language that is used to display
the content of a web page in a
structured manner
 Defines a set of rules for
encoding documents in a format which is both human-readable and machine-readable
and hence can be read by any XML compatible application
 Basically a mechanism for defining tags and structural relationships between these
tags. It focusses on cataloguing and databasing the text content of the web page
 But unlike HTML, XML is not a markup language
ISP
Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are companies that provide internet access and related
services to individuals, businesses, and other organizations. ISPs play a crucial role in
connecting users to the internet and ensuring reliable and high-speed connectivity
Types of ISPs:
 Broadband ISPs: These providers offer high-speed internet access through various
technologies, including DSL, cable, fiber-optic, and satellite.
 Wireless ISPs (WISPs): WISPs use wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, to provide
internet access in specific areas.
 Dial-Up ISPs: Dial-up ISPs offer slower internet access via traditional telephone lines
and modems, although this technology is becoming less common.
 Mobile ISPs: Mobile network operators provide internet access via cellular networks,
including 3G, 4G, and 5G technologies

INTERNET CONNECTION PROTOCOLS

 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Internet connection protocols are sets of rules and conventions that govern how data is
transmitted, received, and managed over the
internet. These protocols ensure that devices
and systems can communicate with each other
effectively.
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol
that ensures reliable data transmission
between devices on the internet.
 It establishes a connection, breaks data into packets, numbers them for order, and
handles retransmission of lost or corrupted packets.
 TCP guarantees that data is received in the correct order, without errors or
duplication.
2. Internet Protocol (IP):
 IP is responsible for addressing and routing packets of data so that they can travel
across networks and arrive at the correct destination.
 There are two main versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv6 was introduced to address the
depletion of available IPv4 addresses.
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS:
 HTTP is used for transmitting web pages and related data on the World Wide Web.
It is the foundation of data communication on the web.
 HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP. It encrypts data transmitted between the
user's browser and the web server, ensuring privacy and security.
4. File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
 FTP is used for transferring files between a client and a server on the internet.
 It provides basic authentication but does not encrypt data, making it less secure
for transferring sensitive information.
5. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Post Office Protocol (POP)/Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP):
 SMTP is used for sending email messages.
 POP and IMAP are used for receiving email messages. IMAP allows messages to
be stored on the server, while POP typically downloads them to the recipient's
device.
6. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):
 ICMP is used for diagnostics and error reporting in IP networks. It's the protocol
behind the "ping" command, which tests network connectivity.
7. Domain Name System (DNS):
 DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses (e.g., 192.0.2.1) so that computers can locate resources on the internet.
8. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):
 DHCP assigns IP addresses dynamically to devices on a network, simplifying the
process of configuring network settings for connected devices.
9. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 BGP is used by routers to make decisions about the best path for routing data
between autonomous systems (ASes) on the internet. It is critical for internet
routing.
10. File Sharing Protocols: - Protocols like BitTorrent and eDonkey are used for peer-
to-peer file sharing, allowing users to exchange files directly with each other.
11. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): - VoIP protocols like SIP (Session Initiation
Protocol) and RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol) enable voice and multimedia
communication over the internet.

INTERNET SERVICES
1. World Wide Web (WWW): The web is a collection of interconnected documents and
other resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs. Users access web content through
web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, or Safari.
2. Email Services: These services enable the exchange of electronic messages
between users. Popular email services include Gmail, Yahoo Mail, and Outlook.
3. Search Engines: Search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo help users find
information on the internet by indexing and ranking web pages based on relevance.
4. Social Media Platforms: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn
allow users to connect, share content, and communicate with others online.
5. Online Storage and File Sharing: Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and
OneDrive provide cloud storage for files, allowing users to access their data from any
device and share files with others.
6. Video Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, YouTube, Hulu, and Amazon Prime
Video deliver video content over the internet, allowing users to watch movies, TV
shows, and other videos.
7. Online Shopping: E-commerce platforms such as Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba enable
users to buy and sell goods and services online.
8. Cloud Computing Services: Services like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft
Azure, and Google Cloud provide computing resources over the internet, including
storage, processing power, and applications.
9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Services like Skype, Zoom, and WhatsApp
allow users to make voice and video calls over the internet, bypassing traditional
telephone networks.
10. Online Gaming: Platforms like Steam, Xbox Live, and PlayStation Network provide
online gaming services, allowing players to connect and play games over the internet.
11. News and Information Services: Websites and apps from news organizations
deliver real-time news updates and information on various topics.
12. Online Banking and Financial Services: Banks and financial institutions offer online
services, allowing users to manage their accounts, transfer funds, and perform
financial transactions over the internet.
13. Web Hosting Services: Companies like Bluehost, HostGator, and GoDaddy provide
web hosting services, enabling individuals and businesses to host their websites on
the internet.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

14. VPN (Virtual Private Network) Services: VPNs secure internet connections by
encrypting data, providing privacy and anonymity for users
15. Video Conferencing : technology that allows communication between two or more
people at different locations by simultaneous two-way audio and video or even text
transmissions. It can be Point To Point, Multipoint Video Conferencing. Streaming is
also a type of Video conferencing

COOKIES
 Name cookie is taken from ‘magic cookies’ in UNIX
 These are tokens that are attached to the program or user and change according to
the responses by the program or the user
 Message given to the web browser by a web server. The message received by the
browser is stored in a text file and is sent back to the server each time the browser
requests a page from the server. In this manner, cookies help the web server to keep
track of the user’s activity on a specific website
 They are not capable to spread viruses

INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a transformative
concept in the world of technology and connectivity.
It refers to the network of physical objects, devices,
vehicles, buildings, and other items embedded with
sensors, software, and connectivity, enabling them to
collect and exchange data over the internet. IoT has
the potential to reshape industries, improve
efficiency, enhance convenience, and lead to
innovative applications across various domains
1. Connectivity: IoT devices are equipped with
various communication technologies, including Wi-Fi, cellular networks, Bluetooth,
Zigbee, and LoRaWAN, to connect and share data with other devices and systems.
2. Sensors and Data: IoT devices are often equipped with sensors that can collect data
such as temperature, humidity, motion, location, light, and more. This data is transmitted
over the internet for analysis and decision-making.
3. Data Analysis: Collected data is processed and analyzed using various technologies,
including cloud computing and edge computing. Analyzed data can provide valuable
insights, trends, and predictions.
4. Applications and Use Cases:
 Smart Home: IoT is used for home automation, controlling lights, thermostats,
security systems, and appliances remotely.
 Healthcare: IoT enables remote patient monitoring, wearable health devices, and
smart medical equipment.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Transportation: IoT is used in connected cars for navigation, diagnostics, and

safety features.
 Agriculture: IoT helps optimize farming practices through soil monitoring,
precision agriculture, and automated irrigation.
 Industrial IoT (IIoT): In industries, IoT devices enhance manufacturing, supply
chain management, predictive maintenance, and quality control.
 Smart Cities: IoT is applied to manage urban infrastructure, including smart traffic
management, waste management, and energy efficiency.
5. Security and Privacy: IoT security is a significant concern, as the proliferation of
connected devices creates potential vulnerabilities. Encryption, authentication, and
security protocols are essential to protect IoT networks and data.
6. Interoperability: Ensuring that IoT devices and systems can work together seamlessly
is a challenge. Standardization and open protocols help address this issue.
7. Scalability: IoT networks can quickly grow to accommodate millions or even billions of
devices. Scalability is a crucial consideration for IoT infrastructure.
8. Energy Efficiency: Many IoT devices operate on battery power, requiring efficient
energy use and low-power technologies to extend battery life.
9. Regulations: IoT is subject to various regulations, especially regarding data privacy,
security, and compliance with regional and international standards.
10. Future Trends: Emerging technologies like 5G, artificial intelligence (AI), and
blockchain are expected to further enhance the capabilities and applications of IoT.
11. Challenges: IoT faces challenges related to security, privacy, data management, and
the potential for data overload

BASICS OF EMAILING
Emailing is a common and widely used method of electronic communication
Email Account Setup
Select an email service provider (ESP). Common providers include:
 Gmail (by Google)
 Outlook (by Microsoft)
 Yahoo Mail
 Apple Mail (for iCloud)
 ProtonMail (for encrypted email)
Create an Account:
 Visit the website of your chosen email service provider.
 Look for a "Sign Up" or "Create Account" option.
 Provide the required information, which typically includes:
o Full name
o Desired email address
o Password
 Follow any additional steps or security measures.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Understanding Email Components

 Recipient(s): Enter the email addresses of the person or people you want to send the
email to.
 Subject Line: Write a concise and descriptive subject that summarizes the content of
your email.
 Body: Compose the main message of your email in the body section.
Writing an Email
1. Recipient(s): To (Primary Recipient): The main recipient or recipients of the
email, to whom the message is addressed directly
2. Subject Line: A concise and relevant summary of the email's content. It gives the
recipient an idea of what to expect.
3. Salutation (Greeting): The initial greeting or salutation, such as "Dear [Name],"
or "Hello [Name],". It sets the tone for the email.
4. Body: The main content of the email, where you convey your message. This is
where you provide details, explanations, requests, or any other relevant
information.
5. Closing: A closing statement that concludes the email. Examples include "Best
regards," "Sincerely," or "Thank you."
6. Signature: Your name and, optionally, additional information such as your job title,
company, and contact details. Some email clients automatically add a signature.
7. Attachments: Files or documents attached to the email. Attachments can include
images, documents, spreadsheets, etc.
8. Inline Images: Images embedded within the body of the email. These images are
displayed directly in the message.
9. Hyperlinks: URLs or links that direct the recipient to external websites, internal
resources, or other online content (Donot add a infected link)
10. Date and Time: Indicates when the email was sent. It helps establish a timeline
for communication.
11. Reply and Forward Options:
 Reply: Respond directly to the sender of the email.
 Reply All: Respond to the sender and all other recipients.
 Forward: Send the email to another person or group.
12. Read Receipts: An optional feature that notifies the sender when the recipient
opens and reads the email.
13. Priority: Some email clients allow you to set the priority of an email as high,
normal, or low.
14. Folder and Label Options:
 Move to Folder: Move the email to a specified folder for better organization.
 Apply Labels: Assign labels to categorize and organize emails effectively.
15. Spam and Junk Options:
Flag emails as spam to help improve the email provider's filtering system.
16. Options for Formatting:
 Font Styles: Options for bold, italic, and underline formatting.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Text Alignment: Options for aligning text (left, center, right).

 Bullet Points and Numbered Lists: Tools for creating organized lists.
CC AND BCC
features in email that allow you to send copies of an email to additional recipients beyond
the primary recipient. Here's a brief explanation of each:
CC (Carbon Copy):
 Use CC when you want to send a copy of the email to additional recipients, and you
want all recipients to see each other's email addresses.
 All recipients in the CC field can see each other's email addresses. The primary
recipient (in the "To" field) is aware that others have received a copy
 If you are sending an email to a colleague but want to inform your supervisor about
the communication, you can include your supervisor's email address in the CC field
 In the email composition window, you would typically have a "CC" field where you can
enter additional email addresses separated by commas.
BCC (Blind Carbon Copy):
 Use BCC when you want to send a copy of the email to additional recipients, but you
don't want those recipients to be visible to each other. The primary recipient (in the
"To" field) won't see the BCC recipients
 Recipients in the BCC field are hidden from each other. The primary recipient is not
aware of who else received a copy in the BCC field
 Example: If you are sending a mass email to clients and want to protect their privacy
by not disclosing each other's email addresses, you might use BCC for the client list.
 In the email composition window, there is usually a "BCC" field where you can enter
additional email addresses separated by commas. BCC recipients remain invisible to
other recipients.
Considerations:
 Privacy: Use BCC to protect the privacy of recipients who should not be aware of
each other.
 Professionalism: Be mindful of using CC or BCC in a professional setting. Only
include individuals who need to be part of the communication.
 Replying to All: If someone hits "Reply All," responses will go to everyone in the
To, CC, and BCC fields.
Example:
Let's say you're sending an email to a colleague (To), but you want your manager to be
aware (CC) without letting your colleague know. Simultaneously, you have another
colleague who should be informed, but you don't want any of them to know about each
other (BCC).
 To:
 Colleague A
 CC:
 Manager
 BCC:
 Colleague B
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

COMPUTER FILES
Computer files are digital containers or repositories that store data, information, or
instructions in a structured format
FILE TYPES
 Text Files: Contain plain text and can be created and edited with a simple text
editor. Examples include .txt files.
 Document Files: Created by word processing software, such as Microsoft Word
(.docx) or Adobe PDF (.pdf).
 Spreadsheet Files: Created by spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel
(.xlsx) or Google Sheets.
 Image Files: Store visual information. Common formats include JPEG (.jpg), PNG
(.png), and GIF (.gif).
 Audio Files: Contain sound data. Examples include MP3 (.mp3) and WAV (.wav)
files.
 Video Files: Store video data. Examples include MP4 (.mp4) and AVI (.avi) files.
 Executable Files: Contain instructions that a computer's operating system can
execute. Common executable file types include .exe (Windows) and .app (macOS).
FILE SYSTEMS
A file system is a method or structure that an operating system uses to organize and store
files on a storage medium, such as a hard drive or SSD. The file system provides a way
for users and applications to create, store, retrieve, and manage files and directories on
the storage device

Common file systems:

1. FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32):
 Pros: Simple and widely supported across different operating systems.
 Cons: Limited in terms of maximum file size and volume size (4 GB and 2 TB,
respectively).
2. NTFS (New Technology File System):
 Pros: Supports large file sizes and volumes, robust security features, and efficient
disk space utilization.
 Cons: May have limited support on non-Windows operating systems.
3. exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table):
 Pros: Supports large file sizes and is more efficient than FAT32.
 Cons: Not as widely supported as FAT32, especially on older systems.
4. HFS+ (Hierarchical File System Plus):
 Used by: macOS (older versions).
 Pros: Supports large files, journaling for data integrity, and efficient organization
of files.
 Cons: Limited support on non-Apple platforms.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

5. APFS (Apple File System):

 Used by: macOS (from macOS High Sierra onward).
 Pros: Optimized for modern storage technologies, supports encryption,
snapshots, and efficient space allocation.
 Cons: Limited support on non-Apple platforms.
6. ext4 (Fourth Extended File System):
 Used by: Linux (commonly used).
 Pros: Supports large file sizes and volumes, journaling for data integrity, and
efficient handling of small files.
 Cons: Limited support on non-Linux systems.
7. NTFS (Network File System):
 Used by: Various Unix and Linux distributions.
 Pros: Allows files and directories to be accessed over a network as if they were
local files.
 Cons: Security considerations need to be addressed when used in networked
environments.
8. ZFS (Zettabyte File System):
 Used by: Some Unix-based systems, including FreeBSD.
 Pros: Advanced features like data integrity checks, support for large storage pools,
and efficient snapshots.
 Cons: Limited support on non-Unix-based systems.
9. Btrfs (B-Tree File System):
 Used by: Some Linux distributions.
 Pros: Supports features like snapshots, checksums, and efficient storage.
 Cons: Still considered experimental in some contexts.
FILE PATHS
A file path is the unique location of a file or directory within a file system
Essential for navigating and accessing files on a computer
There are two main types of file paths:
1.Absolute Paths: An absolute path provides the complete location of a file or directory
from the root directory. It specifies all the directories from the root to the target file or
directory. Absolute paths are not dependent on the current working directory
C:\Users\Username\Documents\example.txt
2. Relative Paths: A relative path specifies the location of a file or directory relative to the
current working directory. It doesn't start from the root directory; instead, it's relative to the
directory you are currently in
./folder/file.txt
Common Symbols and Terms:
 . (dot): Represents the current directory.
 .. (double dot): Represents the parent directory.
 / (forward slash): Path separator used in Unix-based systems.
 \ (backslash): Path separator used in Windows.
Special Notations:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Tilde (~): In Unix-based systems, the tilde represents the user's home directory. For
example, ~/Documents refers to the "Documents" folder in the user's home directory.

