Chemistry Education

Research and Practice

View Article Online
PAPER View Journal | View Issue

General chemistry students’ conceptual

understanding and language fluency: acid–base
Cite this: Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.,
2016, 17, 509 neutralization and conductometry
James M. Nyachwaya

The objective of this study was to examine college general chemistry students’ conceptual
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

understanding and language fluency in the context of the topic of acids and bases. 115 students worked
in groups of 2–4 to complete an activity on conductometry, where they were given a scenario in which
a titration of sodium hydroxide solution and dilute hydrochloric acid was tracked by measuring electrical
conductivity. Students were asked to write a balanced equation for the reaction, provide a particulate
level drawing of the reactants and products, write a net ionic equation for the reaction, predict
how electrical conductivity would change with the addition of sodium hydroxide to the acid, provide a
sketch of their prediction, and explain their sketch. As students worked on the activity, conversations in
their groups were audio recorded. Their written responses and audio conversations were analyzed
to decipher conceptual understanding and language fluency. Results showed widespread lack of conceptual
understanding as well as a lack of language fluency. Students struggled with very basic ideas regarding acid–
base chemistry, such as identifying the right species involved in the neutralization reaction, and providing
symbolic and sub-microscopic representations (an aspect of the language of chemistry) of the acid–
Received 12th January 2016, base reaction. Most students could not accurately predict how electrical conductivity would change
Accepted 9th June 2016 as the neutralization reaction progressed. None of the groups provided an accurate sketch depicting
DOI: 10.1039/c6rp00015k the trend of electrical conductivity. Most of the groups did not correctly apply acid–base neutralization
ideas to the context of conductometry, indicating that students were not able to transfer knowledge of
www.rsc.org/cerp acid–base neutralization to this new context.

Introduction A common laboratory experiment for general chemistry

students involves acid–base titrations, where in most cases,
Acid–base chemistry is an important topic in chemistry, one the concentration of one is known, and therefore used to
that helps explain phenomena observed in the natural world determine an unknown concentration of the other reagent.
(McClary and Bretz, 2012). In addition, acids and bases are also At the general chemistry level, the neutralization process can
related to a number of concepts in chemistry, such as chemical be tracked using an indicator (which changes color at the end
equilibrium, redox reactions, solutions and solution concen- point), by changes in pH (using a pH meter) or through
tration among others. Students are exposed to acid–base chem- electrical conductivity. This study looked at the extent to which
istry as early as elementary school (Lin and Chiu, 2007). Later, second semester general chemistry students applied their
acids and bases are part of the high school curriculum in the knowledge of acid–base neutralization in the context of con-
United States. Furthermore, the foundational understanding of ductometry. The students in this study covered acid–base
acids and bases in introductory chemistry is essential for upper neutralization in general chemistry (I). As part of the course,
level courses in chemistry, such as organic chemistry, as well as they carried out a laboratory experiment on neutralization
topics in other subject areas, such as biochemistry. However, involving a strong acid and a strong base, and determined
despite the importance of this topic, research has shown that it the end-point using an indicator. In this research study,
continues to be a problematic topic for students (Chiu, 2004; through a scenario provided and series of ‘leading questions’
Huang, 2004; Demircioglu et al., 2005; Kala et al., 2013). students were expected to apply their prior knowledge of acid–
base neutralization to conductometry, where the acid–base
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and School of Education,
reaction would be monitored using electrical conductivity, a
North Dakota State University, 155B EML Hall, P.O. Box 6050, Fargo ND 58108, phenomenon students in this study had not experienced.
USA. E-mail: [email protected] Through the activity, students’ conceptual understanding and

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 509
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

language fluency in the context of acid–base neutralization was involving high school students, Sheppard (2006) asked students
probed. This study was therefore guided by the following broad to explain what was happening during an acid–base titration,
question: and found that students were not successful at describing ideas
such as acid strength and pH. He attributed this to a lack of
What is general chemistry (II) students’ conceptual understanding of the particulate nature of matter and chemical
understanding and language fluency in the context of change, as well as the ‘dense’ curriculum of acids and bases,
acid–base neutralization? and instruction that emphasizes algorithmic learning instead
Past studies related to acids and bases have looked at various of conceptual understanding (McClary and Bretz, 2012). Smith
aspects such as neutralization (Schmidt, 1991), understanding and Metz (1994) studied college students’ as well as faculty’s
of pH (Watters and Watters, 2006), strength of acids (Smith and understanding of acid strength. While undergraduate students
Metz, 1994), and properties of acids (Hand and Treagust, 1991). who took part in the study showed limited understanding,
This study adds to the field by looking at whether college the researchers found that even graduate students harbored
general chemistry students can apply knowledge of acid–base misconceptions, especially related to the strength of acids.
neutralization in another context (conductometry). The study Interestingly, even faculty members struggled with the idea of
also explores students’ conceptual understanding and language acid strength.
A number of other studies have documented instances
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

fluency in the context of acids and bases.

