MODULE 2: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Computer architecture refers to the design and construction of a computer system.

Computer System Components

A computer set has the following major elements:- Input devices
 Output devices
 The processors (CPU)
 The storage devices

The organization of computer Hardware is based on the Von-Newman Architecture which says
that an instruction follows a Fetch-Decode-Execute and write back procedure it is based on the
concept of binary representation of numbers in the computer. This organization, also known as
the computer theoretical organization, describes how the different types of computer hardware
interact with each other, in the processing of data, so that the desired results can be achieved. The
figure below illustrates the architecture:

SECONDARY MEMORY
OR

OUTPUT
INPUT MAIN
DEVICES
DEVICES MEMORY

CONTROL UNITUNIT Key:

Data Flow
ARITHMETIC / LOGIC
Command
UNIT

Peripheral devices
These are equipment that are used with the computer but are not integral part of it. They include
printers, keyboards, monitors, mice, disk drives.

Input Devices
Input refers to the process of entering programs, commands, user responses and data into main
memory. The most common input devices are:
a) Keyboard:
Users input data to a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. As the user enters the data
on the Keyboard it displays on the screen. It has several keys such as:-
 The function keys labeled with letters F1 - F12. Which perform different tasks depending on
the software program you are using.
 The arrow keys/cursor control keys used to move the cursor.

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 The Numeric Keys used to enter the letters, numbers and symbols.
 Alphanumerics – takes care of the alphabets and number parts
 Special purpose keys e.g. Backspace, Del. Shift, Alt., Ctrl, Enter ,Esc., Pause etc.

b) Mouse
This is a small lightweight device that easily fits in the palm of your hand. Software programs
designed to use mouse display a mouse pointer on the screen. The pointer may be an arrow,
small rectangle, an I-beam or even a hand with a pointed finger.

c) Trackball
It is a pointing device that is used as an alternative to a mouse. You roll the ball to position the
pointer on the screen. Unlike the mouse, a trackball doesn’t move on the desk and therefore
requires less space.

d) Scanners
Scanners convert texts, characters or images into a form that can be processed by the computer.

Other input devices include

e) Touch screens
f) Graphic input
g) Optical character reader (OCR)
h) Optical mark reader (OMR)
i) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

The System Unit

The system unit also known as a base unit, is the main body of a desktop computer of the
computer system.
Inside the System Unit
In a typical microcomputer, the system unit contains the power supply, storage devices and the
main circuit board with the computer’s main processor and memory.

The Power Supply

This component converts the AC electricity from the outlet to the DC electricity for PC uses. A
fan keeps the power supply and other components in the system unit from overheating.
Cooling System: To prevent overheating, computers have cooling systems, including fans, heat
sinks, and sometimes liquid cooling solutions. These are often shown near the CPU and other hot
components.

The Main board/Motherboard.

This is the main circuit board that houses the integrated circuits in the system unit. It contains
the microprocessor, the RAM, expansion cards and is connected to peripheral devices that collect
input and produce output.

Expansion Cards: These are optional components that can be added to a computer to provide
additional functionality, such as graphics cards, sound cards, or network cards. They are often
depicted as smaller rectangles connected to the motherboard.

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Cables and Connectors: Various cables and connectors, such as USB, HDMI, and Ethernet
cables, are used to interconnect the components. These lines or arrows indicate the connections
between components.

MEMORY
Memory is electronic circuitry that holds the data and program instruction. It is sometimes
called primary storage.
There are four major types of memory, namely random access memory (RAM), virtual memory,
CMOS memory and read-only memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

This is an area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds data before and after it is
processed. For example, when you enter a document, the characters you type usually are not
processed right away. They are held in RAM until you tell the software to carry out process such
as printing.
In RAM, the microscopic electronic parts called capacitor hold the electronic signals for the
binary codes that represent the data. RAM is volatile i.e. if the computer is turned off or the
power goes out, all the data stored in RAM instantly and permanently disappears.