FILE TRANSFER
File transfer refers to the process of moving files from one location to another, either within
the same system or between different systems. There are various methods and protocols
for file transfer, each suited to different use cases and scenarios
1. Copy and Paste (Manual):
 Description: The simplest form of file transfer involves manually copying files from
one location and pasting them to another.
 Use Case: Suitable for small-scale file transfers within the same system.
2. File Explorer or Finder (GUI-Based):
 Description: Using the graphical user interface (GUI) of the operating system's
file manager (File Explorer in Windows, Finder in macOS) to drag and drop files
between folders or drives.
 Use Case: Convenient for moving files within the same system.
3. Command Line (Terminal):
 Description: Using command-line tools like cp (copy), mv (move), or scp (secure
copy) in a terminal or command prompt.
 Use Case: Efficient for both local and remote file transfers, especially when
dealing with large amounts of data.
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
 Description: A standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to
another over a TCP-based network, such as the internet.
 Use Case: Commonly used for transferring files between a local system and a
remote server.
5. SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol):
 Description: A secure version of FTP that uses SSH (Secure Shell) for encryption
and authentication.
 Use Case: Secure file transfer over a network, commonly used for remote server
access.
6. SCP (Secure Copy):
 Description: A command-line tool that uses SSH for secure file transfer between
systems.
 Use Case: Similar to SFTP, often used for secure copying of files between local
and remote systems.
7. HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
 Description: Web protocols commonly used for transferring files over the internet.
HTTP is unsecured, while HTTPS is secured using SSL/TLS.
 Use Case: Downloading/uploading files from/to web servers.
8. Cloud Storage Services:
 Description: Uploading files to and downloading them from cloud storage services
like Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive, or iCloud.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Use Case: Convenient for sharing files across devices and collaborating with
others.
9. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) File Sharing:
 Description: Direct file transfer between two or more computers without the need
for a centralized server.
 Use Case: Commonly used for sharing large files, especially in scenarios like
torrenting.
10. Email Attachments:
 Description: Sending files as attachments via email.
 Use Case: Suitable for small to moderately sized files

COMPUTER STANDARDS
Specifications or guidelines that define how hardware and software components should
work together to ensure compatibility, interoperability, and consistency. These standards
are crucial in the technology industry as they facilitate communication, collaboration, and
the development of universally compatible products
1. Communication Protocols:
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The foundation of
internet communication.
 USB (Universal Serial Bus): Standard for connecting peripherals and devices to
computers.
 Bluetooth: Wireless technology standard for short-range communication between
devices.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Standards for wireless local area networking.
2. File Formats:
 JPEG, PNG, GIF: Image file formats.
 MP3, AAC: Audio file formats.
 PDF (Portable Document Format): Document format developed by Adobe.
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): Standard for creating webpages.
3. Operating System Standards:
 POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface): A set of standards to maintain
compatibility between operating systems, particularly Unix-like systems.
 EFI/UEFI (Extensible Firmware Interface/Unified Extensible Firmware
Interface): Standards for firmware interfaces.
4. Data Interchange and Representation:
 JSON (JavaScript Object Notation): Lightweight data interchange format.
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language): Standard for encoding documents in a
format that is both human-readable and machine-readable.
5. Networking Standards:
 IEEE 802 Standards: Various standards for networking technologies, including
Ethernet (802.3) and Wi-Fi (802.11).
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 DNS (Domain Name System): Hierarchical distributed naming system for

computers, services, or resources connected to the internet.
6. Security Standards:
 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Protocols for
securing communication over a computer network.
 AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A widely used encryption standard.
 ISO 27001: Standard for information security management systems.
7. Web Standards:
 W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) Standards: Standards for the World Wide
Web, including HTML, CSS, and various web accessibility standards.
8. Hardware Interfaces:
 PCI Express: Standard for connecting various hardware components like graphics
cards, storage devices, etc.
 SATA (Serial ATA): Standard for connecting storage devices like hard drives and
solid-state drives.
9. Programming Languages:
 IEEE 754: Standard for floating-point arithmetic in computers.
 ISO C (C89, C99, C11): Standards for the C programming language.
 ECMAScript: Standard for scripting languages, with JavaScript being a widely
used implementation.
10. Quality and Testing Standards:
 ISO 9000: Standards for quality management systems.
 ISO/IEC 25000 Series: Standards for software product quality.
11. Cloud Computing Standards:
 ISO/IEC 17788 and 17789: Cloud computing standards from the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC).
12. Health Information Technology Standards:
 HL7 (Health Level Seven International): Standards for exchanging healthcare
information.
13. Internet of Things (IoT) Standards:
 MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): Lightweight messaging
protocol for small sensors and mobile devices in low bandwidth, high-latency, or
unreliable networks.
 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): Designed for use with constrained
networks and devices in the Internet of Things.
14. Accessibility Standards:
 WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines): Guidelines for making web
content more accessible to people with disabilities.

BASIC COMPUTER TROUBLESHOOTING

 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Basic computer troubleshooting involves identifying and resolving common issues that
can affect a computer's performance and functionality. Here are some steps and tips for
troubleshooting basic computer problems:
1. Check Power and Connections:
 Ensure that the computer is properly plugged in and receiving power.
 Verify that all cables and connections, including power cords, monitor cables, and
peripheral connections (keyboard, mouse, USB devices), are secure.
2. Restart the Computer: Many issues can be resolved by simply restarting the
computer. Click "Start" (Windows) or go to the Apple menu (Mac) and select "Restart" or
"Shut Down" and then turn the computer back on.
3. Check for Error Messages: Pay attention to any error messages or alerts that appear
on the screen. These messages often provide clues about the nature of the problem.
4. Update Software: Ensure that your operating system (Windows, macOS, Linux) and
software applications are up to date. Updates can fix known bugs and security
vulnerabilities.
5. Scan for Malware and Viruses: Run a reputable antivirus and anti-malware scan to
check for and remove any malicious software that might be causing problems.
6. Free Up Disk Space: If your computer is running slowly, check the available disk space
on your hard drive or SSD. Delete unnecessary files and applications to free up space.
7. Check for Overheating: Overheating can cause computer problems. Ensure that the
computer's cooling system (fans and vents) is clean and functioning properly.
8. Check Hardware Connections: If specific hardware isn't working (e.g., a printer or
external hard drive), make sure it's correctly connected to the computer and powered on.
9. Test Peripherals: If you suspect a problem with a peripheral device (e.g., a keyboard
or mouse), try using a different one to see if the issue persists.
10. Safe Mode Boot: - Boot the computer in Safe Mode (Windows) or Safe Boot (Mac)
to check if the problem is related to third-party software or drivers.
11. Check for Driver Updates: - Outdated or incompatible device drivers can cause
issues. Update drivers for hardware components like graphics cards, sound cards, and
network adapters.
12. Restore from Backup: - If you've recently encountered problems after making
changes or installing new software, consider restoring your system to a previous backup
point (Windows) or using Time Machine (Mac).
13. Monitor System Resources: - Use the Task Manager (Windows) or Activity Monitor
(Mac) to check for resource-intensive processes that might be causing slowdowns or
crashes.
14. Run Hardware Diagnostics: - Many computers have built-in diagnostics tools that
can help identify hardware problems. Check your computer's documentation for
instructions on how to run these tests.
15. Seek Professional Help: - If you're unable to resolve the issue or suspect a hardware
problem, consider seeking help from a qualified technician or the computer
manufacturer's support.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

16. Backup Important Data: - Before attempting major troubleshooting or repair actions,
ensure that you have a backup of your important data to prevent data loss.

COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a type of malicious software (malware) that is designed to infect and
compromise computer systems and their data. Computer viruses can cause a wide range
of harmful effects, including data loss, system instability, and unauthorized access to
sensitive information
How do they work : Computer viruses spread by attaching themselves to legitimate
programs or files. When a user runs or opens an infected program or file, the virus
activates and starts to replicate itself, infecting other files and potentially spreading to
other computers through various means.
What is their aim : The primary purpose of computer viruses is to cause harm or disrupt
normal computer operations. This harm can take various forms, including data corruption,
data theft, system crashes, and unauthorized access to a computer or network. Viruses
may carry a "payload," which is the malicious action they perform once activated. The
payload can vary widely and may include actions like displaying messages, deleting or
corrupting files, or stealing sensitive data.
Propagation Methods: Viruses can spread through various means, including infected
email attachments, compromised websites, infected software downloads, and infected
removable storage devices (e.g., USB drives).
Types of Viruses: There are various types of computer viruses, including:
(a) File Infector Viruses:
 These viruses attach themselves to executable files (e.g., .exe or .dll) and
activate when the infected file is run.
 Examples include the CIH virus (also known as the Chernobyl virus) and the
Sasser virus.
(b) Macro Viruses:
 These viruses target the macro language in applications like Microsoft Word and
Excel.
 They are often spread through infected documents or email attachments.
 The Melissa virus is an example of a macro virus.
(c) Boot Sector Viruses:
 These viruses infect the master boot record (MBR) of a computer's hard drive
or removable storage devices.
 They can prevent a computer from starting up properly.
 The Stone virus is an example of a boot sector virus.
(d) Multipartite Viruses:
 These viruses combine characteristics of multiple virus types, making them
more challenging to detect and remove.
 They can infect both files and the boot sector.
 Examples include the Tequila virus and Invader virus.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

(e) Resident and Non-Resident Viruses:

 Resident viruses embed themselves in a computer's memory and can infect files
when they are opened or executed.
 Non-resident viruses do not embed themselves in memory and rely on infecting
files directly.
 Examples of resident viruses include Randex and CMJ, while non-resident
viruses include Vienna and Cascade.
(f) Polymorphic Viruses:
 These viruses change their code or appearance each time they infect a new
host, making detection more difficult.
 They often use encryption or obfuscation techniques to achieve this.
 The Storm Worm is an example of a polymorphic virus.
(g) Metamorphic Viruses:
 Similar to polymorphic viruses, metamorphic viruses change their code entirely
with each infection.
 They rewrite themselves entirely to avoid detection.
 The ZMist virus is an example of a metamorphic virus.
(h) Worms:
 While not technically viruses, worms are self-replicating malware that can
spread over networks and the internet without user interaction.
 They often exploit vulnerabilities in network services to propagate.
 The Conficker worm and the ILOVEYOU worm are well-known examples.
(i) Trojan Horses:
 These are malware programs that disguise themselves as legitimate software
to trick users into executing them.
 They don't replicate like viruses but can cause significant harm, including data
theft.
 Examples include the Zeus Trojan and the Back Orifice trojan.
(j) Ransomware:
 Ransomware encrypts a user's files or entire system and demands a ransom in
exchange for a decryption key.
 Notable ransomware includes WannaCry and CryptoLocker.
(k) Adware and Spyware:
 These are not viruses but are considered unwanted software.
 Adware displays unwanted advertisements, while spyware collects user data
without consent.
 Examples include the CoolWebSearch adware and the keylogging SpyEye
spyware.
(l) Botnets:
 Botnets are networks of infected computers (often controlled remotely) used for
various malicious purposes, including distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
attacks.
Prevention:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Preventing virus infections involves using antivirus software, keeping operating

systems and software up to date with security patches, being cautious with email
attachments and downloads, and avoiding suspicious websites
 Popular antivirus software options include Norton Antivirus, McAfee Antivirus,
Bitdefender, Kaspersky Antivirus, Avast Antivirus, and Windows Defender (built into
Windows operating systems)
Removal: If a computer becomes infected, the virus must be removed promptly to
prevent further harm. This often involves using antivirus software or seeking professional
help.
Legal Implications: Creating and spreading computer viruses is illegal in most
jurisdictions. Individuals or organizations found guilty of distributing viruses can face
criminal charges and significant penalties

COMPUTER SECURITY
Computer security, also known as cybersecurity, is the practice of protecting computer
systems, networks, and data from theft, damage, unauthorized access, and various
cyber threats. It involves implementing measures to ensure the confidentiality, integrity,
and availability of information
1. Authentication:
 Definition: The process of verifying the identity of users, systems, or devices.
 Measures: Passwords, biometric authentication (fingerprint, retina scans), two-
factor authentication (2FA), and multi-factor authentication (MFA).
2. Authorization:
 Definition: Granting or denying access to specific resources or functionalities
based on the authenticated identity.
 Measures: Access control lists (ACLs), permissions, role-based access control
(RBAC).
3. Encryption:
 Definition: The process of converting data into a secure code to prevent
unauthorized access.
 Measures: SSL/TLS for secure communication over the Internet, file encryption,
full-disk encryption.
4. Firewalls:
 Definition: Security barriers that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic.
 Measures: Hardware firewalls, software firewalls, packet filtering, stateful
inspection

5. Antivirus and Anti-Malware:

 Definition: Software designed to detect, prevent, and remove malicious software
(malware) such as viruses, worms, and spyware.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Measures: Regularly updated antivirus software, anti-malware scans

6. Security Patches and Updates:
 Definition: Regularly applying updates and patches to software and operating
systems to fix vulnerabilities.
 Measures: Automated patch management systems, staying informed about
security updates.
7. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS):
 Definition: Systems that monitor network or system activities for malicious
activities or security policy violations.
 Measures: Network-based IDS/IPS, host-based IDS/IPS.
8. Security Policies:
 Definition: Formalized guidelines and rules that define how an organization's
resources should be protected.
 Measures: Acceptable use policies, password policies, data classification policies.
9. Security Awareness Training:
 Definition: Educating users and employees about security risks and best practices.
 Measures: Regular training sessions, phishing simulations, awareness campaign
10. Backup and Disaster Recovery:
 Definition: Creating and regularly updating backups of critical data to ensure data
recovery in the event of a loss or disaster.
 Measures: Automated backup systems, offsite backups, disaster recovery plans.
11. Physical Security:
 Definition: Protecting physical access to computer systems and infrastructure.
 Measures: Access controls, surveillance cameras, secure facilities.
12. Incident Response:
 Definition: A structured approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a
security incident.
 Measures: Incident response plans, incident detection tools, forensic analysis.
13. Network Segmentation:
 Definition: Dividing a network into smaller segments to reduce the impact of
security breaches.
 Measures: VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks), subnetting, access controls.
14. VPN (Virtual Private Network):
 Definition: Creating a secure, encrypted connection over the Internet to protect
data in transit.
 Measures: VPN protocols (e.g., IPsec, OpenVPN), VPN clients

15. Security Audits and Assessments:

 Definition: Evaluating the security of systems and networks through systematic
examinations.
 Measures: Regular security audits, vulnerability assessments, penetration testing.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

MEMORY STORAGE UNITS

Memory storage units in computing are used to measure and represent the capacity or
size of data storage. These units are organized in a hierarchy based on their size, with
each level being a multiple of the previous one. Here are the most common memory
storage units:
1. Bit (Binary Digit): The smallest unit of data storage, representing a 0 or 1.
2. Byte: A group of 8 bits, often used to represent a single character of text or a small
piece of data.
3. Kilobyte (KB): Approximately 1,024 bytes. Often used to describe small files and data
storage capacities.
4. Megabyte (MB): Approximately 1,024 kilobytes or 1,048,576 bytes. Used for larger
files, photos, and documents.
5. Gigabyte (GB): Approximately 1,024 megabytes or 1,073,741,824 bytes. Commonly
used to measure the storage capacity of hard drives, SSDs, and memory cards.
6. Terabyte (TB): Approximately 1,024 gigabytes or 1,099,511,627,776 bytes. Used for
larger storage devices and data centers.
7. Petabyte (PB): Approximately 1,024 terabytes or 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes. Often
used to measure vast amounts of data in enterprise storage systems.
8. Exabyte (EB): Approximately 1,024 petabytes or 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes.
Used to describe massive data storage capacities.
9. Zettabyte (ZB): Approximately 1,024 exabytes or 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
bytes. Relevant for measuring global data storage and usage.
10. Yottabyte (YB): Approximately 1,024 zettabytes or
1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes. This is an extremely large unit of data
storage.
11. Brontobyte (BB): An even larger unit of data storage, though not widely used in
practice.

Storage capacity can vary depending on the context. For example, when measuring
storage devices like hard drives and SSDs, manufacturers often use decimal-based
definitions, where 1 kilobyte (KB) is 1,000 bytes and 1 gigabyte (GB) is 1,000,000,000
bytes

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

 COMPUTER AWARENESS

A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that manages databases, which

are structured collections of data. DBMS software
provides an interface for users and applications to
interact with the database by performing tasks such
as data entry, retrieval, updating, and deletion. It
also ensures data integrity, security, and efficient
storage and retrieval of data
1. Data Structure: DBMS organizes data into
structured tables, rows, and columns, making it
easy to store and retrieve information.
2. Data Definition Language (DDL): DDL is used to define the database structure,
including creating tables, specifying data types, defining relationships, and setting
constraints.
3. Data Manipulation Language (DML): DML is used to query, insert, update, and
delete data in the database. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a common DML.
4. Data Retrieval: Users and applications can query the database to retrieve specific
information based on defined criteria.
5. Concurrency Control: DBMS manages multiple user access to ensure data
consistency and prevent conflicts during simultaneous data modifications.
6. Transaction Management: DBMS supports transactions, which are sequences of
database operations that are treated as a single unit. It ensures the integrity of data
by providing ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability).
7. Indexing: Indexes are created to improve data retrieval performance by creating a
data structure that allows faster searching of data.
8. Data Security: DBMS provides security features to control access to the database.
This includes user authentication, authorization, and encryption.
9. Data Backup and Recovery: DBMS allows for regular backups of the database,
ensuring that data can be restored in case of hardware failure or data corruption.
10. Data Redundancy Control: DBMS minimizes data duplication through normalization,
reducing storage requirements and ensuring data consistency.
11. Multi-User Support: DBMS allows multiple users and applications to concurrently
access the database without interfering with each other.
12. Query Optimization: DBMS optimizes queries for efficient execution, improving
response times for complex queries.
There are various types of DBMSs, including:
 Relational DBMS (RDBMS): Organizes data into tables with predefined relationships
between them. Examples include MySQL, Oracle Database, and Microsoft SQL
Server.
 NoSQL DBMS: Designed for unstructured or semi-structured data and offers flexible
data models. Examples include MongoDB (document-oriented), Cassandra (wide-
column store), and Redis (key-value store).
 Object-Oriented DBMS (OODBMS): Stores data in object-oriented models and
supports objects with methods and attributes. Examples include db4o and ObjectDB.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Graph DBMS: Designed for managing data with complex relationships, often used in
social networks and recommendation systems. Examples include Neo4j and Amazon
Neptune.
 In-Memory DBMS: Stores data in main memory for ultra-fast data access. Examples
include Redis and SAP HANA.
The choice of DBMS depends on the specific requirements of an application, including
the volume and type of data, performance needs, scalability, and complexity.
Organizations often select DBMSs based on their compatibility with existing systems and
the skills of their development and IT teams

OSI MODEL
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to
standardize and understand how different networking protocols and technologies interact
in a networked communication system. It was developed by
the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in the late
1970s and early 1980s. The OSI
model consists of seven layers, each
responsible for specific functions in
the network communication process
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1): This is
the lowest layer and deals with
the physical connection between
devices. It specifies the
hardware, cabling, and signaling
used to transmit raw binary data
(0s and 1s) over a physical
medium. It includes
considerations like voltage levels,
cable types, and connectors.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): The
data link layer is responsible for
framing, addressing, and error
detection in data transmission. It
ensures that data is sent and received accurately
between devices on the same local network segment. Ethernet and Wi-Fi operate at
this layer.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3): The network layer is responsible for routing data packets
between different networks. It determines the best path for data to travel from the
source to the destination, using logical addressing and routing protocols. The Internet
Protocol (IP) operates at this layer.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4): The transport layer ensures end-to-end communication
between devices. It is responsible for error detection and correction, flow control, and
data segmentation if necessary. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) are transport layer protocols.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5): The session layer establishes, maintains, and terminates
communication sessions between
two devices. It manages the
dialogue between applications,
allowing them to exchange data. It
also handles session recovery if a
connection is interrupted.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
The presentation layer deals with
data translation, encryption, and
compression. It ensures that data
sent by one device can be
understood by another by
translating between different data
formats and character sets. It also
handles encryption and
decryption when needed.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
The application layer is the
topmost layer and interacts
directly with software applications
and the end-user. It provides
application services for various network-aware applications, such as web browsers,
email clients, and file transfer utilities. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP operate
at this layer.
The OSI model is a useful framework for understanding networking concepts and
troubleshooting network issues. It provides a clear and structured way to visualize how
data travels through different layers of a network stack. However, it's important to note
that the OSI model is a theoretical model, and in practice, real-world networking protocols
and technologies often combine functionalities from multiple OSI layers. The more
practical TCP/IP model, which consists of four layers (Link, Internet, Transport, and
Application), is commonly used in modern networking discussions and implementations.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION & DATA

CYCLE
Basic Computer Organization:
A computer's organization refers to its structural components and how they work together
to execute instructions and process data. Here are the key components of basic computer
organization:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the "brain" of the computer. It
performs calculations and executes instructions stored in memory.
2. Memory: There are different types of memory in a computer:
 RAM (Random Access Memory): Provides volatile, temporary storage for
data and program instructions while the computer is running.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory): Contains firmware and instructions that are
permanently written and cannot be modified by the user.
3. Input/Output (I/O) Devices: These include devices like keyboards, mice,
monitors, printers, and external storage devices (e.g., USB drives). They allow
users to interact with the computer and receive output.
4. Storage Devices: These devices, such as hard drives (HDDs) and solid-state
drives (SSDs), provide non-volatile storage for data and programs. They retain
data even when the computer is powered off.
5. Bus System: Buses are pathways that allow data to move between different
components of the computer, including the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
6. Control Unit and ALU: The Control Unit manages the flow of data and instructions
within the computer, while the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and
logical operations.
7. Registers: These are small, high-speed memory locations within the CPU used
for temporary storage of data and instructions during processing.
Data Cycle:
The data cycle, also known as the instruction cycle or machine cycle, is the sequence of
steps that a computer follows to fetch, decode, execute, and store data and instructions.
It's a continuous process that occurs rapidly, allowing the computer to perform tasks. Here
are the stages of the data cycle:
1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves (fetches) the next instruction from memory. This
instruction is stored in a register.
2. Decode: The CPU interprets (decodes) the fetched instruction to understand what
operation needs to be performed.
3. Execute: The CPU performs the operation or instruction based on the decoded
information. This might involve calculations, data manipulation, or control
operations.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

4. Store: The results of the execution are stored in memory or registers. This step
ensures that the computer can access the data or outcomes of the operation as
needed.
5. Repeat: The cycle repeats continuously, fetching and executing instructions one
after another, allowing the computer to perform complex tasks.

COMPUTER-RELATED ABBREVIATIONS
S. Comput Full Form 25 BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose
No er Symbolic Instruction Code
. Abbrevi 26 BCC Blind Carbon Copy
ation 27 BCD Binary Coded Decimal
1 AAC Advanced Audio Coding 28 BCR Bar Code Reader
2 ABR Average Bit Rate 29 BDSL Broadband DSL
3 ADSL Asymmetric Digital 30 BEDO Burst Extended Data Out
Subscriber Line (RAM)
4 AGP Advanced Graphics Port 31 BGP Border Gateway Protocol
5 AI Artificial Intelligence 32 BHTML Broadcast Hyper Text
6 AIM AOL Instant Messenger Markup Language
7 ALGOL Algorithmic Language 33 BIOS Basic Input Output System
8 ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit 34 BIPS Billion Instruction Per
9 AOL America Online Second
10 AMD Advanced Micro Devices 35 BIU Bus Interface Unit
11 API Application Program 36 BMP Bitmap
Interface 37 BRD Blu-Ray Disc
12 APT Automatically Programmed 38 CC Carbon Copy
Tooling 39 CD Compact Disk
13 ARP Address Resolution 40 CD-R Compact Disk – Recordable
Protocol
41 CDROM Compact Disk Read Only
14 ARPAN Advanced Research Memory
ET Projects Agency Network
42 CDRW Compact Disk Rewritable
15 ARQ Automatic Repeat Request
43 CD-WO Compact Disk – Write Once
16 AS Autonomous System
44 CD-XA Compact Disk – Extended
17 ASCII American Standard Code Architecture
for Information Interchange
45 CGI-BIN Common Gateway Interface
18 ASP Active Server Pages – Binary (programming for
19 ASPI Advanced SCSI Web forms)
Programming Interface 46 CIS CompuServe Information
20 ATA Advanced Technology Service
Attachment 47 CISC Complex Instructions Set
21 ATDT Attention Dial Tone Computers
22 AUI Attachment Unit Interface 48 CMD Command
23 AUTOE Autoexec Automatic 49 CMYK Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-
XEC Execution file Black (color model)
24 AVI Audio Video Interleave 50 CNM Circulatory Network Mode
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

51 COAX Coaxial Cable (for Ethernet 84 EEPRO Electronically Erasable

and similar networks) M Programmable Read Only
52 COBOL Common Business Memory
Oriented Language 85 EFS Encrypted File System
54 CPI u / Cycle Per Instruction 86 EIDE Enhanced Integrated Drive
55 CPU Central Processing Unit Electronics
56 CROM Computerized Range of 87 E-Mail Electronic Mail
Motion 88 EPROM Erasable Programmable
57 CRT Cathode Ray Tube( Read Only Memory
standard type computer 89 EROM Erasable Read Only
monitor display Memory
58 CSLIP Compressed Serial Line 90 FDD Floppy Disk Drive
Interface Protocol (Internet) 91 GB Giga Byte
59 CSS Cascading Style Sheets 92 GDI Graphical Device Interface
60 CTRL Control (computer keyboard 93 GUI Graphical User Interface
key) 94 HD Hard Disk
61 CUI Character User Interface 95 HTML Hyper Text Markup
62 DAC Data Acquisition and Language
Control 96 HTTP Hyper Text Transfer
63 DAT Digital Audio Tape Protocol
64 dB Decibel 97 I/O Input/Output (serial and
65 DBMS Data Base Management parallel ports)
System 98 IC Integrated Circuit
66 DDL Data Definition Language 99 IMAP Internet Message Access
67 DHTML Dynamics Hyper Text Protocol
Markup Language 10 INTEL Integrated Electronics
68 DML Data Manipulation 0
Language 10 IOP Input Output Processor
69 DNS Domain Name System 1
70 DOC Data Optimizing Computer 10 IP Internet Protocol
71 Doc Document 2
72 DOS Disk Operating System 10 ISDN Integrated Services Digital
73 DRAM Dynamic Random Access 3 Network
Memory 10 ISP Internet Service Provider
74 DVD Digital Video/Versatile Disc 4
75 DVDR Digital Versatile Disk 10 IVR Interactive Voice Response
Recordable 5
76 DVDRW Digital Versatile Disk 10 KB KILOBYTE
Rewritable 6
77 DCE Data Communications 10 Kbps Kilobits/Kilobytes Per
Equipment 7 Second
78 DVI Digital Visual Interface 10 LAN Local Area Network
79 DVR Digital Video Recorder 8
81 EDC Electronic Digital Computer 10 LED Light Emitting Diode
9
82 EDI Electronic Data Interchange
11 LLL Low Level Language
83 EDP Electronic Data Processing
0
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