Functions of the RAM

The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process any data.
 The CPU receives instructions from RAM, uses the data in RAM for processing and keeps
the results of processing temporarily in RAM until they are needed again or stored on disk.
 RAM stores user data, operating system instructions and program instructions temporarily.
 Every time you turn on your computer, it copies a set of operating system instructions from
disk into RAM. These instructions, which help control basic computer functions, remain in
RAM until you turn the computer off.
 RAM also holds program instructions. When you use a word processing program, the
computer copies the instructions that turn your computer into a word processor from disk into
RAM.

RAM capacity
The storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or Gigabytes (GB). Most recent
micro-computers have between 128 MB – 8 GB of RAM. The amount of RAM your computer
needs depends on the software you use.

Virtual Memory
The computer sometimes uses space on the computer’s hard disk as an extension of RAM. A
computer’s ability to use disk storage to simulate RAM is called virtual memory.
Virtual memory allows computers without enough real memory to run large programs,
manipulate large data files and run more than one program at a time. One disadvantage of a
virtual memory is reduced performance.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

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This is a set of chips containing instructions that help a computer prepare for processing tasks.
These instructions also called firmware are permanent, and the only way to change them is to
remove the ROM chips from the main board and replace them with another set.
When you turn on your computer, the CPU receives electrical power and is ready to begin
executing instructions. But because the computer was turned on, RAM is empty with no
instructions for CPU to process. This is when ROM finds its use.
When you turn on your computer, the CPU performs a series of steps by following instructions
stored in ROM. This series of steps is called the boot process.
 Programmable read-only memory (PROM) - acts the same as ROM when it is part of the
computer. I.e. it can only be read but its contents cannot be altered. However the data or
programs are not stored in the memory when they are manufactured. Instead it can be loaded
with special programs during installation.
 Erasable Prom (EPROM) - their data can be erased using special ultraviolet light device that
destroys the bit settings within the memory.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): EEPROM is a
type of ROM that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed multiple times. Unlike
EPROM, EEPROM does not require UV light for erasure. It can be modified using
specialized programming equipment or circuitry in the device itself, making it more flexible
for updates.

CMOS Memory
Metal oxide semi conductor memory. This is a type of memory which is more permanent than
RAM but less permanent than ROM which is used to store boot data such as the number of hard
disk tracks and sections. CMOS require very little power to retain its contents and as such can
be powered by battery. To change CMOS data, you usually run a CMOS configuration, or set
up program.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage
Stores programs and data when they are not being processed. They are non-volatile ie. data and
programs are retained when the power is turned off.

Hard Disk/Magnetic Disk:

It consists of one or more rigid metal platters coated with a metal oxide material that allows data
to be magnetically recorded on the surface of the platter.
Characteristics: Slower access times compared to SSDs, but they offer large storage capacities
at a lower cost per gigabyte.
Uses: HDDs are commonly used in desktop and laptop computers for general storage needs, as
well as in servers for mass storage.
Here are some common types of secondary storage devices:

Solid-State Drive (SSD):

SSDs use NAND flash memory to store data, which has no moving parts. Data is stored in
memory cells, allowing for faster data access and transfer speeds.
Characteristics: SSDs offer significantly faster read and write speeds compared to HDDs,
making them ideal for applications that require speed and responsiveness.

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Uses: SSDs are used in laptops, desktops, servers, and even as external drives for tasks like
gaming, video editing, and operating system installations.

Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays):

Optical discs use laser technology to read and write data on a reflective surface. They come in
various formats and capacities.
Characteristics: Optical discs are relatively slow for data access and have limited storage
capacities compared to HDDs and SSDs.
Uses: Optical discs are used for distributing software, music, movies, and backups. They are also
used in some legacy systems.

USB Flash Drive (Thumb Drive or Pen Drive):

Description: USB flash drives are compact, solid-state storage devices that connect to computers
via USB ports.
Characteristics: Portable, fast data transfer, and widely used for data transport and file storage.
Uses: USB flash drives are used for data backup, file sharing, and as bootable devices for
installing or repairing operating systems.