11 LPT Line Printer 13 PHP Hypertext Preprocessor

1 4
11 MAC Media Access Control 13 PIXEL Picture Element
2 5
11 MAN Metropolitan Area Network 13 PNG Portable Network Graphics
3 6
11 MB Motherboard/ Megabyte 13 PPP Point to Point Protocol
4 7
11 MBASIC Microsoft BASIC (Microsoft) 13 PRN Printer
5 8
11 MBPS Megabytes Per Second 13 PROM Programmable Read Only
6 9 Memory
11 Mbps Megabits Per Second 14 RAM Random Access Memory
7 0
11 MICR Magnetic Ink Character 14 RARP Reverse Address
8 Recognition 1 Resolution Protocol
11 MMX Multimedia Extensions 14 RDBMS Relational Data Base
9 2 Management System
12 MODEM Modulator Demodulator 14 RIP Routing Information
0 3 Protocol
12 MSCDE Microsoft Compact Disc 14 RISC Reduced Instruction Set
1 X Extension 4 Computer
12 MS- Microsoft – Disk Operating 14 ROM Read Only Memory
2 DOS System 5
12 NAT Network Address 14 SAM Software Asset
3 Translation 6 Management
12 NTP Network Time Protocol 14 SAN Storage Area Network
4 7
12 OCR Optical Character Reader 14 SCSI Small Computer System
5 8 Interface
12 OMR Optical Mark Reader 14 SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic
6 9 Random Access Memory
12 OOP Object Oriented 15 SFTP Secure File Transfer
7 Programming 0 Protocol
12 OS Operating System 15 SGML Standard Generalized
8 1 Markup Language
12 P2P Point to Point Protocol 15 SGRAM Synchronous Graphics
9 2 RAM
13 PAN Personal Area Network 15 SIP Session Initiation Protocol
0 3
13 PC Personal Computer 15 SIU Serial Interface Unit
1 4
13 PCB Printer Circuit Board 15 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer
2 5 Protocol
13 PCI Peripheral Component 15 SNAP Sub Network Access
3 Interconnect 6 Protocol
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

15 SNMP Simple Network 17 WAP Wireless Application

7 Management Protocol 1 Protocol
15 SRAM Static Random Access 17 WBMP Wireless Bitmap Image
8 Memory 2
15 SYSOP System Operator 17 WIFI Wireless fidelity
9 3
16 TCP Transmission Control 17 WLAN Wireless Local Area
0 Protocol 4 Network
16 UI User Interface 17 WML Wireless Markup Language
1 5
16 URL Uniform Resource Locator 17 WWW World Wide Web
2 6
16 USB Universal Serial Bus 17 XGA Extended Graphics Array
3 8
16 VCD Video Compact Disk 17 XHTML Extensible Hyper Text
4 9 Markup Language
16 VDU Visual Display Unit 18 XMF Extensible Music File
5 0
16 VIRUS Vital Information Resource 18 XML Extensible Markup
6 Under Siege 1 Language
16 VRAM Video Random Access 18 XMS Extended Memory
7 Memory 2 Specification
16 VxD Virtual Extended Driver 18 FORTR Formula Translation
9 3 AN
17 WAN Wide Area Network
0

MS WORD
STARTING WORD PROGRAM
 You can start your Word program different ways
 One way is through Start button: 1. Click on the Start button. 2. In the menu that
appears select Programs → Microsoft Word. In few seconds you will see Word screen
on the monitor
 You can also start your MS Word program by simply clicking on Microsoft Word icon,
which lies on the Microsoft Office Shortcut Bar (MOSB)
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

WORD SCREEN LAYOUT

MENUS IN MS WORD
1. File Menu:
 New: Create a new, blank document or choose from a variety of
templates.
 Open: Open an existing document. You can browse files on your
computer or access documents from cloud storage.
 Save: Save the current document. If it's a new document, this will
prompt you to choose a location and name for the file.
 Save As: Save a copy of the document with a new name or in a
different location.
 Print: Configure printing settings and print the document.
 Share: Collaborate with others by sending a link to the document or
inviting others to edit.
 Export: Save the document in a different format, such as PDF or
other file types.
 Close: Close the current document.
 Account: View and manage information related to your Microsoft
account.
 Options: Access Word settings to customize the application's
behavior.
 Feedback: Provide feedback to Microsoft about Word.
 Exit: Close the Word application.
2. Home Menu:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

a) Clipboard:
 Cut: Remove the selected content and store it on the clipboard.
 Copy: Duplicate the selected content to the clipboard.
 Paste: Insert the content from the clipboard.
 Use Format Painter to quickly apply the same formatting, such as color, font style and size, or
border style, to multiple pieces of text or graphics. With format painter, you can copy all of the
formatting from one object and apply it to another one—think of it as copying and pasting for
formatting.
b) Font:
 Font Type: Choose the typeface or font style for the selected text.
 Font Size: Adjust the size of the selected text and also Increase Font Size / Decrease
Font Size by one point at a time
 Bold, Italic and underline to the selected text.
 Strikethrough: Add a strikethrough effect to the selected text.
 Subscript: Format the selected text as subscript (text below the baseline).
 Superscript: Format the selected text as superscript (text above the baseline).
 Text Effects: Apply special effects to the selected text, such as shadow or reflection.
 Text Highlight Color: Apply a highlight color to the selected text.
 Font Color: Change the color of the selected text.
 Clear Formatting: Remove all formatting from the selected text, returning it to the
default style
c) Paragraph:
 Alignment:
 Aligns the text to the left margin, right margin. Center alignment makes the text
between the left and right margins
 Justify: Aligns the text to both the left and right margins, adding extra spacing
between words as needed.
 Line Spacing: Allows you to set single, 1.5, double, or custom line spacing.
 Paragraph Spacing: Specifies the amount of space to leave before and after a
paragraph
 Increase Indent / Decrease Indent:
 Increase Indent: Moves the paragraph to the right.
 Decrease Indent: Moves the paragraph to the left.
 Sort Ascending / Sort Descending: Arranges selected paragraphs in alphabetical or
numerical order
 Show/Hide ¶: Toggles the visibility of non-printing characters, such as paragraph
marks and formatting symbols.
 Borders: Opens a dialog box for adding borders and shading to selected paragraphs.
d) Styles: Apply predefined styles to text, such as Heading 1, Heading 2, Normal, etc.
e) Editing:
 Find: Search for specific text in the document.
 Replace: Replace one set of characters with another.
 Select: Various selection options for text
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

3. Insert Menu

a) Pages:
 Blank Page: Insert a blank page at the cursor's location.
 Cover Page: Choose from a gallery of cover page templates.
 Page Break: Start a new page at the cursor's location.
b) Tables:
 Table: Create a table by specifying the number of rows and columns.
 Excel Spreadsheet: Embed an Excel spreadsheet into the document.
c) Illustrations:
 Pictures: Insert an image from your computer.
 Online Pictures: Search for and insert images from online sources.
 Shapes: Draw various shapes, such as lines, rectangles, and arrows.
 SmartArt: Create and insert SmartArt graphics for visual representation of
information.
 Chart: Insert a chart to represent data graphically.
d) Links:
 Hyperlink: Insert a hyperlink to a website, email address, or another location.
 Bookmark: Create a bookmark within the document.
e) Comments: Add a comment to a specific part of the document.
f) Text:
 Text Box: Insert a text box for placing text in a specific location.
 Quick Parts: Insert reusable pieces of content, such as fields or document
properties.
g) Symbols: Insert special characters and symbols.
h) Header & Footer:
 Header: Add a header to the top of the page.
 Footer: Add a footer to the bottom of the page.
i) Page Number: Add page numbers to the document.
j) Text Group:
 Date & Time: Insert the current date and time.
 Object: Embed an object (e.g., a file or spreadsheet) into the document.
k) Links: Create a hyperlink to another document or web page.
l) Text: Insert a text box for placing text in a specific location
4. Design Menu

a) Choose a Theme:
 In the "Document Formatting" group, you'll see a gallery of available themes
 Hover over a theme to see a live preview in your document
 Click on the desired theme to apply it
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

b) Colors:
 Theme Colors: Choose from a set of colors that are part of the selected theme
 More Colors: Access additional color options
c) Font Formatting: Change the font styles used in your document
d) Others: Watermark, Page color, Page borders
5. Page Layout Menu:

a) Margins: Adjust the margins of your document, controlling the space between the text
and the edge of the page.
b) Orientation: Choose between "Portrait" (vertical) and "Landscape" (horizontal) page
orientations.
c) Size: Set the paper size for your document (e.g., letter, legal, A4).
d) Columns: Divide your document into multiple columns. You can specify the number
of columns and the spacing between them.
e) Breaks: Insert various types of breaks, such as page breaks or section breaks.
f) Line Numbers: Add line numbers to your document.
g) Hyphenation: Control automatic hyphenation of words at the end of lines.
6. References Menu: Used for adding citations, creating a table of contents, and
managing footnotes and endnotes.
7. Mailings Menu: Contains tools for creating mail merges (Mail Merge is the
combination of mail and letters with pre-addressed envelopes or address labels
for mass mailings from a standard letter), envelopes, labels, and other document
automation tasks.
8. Review Menu: Tools for proofreading, tracking changes, adding comments, and
protecting documents.
9. View Menu: Options for adjusting the view of your document, such as zoom, page
layout, and document pane options.
10. Add-ins Menu: Access additional features and tools provided by installed add-ins.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

MAIN WORK AREA IN MICROSOFT WORD

1. Document Area: This is the large, blank space where you type and format your text.
It occupies the majority of the Word window. Any content you add, such as text,
images, or tables, will appear in this area.
2. Rulers: Rulers are horizontal and vertical guides that help you align text, graphics,
and other elements in your document. The horizontal ruler is usually located at the top
of the document window, and the vertical ruler is on the left side. You can show or hide
rulers using the View tab.
3. Toolbar and Ribbon: The toolbar or ribbon contains various tabs (e.g., Home, Insert,
Page Layout) that group related commands and features. It provides quick access to
formatting options, styles, and tools for document creation.
4. Status Bar: The status bar is located at the bottom of the Word window. It displays
information about your document, such as the current page number, word count, and
zoom level. You can also change certain settings, like page layout and view options,
from the status bar.
5. Scroll Bars: Vertical and horizontal scroll bars allow you to navigate through your
document. You can scroll by clicking and dragging the scroll bars or by using your
mouse's scroll wheel. The scroll bars appear on the right and bottom edges of the
document area.
6. Insertion Point: The blinking vertical line (insertion point) indicates the current
position in your document. When you start typing, new text appears at the insertion
point. You can move the insertion point by clicking with your mouse or using the arrow
keys on your keyboard.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

7. White Space: The white space within the document area is where you input and
arrange your content. You can insert paragraphs, tables, images, and other elements
into this space.

PRINTING DOCUMENT
1. Open the Document: Open the Microsoft
Word document that you want to print.
2. Check Page Layout: Before printing, it's a
good idea to check the page layout to ensure it
meets your printing preferences. You can do
this by going to the "Layout" or "Page Layout"
tab, where you can set options such as
orientation, margins, and size.
3. Preview the Document (Optional): You can
preview how your document will look before
printing. Click on the "File" tab, select "Print,"
and then choose "Print Preview." This allows
you to see the pages and make sure everything looks as expected.
4. Access the Print Dialog: Click on the "File" tab in the top-left corner.
5. Select Print: In the left-hand menu, click on "Print."
6. Choose Printer and Settings: On the Print screen, select the printer you want to use
from the drop-down menu. Set the desired print settings, such as the number of
copies, page range, and other options.
7. Print: Once you've configured the settings, click the "Print" button.
Additionally, you might encounter some variations in the steps based on the version of
Microsoft Word you are using. For instance, in Word 2016 and later versions, you can
access the print settings directly by pressing Ctrl + P (or Command + P on Mac).

MS WORD SHORT CUTS

Basic Text Editing Shortcuts: 6. Ctrl + A: Select All
1. Ctrl + C: Copy 7. Ctrl + B: Bold
2. Ctrl + X: Cut 8. Ctrl + I: Italic
3. Ctrl + V: Paste 9. Ctrl + U: Underline
4. Ctrl + Z: Undo 10. Ctrl + S: Save
5. Ctrl + Y: Redo 11. Ctrl + P: Print
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

12. Ctrl + F: Find Selection Shortcuts:

13. Ctrl + H: Replace 43. Shift + ←/→/↑/↓: Extend selection
14. Ctrl + N: New Document one character/line at a time
15. Ctrl + O: Open Document 44. Ctrl + Shift + ←/→: Extend
16. Ctrl + W: Close Document selection one word at a time
17. Ctrl + F4: Close Window 45. Ctrl + Shift + ↑/↓: Extend
18. Ctrl + Q: Remove Paragraph selection one paragraph at a time
Formatting 46. Ctrl + Shift + Home: Extend
19. Ctrl + Space: Remove Character selection to the beginning of the
Formatting line
20. Ctrl + Shift + L: Toggle 47. Ctrl + Shift + End: Extend
Bullets/Numbering selection to the end of the line
Formatting Shortcuts: 48. Shift + Home/End: Extend
21. Ctrl + E: Center Alignment selection to the beginning/end of
22. Ctrl + L: Left Alignment the line
23. Ctrl + R: Right Alignment Other Useful Shortcuts:
24. Ctrl + J: Justify Alignment 49. F7: Spell Check
25. Ctrl + 1: Single Line Spacing 50. Ctrl + K: Insert Hyperlink
26. Ctrl + 2: Double Line Spacing 51. Ctrl + Numpad +: Zoom In
27. Ctrl + 5: 1.5 Line Spacing 52. Ctrl + Numpad -: Zoom Out
28. Ctrl + ]: Increase Font Size 53. Ctrl + 0 (zero): Add or remove
29. Ctrl + [: Decrease Font Size one line space before a paragraph
30. Ctrl + Shift + >: Increase Font 54. Ctrl + Alt + 1/2/3: Heading 1/2/3
Size (selected text) 55. Ctrl + Shift + L: Toggle
31. Ctrl + Shift + <: Decrease Font Bullets/Numbering
Size (selected text) 56. Ctrl + F1: Show or hide the
32. Ctrl + Shift + +: Superscript Ribbon
33. Ctrl + =: Subscript 57. Ctrl + Alt + S: Split Window
Navigation Shortcuts: Table Shortcuts:
34. Ctrl + Home: Go to the beginning 58. Tab: Move to the next cell in a
of the document table
35. Ctrl + End: Go to the end of the 59. Shift + Tab: Move to the previous
document cell in a table
36. Ctrl + ↑: Move to the beginning of 60. Alt + Shift + ↑/↓/←/→: Move in the
the paragraph direction of the arrow in a table cell
37. Ctrl + ↓: Move to the end of the 61. Alt + Shift + -: Insert row above
paragraph 62. Alt + Shift + +: Insert row below
38. Ctrl + ←: Move one word to the 63. Alt + Shift + =: Insert column to
left the right
39. Ctrl + →: Move one word to the 64. Alt + Shift + Backspace: Delete
right column
40. Ctrl + Page Up: Move to the 65. Alt + Shift + Delete: Delete row
previous page 66. Alt + Shift + F10: Display Table
41. Ctrl + Page Down: Move to the Properties
next page Reviewing Shortcuts:
42. Alt + Ctrl + Z: Zoom dialog 67. Ctrl + Alt + M: Insert a comment
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

68. Ctrl + Shift + E: Track Changes 87. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + N: Apply
69. Ctrl + Shift + N: Normal style Normal style
(remove formatting) 88. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + L: Apply List
Headers and Footers: Bullet style
70. Alt + Shift + P: Insert Page 89. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + C: Copy
Number formatting
71. Alt + Shift + D: Insert Date 90. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + V: Paste
72. Alt + Shift + T: Insert Time formatting
73. Alt + Shift + R: Insert Reference 91. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H: Replace
(cross-reference) formatting
Miscellaneous: 92. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + K: Format as
74. Ctrl + Alt + V: Paste Special small caps
75. Ctrl + F6: Switch between open 93. Alt + Ctrl + 0 (zero): Add or
Word documents remove space before the
76. Ctrl + Shift + G: Open the Word paragraph
Count dialog 94. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + -: Display or
77. Ctrl + F12: Open document hide character formatting
78. Ctrl + Shift + F12: Print Preview 95. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + W: Underline
79. Alt + Shift + K: Start AutoFormat words only
80. Alt + Shift + C: Close Print 96. Alt + Ctrl + Shift + L: Set
Preview language
81. Alt + F8: Macros 97. Alt + Ctrl + Shift + C: Copy
82. Alt + F9: Toggle field codes formatting from the selected text
83. Ctrl + Shift + F9: Unlink a field 98. Alt + Ctrl + Shift + V: Paste
84. Ctrl + F9: Insert an empty field formatting to the selected text
85. Ctrl + F10: Maximize or restore 99. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + H: Apply
the document window Hidden formatting
86. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + S: Apply a style 100. Ctrl + Alt + Shift + N: Apply
No Spacing style

MS POWERPOINT
MS PowerPoint is a program that is used to make presentations, which helps us to
understand the concept
FEATURE TERMS AND DESCRIPTIONS
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Quick Access Toolbar - Displays quick access to commonly used commands

 Title Bar - Displays the name of the open file
 File Tab - provides access to options such as Open, New, Save As, Print, etc
 Thumbnail Slide Displays a snapshot of each slide
 Title Placeholder - Section where text is entered
 Subtitle Placeholder - Section where text and/or graphics are entered
 Status Bar Displays information about the slide presentation, such as page numbers
 Ribbon Displays groups of related commands within tabs. Each tab provides buttons
for commands
 Collapse - Collapses the ribbon so only the tab names show
 Work Area - Each slide has an area where text and graphics are entered for a
presentation. There are various slide layouts to work from
 View Option - Displays several View modes for slides.
STARTING A POWERPOINT PROGRAM
Online (Microsoft 365 or Office Online):
If you are using Microsoft 365 or Office Online, you can access PowerPoint through a
web browser:
1. Open your preferred web browser.
2. Go to the Microsoft 365 sign-in page or directly to the Office Online site.
3. Sign in with your Microsoft account.
4. Once signed in, find and click on the PowerPoint icon to launch the online version.
CREATE SLIDE PRESENTATION
When creating a new presentation, you have choices about how to proceed. PowerPoint
gives you a range of ways with which to start creating a presentation. You can start your
presentation with:
• Blank: Slides that are unformatted and have no color scheme
• Design: Slide Themes that have design concepts, fonts, and color schemes
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

• Template on Microsoft.com: Microsoft Office Templates and Theme Gallery which are
arranged according to type (Click on the File tab, select the New option, and then click on
PowerPoint presentations and slides from the Available Templates and Themes.)
DESIGN THEME/TEMPLATE
 A Theme gives your slides a
consistent appearance
throughout your
presentation.
 Themes/ template contain
color schemes with custom
formatting, styled fonts, and
layouts. When you apply a
design template
 to your presentation, the
slide master and color
scheme of the template replaces the original blank slide.
ADD TEXT
 The template for the design Theme you
select will determine the font type and text
alignment. PowerPoint places all
information (text and graphics) contained
on a slide in separate Placeholders.
 Placeholders are designated by dotted
lines; they appear on a slide as guides, but
they will not appear on the finished
presentation. In order to edit text, click once inside of the
Text Placeholder and the insertion point will appear; then
begin to type your text
ADD NEW SLIDE
 A slide layout defines the placement of text, pictures,
tables, and graphs. If you change the layout of a slide, the
text and graphics remain intact. You can resize text and
graphic boxes to conform to the new layout
 On the Home ribbon, located in the Slides group, click on
the New Slide drop-down arrow. The Office Theme panel
will appear with multiple slide layouts. Select your desired
slide layout.
EDITING TECHNIQUES
Modes for Editing
The Normal, Slide Sorter, Reading, and Slide Show Views allow you to type, edit, and
view your presentation. To switch between views, click the View Options buttons at the
lower right-hand side of the PowerPoint window.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

RIBBONS IN
POWERPOINT
HOME

1. Clipboard Group:
 Cut (Ctrl + X): Remove the selected content and store it on the Clipboard.
 Copy (Ctrl + C): Duplicate the selected content and store it on the Clipboard.
 Paste (Ctrl + V): Insert the content stored on the Clipboard.
 Format Painter: Copy formatting from one place and apply it to another.
2. Slides Group:
 New Slide (Ctrl + M): Add a new slide to your presentation.
 Slides: View and navigate through the slides in your presentation.
 Outline View: Switch to outline view to edit text content.
3. Font Group:
 Bold (Ctrl + B): Make the selected text bold.
 Italic (Ctrl + I): Italicize the selected text.
 Underline (Ctrl + U): Underline the selected text.
 Font Color: Change the color of the selected text.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Font Size: Set the size of the selected text.

 Font: Choose a font for the selected text.
4. Paragraph Group:
 Alignment: Align the selected text or objects (left, center, right, justify).
 Bullets/Numbering: Add bullets or numbering to the selected text.
 Line Spacing: Set the spacing between lines.
 Increase/Decrease Indent: Adjust the indentation of the selected text.
5. Drawing Group:
 Shapes: Insert various shapes into your presentation.
 Text Box: Add a text box to your slide.
 Insert Object: Insert an object, such as a chart or equation.
6. Editing Group:
 Find (Ctrl + F): Search for specific text in your presentation.
 Replace (Ctrl + H): Replace specific text with other text.
 Select: Choose options for selecting objects.
INSERT

1. Slides Group:
 New Slide (Ctrl + M): Add a new slide to your presentation.
 Duplicate Slide: Create a copy of the selected slide.
 Sections: Organize your slides into sections.
2. Tables Group:
 Table: Insert a table into your slide.
 Excel Spreadsheet: Embed an Excel spreadsheet into your slide.
3. Illustrations Group:
 Pictures: Insert images from your computer.
 Online Pictures: Search for and insert online images.
 Shapes: Add various shapes to your slide.
 SmartArt: Create and insert SmartArt graphics.
 Chart: Insert a chart to represent data graphically.
4. Links Group:
 Hyperlink (Ctrl + K): Add hyperlinks to text or objects.
 Action: Set actions for objects, like hyperlinks or animations.
5. Text Group:
 Text Box: Insert a text box for additional text.
 Header & Footer: Add headers and footers to slides.
6. Media Group:
 Audio: Insert audio files into your presentation.
 Online Audio: Search for and insert online audio.
 Video: Embed videos into your slides.
 Online Video: Search for and insert online videos.
7. Symbols: Insert special symbols into your text.
8. Comment (Ctrl + Alt + M): Add comments to collaborate with others.
9. Text Group (Advanced):
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Object: Insert objects like equations or other embedded items.

 WordArt: Add stylized text to your slides.
10. Add-ins: Get Add-ins: Access additional add-ins for extended functionality.
11. Zoom: Create a summary zoom or a section zoom for easier navigation.
DESIGN

Themes Group:
 Browse for Themes: View and choose from a gallery of predefined themes.
 Scroll to Browse Themes: Scroll through available themes
Customize Group:
 Slide Size: Change the size of your slides (Standard, Widescreen, or Custom).
 Format Background: Customize the background of your slides.
 Hide Background Graphics: Temporarily hide background graphics.
 Slide Orientation: Switch between Portrait and Landscape orientations.
TRANSITION

1. Transition to This Slide Group:

 Transition Effect:
 Choose a transition effect for the selected slide
 Common Transition Effects:
 Fade: Gradually fades in or out.
 Slide: Slides the new slide in from one side.
 Zoom: Zooms in or out of the new slide.
 Split: Splits the old slide into pieces, revealing the new one.
 Wipe: Wipes the old slide away to reveal the new one.
 Effect Options: Access additional options specific to the chosen transition.
2. Timing Group:
 Transition Duration: Set the duration of the transition effect.
 Transition Delay: Add a delay before the transition starts.
3. Preview Group:
 Preview: Preview the transition effect for the selected slide.
 Apply to All: Apply the selected transition to all slides in the presentation.
4. Advanced Slide Group: Set options for what happens after the transition (e.g.,
advancing on mouse click or automatically).
5. Sound: Add or change the sound associated with the transition.
7. Timing:
 Start: Set when the transition should start (On Click, After Previous, or With
Previous).
 Duration: Set the duration of the transition effect.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

ANIMATION

1. Animation Group:
 Animation Gallery: View a gallery of available animations.
 Animation Painter: Copy animations from one object to another.
2. Advanced Animation Group:
 Animation Pane: Open the Animation Pane for detailed control over animation
sequences.
 Animation Options:
Access advanced animation
settings.
3. Timing Group:
 Start: Set when the
animation should start (On
Click, With Previous, After
Previous).
 Duration: Set the duration
of the animation effect.
 Delay: Add a delay before
the animation starts.
4. Preview Group:
 Preview: Preview the
animation effect for the selected object.
 Preview Panes: Choose to preview the animations in Normal, Slide Show, or
Reading View.
5. Advanced Animation Group:
 Animation Pane: Open the Animation Pane for detailed control over animation
sequences.
 Animation Options: Access advanced animation settings.
6. Timing Group:
 Start: Set when the animation should start (On Click, With Previous, After
Previous).
 Duration: Set the duration of the animation effect.
 Delay: Add a delay before the animation starts.
SLIDESHOW

1. Start From
Beginning Group:
 From Beginning (F5): Start the slideshow from the first slide.
 From Current Slide (Shift + F5): Start the slideshow from the current slide.
2. Set Up Group:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Set Up Slide Show: Access settings for configuring the slideshow, such as loop
options, narration, and more.
3. Monitors Group:
 Use Presenter View: Enable or disable Presenter View, which provides additional
controls for the presenter on one screen while the audience sees the slideshow on
another.
4. Setup Slide Show Group:
 Set Up Slide Show: Configure various options for presenting the slideshow, including
starting from the current slide, using timings, etc.
5. Monitors Group:
 Use Presenter View: Enable or disable Presenter View for multiple monitor
setups.
 Set Up Slide Show: Access settings for configuring the slideshow, such as
loop options, narration, and more.
 Use Presenter View: Enable or disable Presenter View, which provides
additional controls for the presenter on one screen while the audience sees the
slideshow on another.
RECORD

1. Record Slide
Show Group:
 Record Slide Show: Start recording your presentation from the beginning or from
the current slide.
2. Content:
 Take screenshots
3. Auto Play Media :
 Screen Recoding: Record as you work
 Video: Insert Videos
 Audio: Record audio or insert from your Pc
4. Save: You can save what you have Presented or make it a video
Review

The “Review” tab is specially made for feedback on your presentation. You can
leave comments, compare versions of the presentation, and proofread and translate
the slides.

VIEW
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

The “View” tab in PowerPoint allows you to access the various view options in your
PowerPoint presentation.
In the “Presentation Views” group, you can access the “Outline”, “Slide
Sorter”, “Notes”, “Reading” and “Slide Master” view.
Format Tab (Contextual Tab)

The format tab only appears when you select an object on the slide. The “Shape
Format” tab appears when you select a shape or a text and allows you to format shapes
in PowerPoint, whereas the “Picture Format” tab appears when you select a picture.
The commands in the tools tab vary and are specific to editing the selected object.

HOW TO PRESENT USING POWERPOINT

1. Open Your Presentation:
 Launch Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Open the presentation you want to present.
2. Enter Slide Show Mode:
 Click on the "Slide Show" tab in the top menu.
 You can start the presentation in two ways:
 Click on "From Beginning" to start from the first slide.
 Click on "From Current Slide" to start from the slide currently selected.
3. Navigation:
 Use keyboard arrow keys, spacebar, or click with the mouse to navigate through
the slides.
 Right-click to access additional navigation options.
4. Presenter View (Optional):
 If using two monitors, you can enable Presenter
View.
 Go to the "Slide Show" tab.
 Click on "Set Up Slide Show."
 Choose "Presented by a speaker (full
screen)" and select the monitor you want
Presenter View on.
 In Presenter View, you'll see the current slide,
upcoming slides, your speaker notes, and a timer.
5. Annotations (Optional):
 During the slideshow, you can annotate on slides.
 Right-click on the slide to access the pointer and annotation tools.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

6. End Slide Show:

 Once you've reached the last slide, or if you want to end the presentation early,
press the "Esc" key or right-click and select "End Show."
7. Accessing Specific Slides:
 During the presentation, you can jump to a specific slide.
 Right-click and choose "Go to Slide" or press a number and then "Enter."
8. Using Presenter Remote (Optional):
 If you have a presenter remote, you can control the slideshow from a distance.
 Connect the remote to your computer.
 Use the remote's buttons to navigate through slides.
9. Use Transitions and Animations:
 Take advantage of slide transitions and animations to make your presentation
visually engaging.
 Set up transitions in the "Transition" tab.
 Add animations in the "Animations" tab.
10. Ending the Presentation:
 When you've completed your presentation, press "Esc" or right-click and select
"End Show."
11. Save Any Changes:
 If you made changes or annotations during the presentation, PowerPoint will
prompt you to save those changes.
12. Review and Share:
 After the presentation, review any feedback, and save or share the updated
presentation file as needed.