Memory Cards:
Description: Memory cards are small, removable flash storage devices commonly used in
cameras, smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices.
Characteristics: Compact and lightweight with varying storage capacities and data transfer
speeds.
Uses: Memory cards are used for storing photos, videos, music, and other data on portable
devices.

External Hard Drives:

External hard drives are HDDs or SSDs enclosed in an external casing with a USB or other
interface for easy connectivity to computers.
Characteristics: Provide additional storage capacity and data backup options. Speed depends on
the internal drive type.
Uses: External hard drives are used for data backups, extra storage, and transferring large files
between computers.

Network-Attached Storage (NAS):

NAS devices are specialized servers connected to a network that provide shared storage to
multiple users or devices.
Characteristics: NAS devices can contain multiple hard drives, offer advanced features like data
redundancy, and provide centralized storage management.
Uses: NAS devices are used in homes and businesses for file sharing, data backup, media
streaming, and remote access.
The choice of secondary storage device depends on factors such as storage capacity
requirements, data access speed, budget, and intended use. Many computer systems use a
combination of these devices to meet their storage needs effectively.

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EMERGENT DATA STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES:
 Non-Volatile Memory (NVM): SCM, such as Intel Optane, combines the speed of RAM
with the persistence of traditional storage. It's used to accelerate data-intensive applications.
 DNA Data Storage: Researchers are exploring the possibility of storing data in DNA
molecules, which offer incredibly dense and long-lasting storage capabilities.
 Holographic Data Storage: Holographic storage uses 3D patterns of light to store data. It
has the potential for extremely high storage densities.
 Quantum Storage: Quantum storage leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to store
data in quantum bits (qubits). Quantum storage could revolutionize data encryption and
information security.
 Glass Storage: Researchers have developed a method to store data in fused quartz glass
using femtosecond laser writing. It promises extreme durability and longevity.
 DNA and Molecular Storage: Molecular Data Storage: Besides DNA, other molecules, like
synthetic polymers, are being explored as potential data storage media due to their stability
and high data density.
 Racetrack Memory: This technology uses the movement of magnetic domain walls along
nanowires to store and retrieve data, offering high-speed, non-volatile storage.
 3D NAND Flash: This is an advanced form of NAND flash memory that stacks memory
cells vertically, increasing storage capacity and endurance.
 Memristor-Based Storage: Memristors are nanoscale resistors with memory. They can be
used for non-volatile storage and neuromorphic computing.
 Magnetic Tape Advancements: Modern magnetic tapes, like IBM's LTO-8 and LTO-9,
offer high capacities and reliability for archival storage.
 Storage Class Memory (SCM): SCM in SSDs: Some solid-state drives (SSDs) incorporate
SCM as a caching layer to improve read and write speeds.
 Persistent Memory: These modules, like Intel's Optane DIMMs, offer large, non-volatile
memory capacity that can be accessed directly by applications, reducing latency.
 Edge Storage Solutions: With the growth of edge computing, storage solutions designed for
edge devices and IoT (Internet of Things) applications are becoming more prominent.
 Software-Defined Storage (SDS): SDS: SDS decouples storage software from hardware,
allowing for more flexible, scalable, and cost-effective storage solutions.
 Hybrid and Multi-Cloud Storage: These approaches involve using a combination of on-
premises, public cloud, and private cloud storage to optimize performance, cost, and data
availability.
As technology advances, these innovations are likely to shape the future of data storage and
management.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the circuitry in a computer that executes instructions to process data. CPU is the heart of
the computer system. It retrieves instructions and data from RAM, processes them and places
the result back into RAM so they can be displayed or stored.

CPU Architecture
The CPU consists of one or more integrated circuits. In microcomputer the CPU is a single
integrated circuit called a micro-processor.
The CPU has two main parts; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU).

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The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. It also performs logical operations such as comparing two numbers. It uses
registers to hold the data that is being processed. In ALU, the results of an arithmetic or logical
operation is held temporarily in the accumulator.
The CU (Control Unit) - directs and coordinates processing and places it in a special instruction
register. The CU then interprets the instruction to find out what needs to be done. According to
its interpretation, the control unit sends signals to the data bus to fetch data from RAM, and to
the ALU to perform a process.