POWERPOINT SHORTCUTS
General Shortcuts: 10. Ctrl + V (Windows) / Command
1. Ctrl + N (Windows) / Command + V (Mac): Paste.
+ N (Mac): New presentation. 11. Ctrl + D (Windows) / Command
2. Ctrl + O (Windows) / Command + D (Mac): Duplicate slide.
+ O (Mac): Open presentation. 12. Ctrl + K (Windows) / Command
3. Ctrl + S (Windows) / Command + K (Mac): Insert hyperlink.
+ S (Mac): Save presentation. Slide Show Shortcuts:
4. F12 (Windows) / Command + 13. F5 (Windows) / Command +
Shift + S (Mac): Save As. Return (Mac): Start from the first
5. Ctrl + P (Windows) / Command slide.
+ P (Mac): Print presentation. 14. Shift + F5 (Windows) /
Slide Navigation: Command + Option + Return
6. Ctrl + Z (Windows) / Command (Mac): Start from the current slide.
+ Z (Mac): Undo. 15. N (Windows/Mac): Advance to
7. Ctrl + Y (Windows) / Command the next slide.
+ Y (Mac): Redo. 16. P (Windows/Mac): Go back to the
8. Ctrl + C (Windows) / Command previous slide.
+ C (Mac): Copy. 17. B (Windows/Mac): Turn the
9. Ctrl + X (Windows) / Command screen black during a
+ X (Mac): Cut. presentation.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

18. W (Windows/Mac): Turn the 34. Ctrl + F (Windows) / Command

screen white during a + F (Mac): Find text in the
presentation. presentation.
19. Ctrl + H (Windows) / Command 35. Ctrl + H (Windows) / Command
+ H (Mac): Hide the mouse + H (Mac): Replace text in the
pointer. presentation.
Formatting and Editing: 36. Ctrl + T (Windows) / Command
20. Ctrl + B (Windows) / Command + T (Mac): Create a hanging
+ B (Mac): Bold text. indent.
21. Ctrl + I (Windows) / Command + 37. Ctrl + M (Windows) / Command
I (Mac): Italicize text. + Shift + M (Mac): Insert a new
22. Ctrl + U (Windows) / Command slide in outline view.
+ U (Mac): Underline text. Text Box and Text Formatting:
23. Ctrl + E (Windows) / Command 38. Ctrl + Shift + > (Windows/Mac):
+ E (Mac): Center align text. Increase font size.
24. Ctrl + L (Windows) / Command 39. Ctrl + Shift + < (Windows/Mac):
+ L (Mac): Left align text. Decrease font size.
25. Ctrl + R (Windows) / Command 40. Ctrl + Shift + + (Windows/Mac):
+ R (Mac): Right align text. Superscript.
Slide Show Navigation: 41. Ctrl + = (Windows/Mac):
26. Number + Enter: Jump to a Subscript.
specific slide during a 42. Ctrl + ] (Windows/Mac): Increase
presentation. font size by 1 point.
27. Esc (Windows/Mac): End the 43. Ctrl + [ (Windows/Mac):
slide show Decrease font size by 1 point.
Object Manipulation:
Object Shortcuts: 44. Arrow keys (Windows/Mac):
28. Ctrl + G (Windows) / Command Move selected object in small
+ G (Mac): Group selected increments.
objects. 45. Shift + Arrow keys
29. Ctrl + Shift + G (Windows) / (Windows/Mac): Move selected
Command + Shift + G (Mac): object in larger increments.
Ungroup selected objects. 46. Ctrl + Arrow keys
30. Ctrl + M (Windows) / Command (Windows/Mac): Nudge an object
+ M (Mac): Insert a new slide. in a specific direction.
Presentation Shortcuts: 47. Alt + Shift + Arrow keys
31. Ctrl + W (Windows) / Command (Windows/Mac): Resize an
+ W (Mac): Close the current object proportionally.
presentation. View and Zoom:
32. Ctrl + F4 (Windows) / Command 48. Alt + Shift + F5 (Windows/Mac):
+ W (Mac): Close the current Start the slide show from the
window. current slide.
33. Ctrl + Q (Windows) / Command 49. Ctrl + 1 (Windows/Mac): Switch
+ Q (Mac): Exit PowerPoint. to Normal view.
50. Ctrl + 2 (Windows/Mac): Switch
to Slide Sorter view.
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51. Ctrl + 3 (Windows/Mac): Switch 68. Ctrl + P (Windows/Mac): Display

to Slide Show view. pen options during a presentation.
52. Ctrl + 4 (Windows/Mac): Switch 69. Ctrl + A (Windows/Mac): Display
to Notes Page view. arrow options during a
53. Ctrl + 5 (Windows/Mac): Switch presentation.
to Outline view. Miscellaneous:
54. Ctrl + G (Windows/Mac): Grid 70. Ctrl + Shift + L (Windows/Mac):
and Guides. Create a bulleted list.
Selection and Editing: 71. Ctrl + Shift + N (Windows/Mac):
55. Ctrl + Shift + C (Windows) / Apply no animation to selected
Command + Option + C (Mac): object.
Copy formatting. Text Formatting:
56. Ctrl + Shift + V (Windows) / 72. Ctrl + E (Windows) / Command
Command + Option + V (Mac): + E (Mac): Align text center.
Paste formatting. 73. Ctrl + L (Windows) / Command
57. Ctrl + Shift + K (Windows) / + L (Mac): Align text left.
Command + Shift + K (Mac): 74. Ctrl + R (Windows) / Command
Insert a hyperlink. + R (Mac): Align text right.
58. Ctrl + Enter (Windows/Mac): 75. Ctrl + J (Windows) / Command
Insert a line break in a text box. + J (Mac): Justify text.
Slide Show Shortcuts: 76. Ctrl + Shift + > (Windows/Mac):
59. F9 (Windows/Mac): Go to the Increase font size.
next hidden slide. 77. Ctrl + Shift + < (Windows/Mac):
60. Shift + F9 (Windows/Mac): Show Decrease font size.
the current hidden slide. 78. Ctrl + Shift + + (Windows/Mac):
61. Ctrl + P (Windows/Mac): Pen tool Superscript.
during a presentation (useful for 79. Ctrl + = (Windows/Mac):
highlighting). Subscript.
62. Ctrl + E (Windows/Mac): Eraser 80. Ctrl + ] (Windows/Mac): Increase
tool during a presentation. font size by 1 point.
Master Slide Shortcuts: 81. Ctrl + [ (Windows/Mac):
63. Shift + Click (Windows/Mac): Decrease font size by 1 point.
Select multiple objects on the Object Formatting:
slide. 82. Ctrl + D (Windows) / Command
64. Ctrl + D (Windows/Mac): + D (Mac): Duplicate selected
Duplicate the selected object. object.
65. Ctrl + Shift + Drag 83. Ctrl + Shift + G (Windows) /
(Windows/Mac): Constrain Command + Shift + G (Mac):
movement or sizing when Ungroup objects.
dragging. 84. Ctrl + G (Windows) / Command
Slide Show Presenter View: + G (Mac): Group selected
66. Alt + Shift + F (Windows): Turn objects.
on/off screen black. 85. Ctrl + Shift + Y (Windows) /
67. Alt + Shift + W (Windows): Turn Command + Shift + Y (Mac):
on/off screen white. Change case of selected text.
Slide Show Navigation:
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86. Number + Enter: Jump to a Slide Management:

specific slide during a 94. Ctrl + Shift + N (Windows/Mac):
presentation. Create a new slide.
87. B (Windows/Mac): Turn screen 95. Ctrl + Enter (Windows/Mac):
black during a presentation. Insert a line break in a text box.
88. W (Windows/Mac): Turn screen 96. Ctrl + Shift + Arrow keys
white during a presentation. (Windows/Mac): Move selected
89. S (Windows/Mac): Stop or restart object in larger increments.
an automatic slide show. 97. Ctrl + Shift + Drag
Slide Show Presenter View: (Windows/Mac): Constrain
90. Ctrl + P (Windows/Mac): Display movement or sizing when
pen options during a presentation. dragging.
91. Ctrl + A (Windows/Mac): Display 98. Ctrl + Z (Windows) / Command
arrow options during a + Z (Mac): Undo.
presentation. 99. Ctrl + Y (Windows) / Command
92. Ctrl + H (Windows/Mac): Hide or + Y (Mac): Redo.
show the ink markup toolbar. 100. Ctrl + Shift + C (Windows)
93. Ctrl + M (Windows) / Command / Command + Option + C (Mac):
+ M (Mac): Minimize the current Copy formatting
(or all) windows.

MS EXCEL
It is a spreadsheet program developed by Microsoft. Excel organizes data in columns and
rows and allows you to do mathematical functions. It runs on Windows, macOS, Android
and iOS.
The first version was released in 1985 and has gone through several changes over the
years. However, the main functionality mostly remains the same.
Excel is typically used for:
 Analysis
 Data entry
 Data management
 Accounting
 Budgeting
 Data analysis
 Visuals and graphs
 Programming
 Financial modeling
 And much, much more!

Why Use Excel?

 It is the most popular spreadsheet program in the world
 It is easy to learn and to get started.
 The skill ceiling is high, which means that you can do more advanced things as you
become better
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 It can be used with both work and in everyday life, such as to create a family budget
 It has a huge community support
 It is continuously supported by Microsoft
 Templates and frameworks can be reused by yourself and others, lowering creation
costs

OVERVIEW
This chapter is about giving you an overview of Excel. Excel's structure is made of two
pieces, the Ribbon and the Sheet.
Have a look at the picture below. The Ribbon is marked with a red rectangle and
the Sheet is marked with a yellow rectangle:

 The Ribbon provides shortcuts to Excel commands. A command is an action that

allows you to make something happen. This can for example be to: insert a table,
change the font size, or to change the color of a cell.
 The Ribbon may look crowded and hard to understand at first. Don't be scared, It will
become easier to navigate and use as you learn more. Most of the time we tend to
use the same functionalities over again.
 The Ribbon is made up by the App launcher, Tabs, Groups and Commands. In
this section we will explain the different parts of the Ribbon.

 The App launcher icon has nine dots and is called the Office 365 navigation bar. It
allows you to access the different parts of the Office 365 suite, such as Word,
PowerPoint and Outlook. App launcher can be used to switch seamlessly between the
Office 365 applications.
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 Tabs
 The tab is a menu with sub divisions sorted into groups. The tabs allow users to quickly
navigate between options of menus which display different groups of functionality.
 Groups
 The groups are sets of related commands. The groups are separated by the thin
vertical line break.
 Commands
 The commands are the buttons that you use to do actions.
THE SHEET
The Sheet is a set of rows and columns. It forms the same pattern as we have in math
exercise books, the rectangle boxes formed by the pattern are called cells.
Values can be typed to cells.
Values can be both numbers and letters:

Each cell has its unique reference, which is its coordinates, this is where the columns and
rows intersect.
Let's break this up and explain by an example
Have a look at the picture below. Hello world was typed in cell C4. The reference can be
found by clicking on the relevant cell and seeing the reference in the Name Box to the
left, which tells you that the cell's reference is C4.
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Another way to find the reference is to first find the column, in this case C, then map that
towards the row, in this case 4, which gives us the reference of C4.
Note: The reference of the cell is its coordinates. For example, C4 has the coordinates
of column C and row 4. You find the cell in the intersection of the two. The letter is always
the column and the number is always the row.
Multiple Sheets
You start with one Sheet by default when you create a new workbook. You can have many
sheets in a workbook. New sheets can be added and removed. Sheets can be named to
making it easier to work with data sets.

Tip: You can use the

hotkey Shift + F11 to create
new sheets. Try it!
Second, right click with your
mouse on the relevant sheet
and click rename:

SYNTAX
A formula in Excel is used to do mathematical calculations. Formulas always start with
the equal sign = typed in the cell, followed by your calculation.
Note: You claim the cell by selecting it and typing the equal sign (=)
Creating formulas, step by step
 Select a cell
 Type the equal sign (=)
 Select a cell or type value
 Enter an arithmetic operator
 Select another cell or type value
 Press enter
For example =1+1 is the formula to calculate 1+1=2
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Note: The value of a cell is communicated by reference(value) for example A1(2)

Using Formulas with Cells
You can type values to cells and use them in your formulas.
Lets type some dummy values to get started. Double click the cells to type values into
them. Go ahead and type:
 A1(309)
 A2(320)
 B1(39)
 B2(35)

Note: Type values by selecting a cell, claim it by entering the equal sign (=) and then type
your value. For example =309.

Here is how
to do it, step by step.
1. Select the cell C1
2. Type the equal sign (=)
3. Left click on A1, the cell that has the (309) value
4. Type the minus sign (-)
5. Left click on B2, the cell that has the (35) value
6. Hit enter
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Tip: The formula can be typed directly without clicking the cells. The typed formula would

be the same as the value in C1 (=A1-B2).

The result after hitting the enter button is C1(274)

SELECTIONS
The Name Box
The Name Box shows you the reference of which cell or range you have selected. It can
also be used to select cells or ranges by typing their values.

Selecting a Cell
Cells are selected by clicking them with the left mouse button or by navigating to them
with the keyboard arrows.
It is easiest to use the mouse to select cells.
To select cell A1, click on it:
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Selecting Multiple Cells

More than one cell can be selected by pressing and holding
down CTRL or Command and left clicking the cells. Once finished with selecting, you
can let go of CTRL or Command.

Selecting a Column
Columns are selected by left clicking it. This will select all cells in the sheet related to the
column.
To select column A, click on the letter A in the column bar:
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Selecting a Row
Rows are selected by left clicking it. This will select all the cells in the sheet related to that
row.
To select row 1, click on its number in the row bar:

Selecting the Entire Sheet

The entire spreadsheet can be selected by clicking the triangle in the top-left corner of
the spreadsheet:
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Selection of Ranges
Selection of cell ranges has many use areas and it is one of the most important concepts
of Excel.
There are two ways to select a range of cells
1. Name Box
2. Drag to mark a range.
The easiest way is drag and mark. Let's keep it simple and start there.
How to drag and mark a range, step-by-step:
1. Select a cell
2. Left click it and hold the mouse button down
3. Move your mouse pointer over the range that you want selected. The range that is
marked will turn grey.
4. Let go of the mouse button when you have marked the range

EXCEL FILL
Filling makes your life easier and is used to fill ranges with values, so that you do not
have to type manual entries.
Filling can be used for:
 Copying
 Sequences
 Dates
 Functions (*)
How To Fill
Filling is done by selecting a cell, clicking the fill icon and selecting the range using drag
and mark while holding the left mouse button down.
The fill icon is found in the bottom right corner of the cell and has the icon of a small
square. Once you hover over it your mouse pointer will change its icon to a thin cross.

Click the fill icon and hold down the left mouse button, drag and mark the range that you
want to cover.
In this example, cell A1 was selected and the range A1:A10 was marked.
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Fill Copies
Filling can be used for copying. It can be used for both numbers and words.
Let's have a look at numbers first.
In this example we have typed the value A1(1):
Filling the range A1:A10 creates ten copies of 1:

The same principle goes for text.

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In this example we have typed A1(Hello World).

Filling the range A1:A10 creates ten copies of "Hello World":

EXCEL FILL
Filling
Filling makes your life easier and is used to fill ranges with values, so that you do not
have to type manual entries.
Filling can be used for:
 Copying
 Sequences
 Dates
 Functions (*)
For now, do not think of functions. We will cover that in a later chapter.

How To Fill
Filling is done by selecting a cell, clicking the fill icon and selecting the range using drag
and mark while holding the left mouse button down.
The fill icon is found in the bottom right corner of the cell and has the icon of a small
square. Once you hover over it your mouse pointer will change its icon to a thin cross.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Click the fill icon and hold down the left mouse button, drag and mark the range that you
want to cover.
In this example, cell A1 was selected and the range A1:A10 was marked.

Now that we have learned how to fill. Let's look into how to copy with the fill function.

Fill Copies
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Filling can be used for copying. It can be used for both numbers and words.
Let's have a look at numbers first.
In this example we have typed the value A1(1):

Filling the range A1:A10 creates ten copies of 1:

The same principle goes for text.

In this example we have typed A1(Hello World).
Filling the range A1:A10 creates ten copies of "Hello World":
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

FILL SEQUENCES
 Filling can be used to create sequences. A sequence is an order or a pattern. We can
use the filling function to continue the order that has been set.
 Sequences can for example be used on numbers and dates.
 Let's start with learning how to count from 1 to 10.
 This is different from the last example because this time we do not want to copy, but
to count from 1 to 10.
 Start with typing A1(1):

First we will show an example which does not work, then we will do a working one
Lets type the value (1) into the cell A2, which is what we have in A1. Now we have the
same values in both A1 and A2.
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Let's use the fill function from A1:A10 to see what happens. Remember to mark both
values before you fill the range.

What
happened is that we got the same values as we did with copying. This is because the fill
function assumes that we want to create copies as we had two of the same values in both
the cells A1(1) and A2(1).
Change the value of A2(1) to A2(2). We now have two different values in the
cells A1(1) and A2(2). Now, fill A1:A10 again. Remember to mark both the values
(holding down shift) before you fill the range:
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The fill function understands the pattern typed in the cells and continues it for us.
That is why it created copies when we had entered the value (1) in both cells, as it saw
no pattern. When we entered (1) and (2) in the cells it was able to understand the pattern
and that the next cell A3 should be (3).
EXCEL RELATIVE REFERENCES
References are used in formulas to do calculations, and the fill function can be used to
continue formulas sidewards, downwards and upwards.
Excel has two types of references:
1. Relative references
2. Absolute references
Relative reference
References are relative by default, and are without dollar sign ($).
The relative reference makes the cells reference free. It gives the fill function freedom to
continue the order without restrictions.
Let's have a look at a relative reference example, helping the Pokemon trainers to count
their Pokeballs (B2:B7) and Great balls (C2:C7).
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The result is: D2(5):

Next, fill the range D2:D7:

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The references being relative allows the fill function to continue the formula for rows
downwards.
Have a look at the formulas in D2:D7. Notice that it calculates the next row as you fill.

ABSOLUTE REFERENCES
Absolute reference is when a reference has the dollar sign ($).
It locks a reference in the formula.
Add $ to the formula to use absolute references.
The dollar sign has three different states:
 Absolute for column and row. The reference is absolutely locked.
Example =$A$1
 Absolute for the column. The reference is locked to that column. The row remains
relative.
Example =$A1
 Absolute for the row. The reference is locked to that row. The column remains
relative.
Example =A$1
Let's have a look at an example helping the Pokemon trainers to calculate prices for
Pokeballs
Type or copy the following data:
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The price's reference is B11, we do not want the fill function to change this, so we lock it.
The reference is absolutely locked by using the formula $B$11.
How to do it, step by step:
1. Type C2(=)
2. Select B11
3. Type ($) before the B and 11 ($B$11)
4. Type (*)
5. Select B2
6. Hit enter
7. Auto fill C2:C7
COMPUTER AWARENESS

EXCEL FUNCTIONS
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Math and Trigonometry Functions:

1. SUM: Adds up all the numbers in a range.
 Example: =SUM(A1:A10)
2. AVERAGE: Calculates the average of a range.
 Example: =AVERAGE(B1:B5)
3. MAX and MIN: Returns the highest or lowest value in a range.
 Example: =MAX(C1:C100)
4. ROUND: Rounds a number to a specified number of digits.
 Example: =ROUND(D1, 2)
5. SQRT: Calculates the square root of a number.
 Example: =SQRT(E1)
Logical Functions:
6. IF: Performs a logical test and returns one value if true and another if false.
 Example: =IF(A1>10, "Yes", "No")
7. AND and OR: Tests multiple conditions.
 Example: =AND(A1>10, B1<20)
Text Functions:
8. CONCATENATE: Combines two or more text strings into one.
 Example: =CONCATENATE (A1, " ", B1)
9. LEFT and RIGHT: Extracts a specified number of characters from the start or end
of a text string.
 Example: =LEFT(A1, 3)
10. LEN: Returns the number of characters in a text string.
 Example: =LEN(C1)
Date and Time Functions:
11. NOW and TODAY: Returns the current date and time or the current date.
 Example: =NOW()
12. DATEDIF: Calculates the difference between two dates in years, months, or days.
 Example: =DATEDIF(A1, B1, "d")
Statistical Functions:
13. COUNT: Counts the number of cells that contain numbers in a range.
 Example: =COUNT(A1:A100)
14. AVERAGEIFS: Calculates the average of a range based on multiple criteria.
 Example: =AVERAGEIFS(B1:B100, C1:C100, "Category A")
Lookup and Reference Functions:
15. VLOOKUP: Searches for a value in the first column of a table and returns a value
in the same row.
 Example: =VLOOKUP(D1, A1:B100, 2, FALSE)
16. INDEX and MATCH: Returns a value at the intersection of a specified row and
column.
 Example: =INDEX(C1:C100, MATCH("SearchValue", A1:A100, 0))
Financial Functions:
17. PV (Present Value): Returns the present value of an investment.
 Example: =PV(rate, nper, pmt)
18. FV (Future Value): Returns the future value of an investment.
 Example: =FV(rate, nper, pmt)
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Database Functions:
19. DSUM: Adds the numbers in a column of a list or database that meet multiple
criteria.
 Example: =DSUM(Database, "Sales", Criteria_Range)
20. DCOUNT: Counts the cells that contain numbers in a database.
 Example: =DCOUNT(Database, "Sales", Criteria_Range)
Array Functions:
21. SUMPRODUCT: Multiplies corresponding components in the given arrays and
returns the sum of those products.
 Example: =SUMPRODUCT(A1:A10, B1:B10)
22. TRANSPOSE: Transposes the rows and columns of an array.
 Example: =TRANSPOSE(A1:C3)
Engineering Functions:
23. DEGREES and RADIANS: Converts angles from radians to degrees or vice versa.
 Example: =DEGREES(A1)
24. CONVERT: Converts a number from one measurement system to another.
 Example: =CONVERT(A1, "m", "ft")
Information Functions:
25. ISNUMBER: Tests if a value is a number.
 Example: =ISNUMBER(A1)
26. ISTEXT: Tests if a value is text.
 Example: =ISTEXT(B1)

How to Convert Time to Seconds using Excel

Time can be converted into seconds using Excel.
The number 86400 can be used to convert time to seconds.

86400 Explained
Excel uses a 24-hour system.
Each day has 24 hours.
One hour is 60 minutes.
One minute is 60 seconds.
24(hours) * 60(minutes) * 60 (seconds) = 86400

Example
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

00:01 * 86400 = 60
The example returns 60 because one minute (00:01) is 60 seconds.

EXCEL FILTER
In Microsoft Excel, the "Filter" feature allows you to quickly and easily narrow down the
data displayed in a range or table based on
specific criteria.
1. Select Your Data:
 Click on any cell within the range
you want to filter.
2. Activate the Filter:
 Go to the "Home" tab in the Excel
ribbon.
 Click on the "Filter" button. This
button usually looks like a funnel or
a triangle icon and is located in the
"Editing" group.
3. Filter Columns:
 Once you have activated the filter, drop-down arrows will appear in the header of
each column.
 Click on the arrow in the column header you want to filter.
4. Filter Options:
 In the filter menu, you'll see various options depending on the data type in the
selected column.
 For text columns, you can choose specific text values.
 For numeric columns, you can set number ranges.
 For date columns, you can choose date ranges or specific dates.
5. Filtering Multiple Columns:
 You can apply filters to multiple columns simultaneously.
 Click the drop-down arrow in one column and set your criteria.
 Repeat the process for other columns.
6. Clear Filters:
 To remove filters and display all data again, go back to the "Filter" button on the
"Home" tab and click it.
7. Custom Filters:
 Excel also allows you to create custom filters for more complex criteria.
 Click on the "Filter" button, and then choose "Filter by Color," "Filter by Cell Value,"
or "Filter by Icon" based on your needs.
8. Filtering in Tables:
 If you're working with Excel tables, you can filter directly within the table.
 Click on the filter icon in the header of a column, and a filter menu will appear.
9. Advanced Filtering:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 For more complex criteria, you can use the "Advanced Filter" feature.
 Go to the "Data" tab, and in the "Sort & Filter" group, click on "Advanced."
 Specify the criteria and the range, and Excel will create a new list based on your
criteria.
10. Sorting with Filters:
 You can also sort your data within the filtered range.
 Click on the drop-down arrow in the column you want to sort by and choose the
sorting option.
EXCEL SORT
Sorting data in Microsoft Excel is a common and essential task that helps you organize
information in a meaningful way.
Sorting a Range:
1. Select the Range:
 Click on any cell
within the range you
want to sort.
2. Go to the "Data" Tab:
 Navigate to the
"Data" tab in the
Excel ribbon.
3. Sort Ascending (A-Z, 1-9):
 In the "Sort & Filter"
group, click on the
"Sort Ascending"
button (A-Z or
Smallest to Largest
icon).
 This will arrange the selected range in ascending order based on the
values in the selected column.
4. Sort Descending (Z-A, 9-1):
 Alternatively, click on the "Sort Descending" button (Z-A or Largest to
Smallest icon) to sort in descending order.
Sorting by Multiple Columns:
5. Sort by Multiple Columns:
 If you have data with multiple columns, you may need to sort by more than
one column.
 Select the range.
 Click on the "Sort" button in the "Sort & Filter" group.
 In the "Sort" dialog box, specify the sort order and column for the first level
of sorting.
 Click "Add Level" to add additional levels for sorting.
 Click "OK" to apply the sorting.
Sorting a Table:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

6. Sort a Table:
 If your data is in an Excel Table, click on any cell within the table.
 Go to the "Table Design" tab that appears when the table is selected.
 In the "Sort" group, choose the column you want to sort by and the sort
order.
Custom Sorting:
7. Custom Sorting:
 If you need to sort by a custom order or based on criteria other than values,
you can use the "Sort" dialog box.
 Select the range.
 Click on the "Sort" button in the "Sort & Filter" group.
 In the "Sort" dialog box, choose "Custom List" and select a custom order if
needed.
 Set the sort order and column for the primary level of sorting.
 Click "OK" to apply the sorting.
Sorting Options:
8. Sort Options:
 In the "Sort" dialog box, you can choose additional options, such as sorting
left to right (for rows) or top to bottom (for columns).
9. Sort Warning:
 Excel may display a warning if your selection includes merged cells. Ensure
that your data is organized without merged cells to avoid issues with sorting.
10. Undo Sort:
 If you make a mistake or want to revert to the original order, use the "Undo" button
(Ctrl + Z).
EXCEL TOP/BOTTOM RULES
In Microsoft Excel, the Top/Bottom Rules
are conditional formatting rules that allow
you to highlight or format cells based on
their position within a range. You can use
these rules to identify the top or bottom
values within a specified range. Here's how
you can apply Top/Bottom Rules:
Highlighting Top or Bottom Values:
1. Select the Range:
 Highlight the range of cells
that you want to apply the
Top/Bottom Rules to.
2. Go to the "Home" Tab:
 Navigate to the "Home" tab in the Excel ribbon.
3. Choose Conditional Formatting:
 In the "Styles" group, click on "Conditional Formatting."
4. Select Top/Bottom Rules:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Hover over "Top/Bottom Rules" in the menu.

5. Choose a Rule:
 From the submenu, select the rule that suits your needs. Options include:
 Top 10 Items: Highlights the top 10 values.
 Top 10%, Bottom 10%, Above Average, Below Average:
Highlights based on percentages or average.
 Above/Below Average: Highlights values above or below the
average.
6. Set Formatting Options:
 After selecting a rule, a
dialog box will appear
where you can set
formatting options, such
as font color, fill color,
and other formatting
styles.
7. Click OK:
 Once you've set your
formatting options, click
"OK" to apply the
Top/Bottom Rule.
Example:
Let's say you want to highlight the top
5 values in a range:
1. Select the range of cells.
2. Go to the "Home" tab >
"Conditional Formatting."
3. Choose "Top 10 Items" from
the "Top/Bottom Rules"
submenu.
4. In the dialog box, set the "Format cells that rank" to "Top" and enter "5" in the
adjacent box.
5. Set the formatting options (e.g., choose a fill color).
6. Click "OK" to apply the rule.
Now, the top 5 values in the selected range will be highlighted with the chosen formatting.
Clearing Top/Bottom Rules:
If you want to clear the applied Top/Bottom Rules:
1. Select the range with the applied formatting.
2. Go to the "Home" tab > "Conditional Formatting."
3. Choose "Clear Rules" from the submenu.
4. Select "Clear Rules from Selected Cells" to remove the applied Top/Bottom Rules.