CPU Performance
CPU performance/speed is influenced by several factors such as clock rate, word size, cache and
instruction set size.

Clock rate
A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing for all system
operations. The “system clock” is not the same as “real-time clock” that keeps track of the time
of day.
The system clock sets the speed for data transport and instruction execution. The clock rate set
by the system clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction. The
time to complete an instruction circle is measured in megahertz (MHz).

Word Size
This refers to the number of bits the CPU can manipulate at a time. e.g. CPU with 8 - bit word
size is referred to as an 8 -bit processor. Today’s faster computers use 32 bit or 64 - bit micro
processors.

Cache
This is a special high-speed memory that give the CPU more rapid access to data. As you begin
a task, the computer anticipates what data the CPU is likely to need and loads or caches this data
into the cache area. The CPU then takes the data from cache instead of fetching it from RAM,
which takes longer. Therefore more cache means faster processing.

Instruction Set Complexity

A computer with a complex instruction set is known as a complex instruction set computer
(CISC). A computer whose CPU has a reduced instruction set called a reduced instruction set
computer (RISC) has a limited set of instruction that it performs very quickly. Therefore RISC
machine is more faster than CISC machine for most processing tasks.

Output Devices
Output is the data that has been processed into useful form/information that can be used by a
person or a machine.
Most outputs are in form of reports or graphics. The most used output devices are:-
1. Printers
Printers can be classified by how they transfer characters from the printer to the paper.
Impact Printers

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Transfer images into paper by some type of printing mechanism striking paper, ribbon, and
character together.
Non-Impact Printers
Printing occurs without having a mechanism striking against a sheet of paper.
Speed
Another way of classifying printers is by speed:-
 Low speed- print one character at a time.
 Medium and high-speed printers - called line printers, can print multiple characters on a line
at the same time.
 Very high-speed printers - can print excess of 3,000 lines per minute, often called page
printers.

TYPES OF PRINTERS
1) Dot Matrix Printers
Create letters and graphics by striking an inked ribbon with a column of small wires called pins.
By activating some wires in the column, but not activating others, the printer creates patterns for
letters and numbers.
Advantages
 Low operating costs
 Low price
 Can print multi-part forms – Make carbon copies
 Durable
Limitations
 Noisy
 Low to medium quality output
 Slow

2) Ink-jet Printers
Produce characters and graphics by spraying ink onto paper. The print-head is a matrix of fire
spray nozzles, patterns are created by activating selected nozzles.
Advantages
 Moderate price
 Inexpensive to operate
 High quality color printouts/high quality output.
 Quiet
 Durable
Disadvantages
 Slow
 Cannot print multi-part forms – cannot make carbon copies
 Poor quality colour compared to laser printers

3) Laser Printers
Use the same technology as the duplicating machines.
Advantages
 Quiet

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 High quality output
 Fast
 High quality color
 Durable
Limitations
 Expensive color
 Cannot print multi-part forms
 More expensive to operate

Others
4) Daisy wheel printers
5) Thermal printers
6) Chain printers
7) Band printers

2. The Monitor (The Screen)

Also called cathode ray tube (CRT) or video display terminal (VDT). It lets you see the
information you are exchanging with the computer. They can be either monochrome or color.
Monochrome display only two colors, either black and white or green and black. The size is
measured diagonally (like TV) in inches e.g. 14”. Inside the monitor is a video display adapter,
which is an expansion card that translates the signal, processed by the CPU into a format that the
monitor can display.

3. Plotters
Used to produce high-quality line drawing, such as building plans, charts or circuit diagrams.
The two types are (a) pen plotters - create image on a sheet of paper by moving the paper under
the tip of pen (b) electrostatic plotters.

4. Voice Output
Consist of spoken words that are conveyed to the user from the computer. The data that
produces voice output is usually created in one of two ways:-
a) A person can talk into a device that will encode the words in digital pattern. The digital data
is then stored on a disk. It can later be translated back from digital data into voice.
b) Voice Synthesizer:- can transform words stored in main memory into speech.