EXCEL COLOR SCALES

 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Color Scales in Microsoft Excel are a type of conditional formatting that visually
represents the relative values of cells within a selected range. Color scales use a gradient
of colors to highlight the high, low, and midpoint values, allowing you to quickly interpret
and analyze data
Applying Color Scales:
1. Select the Range:
 Highlight the range of cells that you want to apply the Color Scales to.
2. Go to the "Home" Tab:
 Navigate to the "Home"
tab in the Excel ribbon.
3. Choose Conditional
Formatting:
 In the "Styles" group, click
on "Conditional
Formatting."
4. Select Color Scales:
 Hover over "Color Scales"
in the menu.
5. Choose a Color Scale:
 From the submenu, select
the color scale that suits
your needs. Options
include:
 Green-Yellow-Red Color Scale: Gradation from green to yellow to
red.
 Red-Yellow-Green Color Scale: Gradation from red to yellow to
green.
 Blue-White-Red Color Scale: Gradation from blue to white to red.
 Various other two-color and three-color scales.
6. Set Formatting Options (Optional):
 After selecting a color scale, Excel will automatically apply default
formatting. However, you can customize the formatting options by choosing
"More Rules" from the submenu.
7. Click OK:
 Once you've selected a color scale and, if needed, adjusted the formatting
options, click "OK" to apply the Color Scales.
Example:
Let's say you have a range of values, and you want to highlight them using a Green-
Yellow-Red Color Scale:
1. Select the range of cells.
2. Go to the "Home" tab > "Conditional Formatting."
3. Hover over "Color Scales" and choose "Green-Yellow-Red Color Scale."
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

Now, the selected range of values will be formatted with a color gradient, where higher
values are represented in red, medium values in yellow, and lower values in green.
Managing Color Scales:
 Clearing Color Scales:
 To remove applied color scales, select the range, go to "Home" >
"Conditional Formatting," and choose "Clear Rules."
 Editing Color Scales:
 To edit or modify the applied color scales, choose "Manage Rules" from the
"Conditional Formatting" menu.
Color Scales provide a quick and effective way to visually interpret data trends and
patterns, especially when dealing with large datasets.
EXCEL FORMATTING
Excel formatting refers to the process of customizing the appearance of your data, cells,
and worksheets to make them more visually appealing and easier to understand. Here
are various formatting options in Microsoft Excel:
Cell Formatting:
1. Font Formatting:
 Change font type, size, color, and style using the "Home" tab.
2. Number Formatting:
 Control the display of numbers (e.g., currency, percentage, date) using the
"Number" group in the "Home" tab.
3. Alignment:
 Adjust text alignment (left, center, right) and orientation in the "Alignment"
group.
4. Cell Borders:
 Add or remove borders around cells using the "Border" options in the "Font"
group.
5. Fill Color:
 Change the background color of cells using the "Fill Color" option in the
"Font" group.
6. Text Wrap:
 Wrap text within a cell to display it on multiple lines using the "Wrap Text"
option in the "Alignment" group.
7. Merge and Center:
 Combine multiple cells into one and center the content using the "Merge &
Center" button.
Row and Column Formatting:
8. Row Height and Column Width:
 Adjust the height of rows and width of columns by right-clicking and
selecting "Row Height" or "Column Width."
9. Hide/Unhide Rows and Columns:
 Right-click on a row or column header and choose "Hide" or "Unhide."
Conditional Formatting:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

10. Color Scales, Data Bars, and Icon Sets:

 Apply visual formatting to highlight trends in data using the "Conditional
Formatting" options in the "Home" tab.
11. Highlight Cells Rules:
 Set rules to highlight cells that meet specific criteria, such as values greater
than a certain number.
Page Layout and Print Formatting:
12. Page Orientation:
 Set the page orientation to landscape or portrait in the "Page Layout" tab.
13. Page Margins:
 Adjust the margins for printing in the "Page Layout" tab.
14. Headers and Footers:
 Add headers and footers to your printed pages using the "Header & Footer"
tab.
Table and PivotTable Formatting:
15. Format as Table:
 Apply predefined table styles to your data using the "Format as Table" option
in the "Home" tab.
16. PivotTable Styles:
 Customize the appearance of PivotTables using the available styles in the
"PivotTable Styles" group.
Worksheet Formatting:
17. Rename and Color Tabs:
 Right-click on a worksheet tab to rename it or change its color.
18. Grouping and Outlining:
 Use the "Group" and "Ungroup" options in the "Data" tab to organize and
outline data.

EXCEL SHORTCUTS
Navigation Shortcuts: 7. Shift + Space: Select the entire
1. Ctrl + Arrow Keys: Navigate to row.
the edge of data regions. 8. Ctrl + A: Select the entire
2. Ctrl + Home: Move to the worksheet.
beginning of the worksheet. Editing Shortcuts:
3. Ctrl + End: Move to the last cell 9. F2: Edit the active cell.
with data on the worksheet. 10. Ctrl + X, Ctrl + C, Ctrl + V: Cut,
4. Ctrl + Page Up / Page Down: copy, and paste.
Move between worksheet tabs. 11. Ctrl + Z, Ctrl + Y: Undo and redo.
Selection Shortcuts: 12. Ctrl + D: Fill down (copy content
5. Shift + Arrow Keys: Extend the from the cell above).
selection of cells. 13. Ctrl + R: Fill right (copy content
6. Ctrl + Space: Select the entire from the cell to the left).
column. Formatting Shortcuts:
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

14. Ctrl + B, Ctrl + I, Ctrl + U: Bold, 33. Ctrl + Shift + "+": Insert a new
italicize, and underline text. row or column.
15. Ctrl + 1: Open the Format Cells Hide/Unhide:
dialog box. 34. Ctrl + 8: Display or hide the
16. Ctrl + Shift + $: Apply currency outline symbols.
format. Find and Replace:
17. Ctrl + Shift + #: Apply date format. 35. Ctrl + F: Open the Find dialog
Function Shortcuts: box.
18. Alt + Equals (=): Insert the SUM 36. Ctrl + H: Open the Replace dialog
function. box.
19. F4: Repeat the last action. Excel Table Shortcuts:
20. Ctrl + ` (backtick): Toggle 37. Ctrl + T: Create a table from the
between displaying cell values selected data.
and formulas. 38. Ctrl + L: Insert a table with
PivotTable Shortcuts: headers.
21. Alt + Down Arrow: Open the Chart Shortcuts:
drop-down menu in a PivotTable. 39. F11: Create a chart from selected
22. Alt + Shift + Left/Right Arrow: data.
Group or ungroup items in a Conditional Formatting:
PivotTable. 40. Alt + H, L, H: Highlight cells rules.
Other Shortcuts: Page Layout Shortcuts:
23. Ctrl + Tab: Switch between open 41. Alt + P, S, P: Set print area.
workbooks. Spell Check:
24. Alt + E, S, V: Paste Special. 42. F7: Start spell check.
25. Alt + Enter: Start a new line within Freeze Panes:
a cell. 43. Alt + W, F, F: Freeze panes.
26. Ctrl + Shift + L: Toggle filters on Workbook and Worksheet
and off. Management:
27. Ctrl + Shift + "+": Insert a new 44. Ctrl + N: Create a new workbook.
worksheet. 45. Ctrl + O: Open an existing
Formula Shortcuts: workbook.
28. Ctrl + Shift + L: Toggle the Excel 46. Ctrl + S: Save the current
table filters on and off. workbook.
29. Ctrl + Shift + "$": Apply currency 47. Ctrl + P: Print the current
format. workbook.
30. Ctrl + Shift + "%": Apply 48. Ctrl + F12: Open the "Save As"
percentage format. dialog box.
Quick Analysis: 49. Ctrl + W: Close the current
31. Ctrl + Q: Open the Quick Analysis workbook.
tool. 50. Ctrl + F4: Close the Excel
Row and Column Shortcuts: application.
32. Ctrl + - (minus): Delete the 51. Ctrl + G: Open the "Go To" dialog
selected column or row. box.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

52. Ctrl + F6: Switch between open 70. Alt + Shift + - (minus): Ungroup
workbooks. rows or columns.
Format Painter: Excel Shortcuts for Mac:
53. Ctrl + Shift + C: Copy formatting. 71. Command (⌘) + Arrow Keys:
54. Ctrl + Shift + V: Paste formatting. Navigate.
Data Validation: 72. Command (⌘) + T: Insert a table.
55. Alt + D, L: Open the Data 73. Command (⌘) + Shift + K: Insert
Validation dialog box. a new worksheet.
AutoSum: Sheet Navigation:
56. Alt + Equals (=): Insert the SUM 74. Ctrl + Page Up/Page Down:
function. Navigate between sheets.
Hyperlinks: Inserting Objects:
57. Ctrl + K: Insert a hyperlink. 75. Alt + N, N: Insert a new
Clearing Content: worksheet.
58. Delete: Clear the content of 76. Alt + N, V, Enter: Insert a new
selected cells. worksheet and move to the next.
59. Ctrl + Alt + - (minus): Delete the Selecting Entire Regions:
selected column or row without a 77. Ctrl + Shift + Right/Left Arrow:
prompt. Select data to the right or left.
Power Query: 78. Ctrl + Shift + Down/Up Arrow:
60. Alt + A, P, R: Open the Power Select data above or below.
Query editor. Copying Formulas:
Excel Help: 79. Ctrl + D: Copy formulas down.
61. F1: Open Excel Help. 80. Ctrl + R: Copy formulas to the
right.
Data Shortcuts: Workbook Navigation:
62. Alt + A, C, C: Clear filters. 81. Ctrl + Tab: Switch between open
Named Ranges: workbooks.
63. Ctrl + F3: Open the Name Excel Formula Shortcuts:
Manager. 82. Ctrl + Shift + " (double
Custom Views: quotation mark): Enter a formula
64. Alt + W, C: Create a custom view. as text.
Data Analysis: 83. Ctrl + [: Select all cells directly
65. Alt + D, S, T: Create a pivot table. referenced by formulas in the
Autofill: selection.
66. Ctrl + E: Flash fill. Excel Filter Shortcuts:
Workbook Views: 84. Alt + Down Arrow: Open the filter
67. Alt + W, G: Switch to Page Layout drop-down menu.
view. 85. Alt + A, S, C: Clear filter from the
68. Alt + W, N: Switch to Normal view. selected column.
Grouping and Outlining: Excel Sort Shortcuts:
69. Alt + Shift + + (plus): Group rows 86. Alt + H, S, A: Sort in ascending
or columns. order.
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

87. Alt + H, S, D: Sort in descending Named Ranges:

order. 92. Ctrl + F3: Open the Name
Quick Access Toolbar: Manager.
88. Alt + [Number]: Activate items on Excel Goal Seek:
the Quick Access Toolbar. 93. Alt + T, G: Open Goal Seek.
Excel Status Bar: Excel Scenario Manager:
89. Ctrl + Click on Status Bar Items: 94. Alt + T, M: Open the Scenario
Toggle settings (e.g., Caps Lock, Manager.
Num Lock). Workbook Protection:
Cell References: 95. Alt + T, P, W: Protect the
90. F4: Toggle through cell reference workbook structure.
types in a formula. Spell Check:
Text to Columns: 96. F7: Start spell check.
91. Alt + A, E: Text to Columns.

NUDI SOFTWARE
 Nudi is a computer program and font-encoding standard used for managing and
displaying the Kannada script
 The Karnataka government owns and makes the Nudi software available for free and
was started in 2001
 It was developed by the Kannada Ganaka Parishat, a non-profit organisation
 Most of the fonts included with Nudi can be used for dynamic font embedding
purposes; however, since the fonts and software are available freely, they can be used
in other situations as well, for example database management
 It is a font-encoding based standard (i.e., it uses ASCII values to store glyphs)
 Nudi editor provides saving in Unicode and Nudi engine provides inputting data in
Unicode provided the system provides support to Unicode and system has an
opentype font
 Nudi supports most of the windows based database systems like Access, Oracle,
SQL, DB2 etc., It also supports MySQL
 Lohit Kannada is the Unicode used
 Up to version 5.0, it was developed based on the Monolingual font-encoding standard
prescribed by the Government of Karnataka. From Nudi 6.0, it has been based on
Unicode. Nudi 6.1 was developed using AutoHotKey scripting.
USING SCIM AS THE INPUT METHOD
 The SCIM Input method is used to input different languages, most often Asian
languages like Chinese, Japanese or Korean, but it can be used to input many other
languages as well
 SCIM needs to be triggered to be used with any application. The default trigger is
CTRL and SPACE keys on the keyboard
 A small tab will pop up at the bottom right corner of the screen. Click on the tab to
choose Kannada
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

 Kn-itrans method can be chosen if you need to use the transliteration key map (Baraha
Style)
 Kn-kgp can be used to input method using the Kannada Ganaka parishat key-map
(Nudi style)
 Only Arkavattu works a little different here ( Eg to type surya, we need to press sUrfy,
instead of the usual sUyF)
FONTS USED IN NUDI SOFTWARE
 Nudi Akshar: This is the default font in Nudi software, and is used for typing regular
text in Kannada.
 Nudi Typewriter: This font is designed to resemble the typewriter font, and is
commonly used for official documents and forms.
 Nudi Utkal: This font is designed to resemble the Odia script, and is used for typing
Kannada text in a different style.
 Nudi Kedage: This font is designed to resemble the calligraphic style of handwriting,
and is used for decorative purposes or in artistic contexts.
 Nudi Shruti: This font is designed for use in print media and is optimized for legibility
and readability.
 Nudi Vijay: This font is designed for use in titles and headings, and is optimized for a
bold, impactful look
Font Styles in Kannada Typography:
1. Nudi Classic Font: The Nudi Classic font style is widely used and preferred for its
traditional appeal. It adheres closely to the classic Kannada calligraphy, providing an
elegant and timeless look to your text. The Nudi Classic font is often used in formal
documents, academic publications, and literature to maintain a sense of authenticity
2. Nudi Akshar Font: Modern and contemporary font style designed to enhance the
legibility and clarity of Kannada text. Its clean and crisp appearance makes it suitable for
various digital and print media, including websites, presentations, and educational
materials
3. Nudi Kids Font: As the name suggests, Nudi Kids is a fun and playful font style crafted
specifically for young readers and beginners. Its vibrant and child-friendly design appeals
to young learners, making it ideal for educational materials, children's books, and
interactive content
4. Nudi Namma Font: versatile font style that strikes a balance between traditional and
modern aesthetics. It offers a unique blend of readability and artistic flair, making it
suitable for diverse applications such as advertising, branding, and creative projects
5. Nudi Prema Font: calligraphic-style font that exudes elegance and sophistication. It
adds a touch of artistic finesse to your Kannada text, making it a favored choice for
invitations, greeting cards, and artistic expressions
6. Nudi Sampada Font: Bold and impactful font style, designed to draw attention to your
message. Its assertive appearance makes it suitable for headlines, banners, and eye-
catching elements in designs
 COMPUTER AWARENESS

7. Nudi Sandhya Font: Graceful and cursive font style that flows smoothly, mimicking the
beauty of handwritten Kannada. It adds a touch of personalization and warmth to your
text, ideal for personal letters, cards, and creative projects
NOTE : To type Dheergaswara in NUDI, you must have Capslock on
TEXT OPTIONS IN NUDI
 Formatting Text in Nudi: Font Styles , Font Size, Bold and Italics, Underline and
Strikethrough, Alignment , Line Spacing, Bullet Points and Numbered Lists
 Nudi provides a spell-check and grammar feature to help you identify and correct
spelling and grammatical errors. Running a spell-check ensures your content is error-
free and maintains a professional standard
 Nudi allows you to undo or redo changes, providing flexibility during the editing and
formatting process. This feature ensures you can experiment freely without losing your
previous work
 After editing and formatting your text in Nudi, save your work to preserve your
changes. Nudi allows you to export your document in various formats, ensuring
compatibility and accessibility
 When you encounter a word in your Kannada text, and you wish to find synonyms or
related words, just right-click on the word, and select the "Thesaurus" option. Nudi
will display a list of synonyms and similar words for you to choose from
NUDI KANNADA TYPING