where students were not able to identify acids and bases in
a reaction when given formulae of reactants and products
Theoretical background (Sheppard, 2006). In this study, students struggled to translate
written text into symbols (syntax). Past research has also shown
Students’ understanding of acids and bases that students think of the solutions obtained from neutraliza-
The topic of acids and bases requires an integrated under- tion of acids and bases as having no H+ or OH ions since the
standing of a number of processes and concepts of chemistry. ions fully consume each other (Schmidt, 1991; Demerouti et al.,
For example, these involve identifying compounds as acids, 2004; Demircioglu et al., 2005). In a study involving high school
bases or amphoteric substances, and their respective formulas, students, Sheppard (2006) asked students to predict how, in a
and understanding of the particulate nature of matter, bond- conductometric titration of a strong acid with a strong base, the
ing, ionization (Sheppard, 2006). Complete understanding pH of the reaction mixture would change with the addition of
of the chemistry of acids and bases therefore requires students the base. In the study, all students predicted a decrease in pH,
to not only understand each of the ideas, but to successfully which they attributed to the fact that since acids have low
integrate the ideas where necessary. For example, to explain pH values, the pH of the resulting mixture would be low. It is
phenomena such as pH changes during an acid–base reaction, interesting in this study that students focused only on the low
one needs to understand particulate level interactions involving pH of acids, and not the pH of a base. The researcher concluded
ions. that students lacked predictive accuracy, as well as a lack of
One of the most common activities involving acids and understanding of underlying chemistry concepts.
bases are acid–base titrations (Sheppard, 2006), to determine One of the challenges that college chemistry students may
an unknown concentration of one of the reactants. To fully face when learning about acids and bases is the fact that
make sense of an acid–base titration, students have to navigate different models of acids and bases are presented. These
the multi-representational nature of the phenomenon (macro- models are Arrhenius, Bronsted Lowry, and the Lewis model.
scopic, symbolic and sub-microscopic). (Johnstone, 1991, While students may come into college classrooms with a belief
1993). A color change during an acid–base titration indicates that all acids have a H+ ion and all bases have an OH ion
that the equivalence point has been reached. The equivalence (Nyachwaya et al., 2014), the Bronsted Lowry and Lewis models,
point can be understood from the interactions of particles at which extend the definition of acids and bases, can be confus-
the sub-microscopic level. The acid base reaction can also be ing to students, especially when students have to simulta-
described in terms of formulae of reactants and products. neously use the three ideas. In fact, research has shown that
These representations, while critical for true understanding, when the Arrhenius theory/model is presented before the
can be challenging for students (Johnstone, 2000; Talanquer, other two theories, in the end, students’ understanding is
2011; Taber, 2013). found to be dominated by the Arrhenius theory (Hawkes,
Research on students’ understanding of acid–base chemistry 1992). Another challenge related to the three theories is
indicates that students struggle with this topic due to a number that in some cases, chemistry textbooks for high school and
of factors, including the existence of misconceptions (Schmidt, college may not present a coherent view of acids and bases
1997; Demerouti et al., 2004; Demircioglu et al., 2005), a lack (De Vos and Pilot, 2001).
of understanding of the particulate nature of matter (PNM)
(Nakhleh and Krajcik, 1993; Nakhleh, 1994; Smith and Metz, Language in chemistry
1994), and the language of chemistry (Schmidt, 1991, 1995). Language in chemistry comprises vocabulary, syntax and discourse
Specifically, students have been found to struggle with qualita- patterns (Markic et al., 2013). Vocabulary encompasses words used
tive and quantitative aspects of pH (Nakhleh, 1990). In a study in a discipline, which have specific meanings within that discipline.

510 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

Syntax refers to conventions such as graphs, tables or equations, laden with ‘heavy’ vocabulary, much of which is new to students.
which are used to organize and present information. Discourse For example, Yager (1983) noted that a high school chemistry
on the other hand refers to how members of a particular student will be exposed to at least 12 000 scientific terms. The
discipline, such as chemistry, write or talk. One of the challenges challenge is bigger when combined with the fact that scientific
of learning chemistry is that sometimes students are required concepts themselves can be hard for students to master.
to entertain all three forms of language simultaneously, or Learning the language of science occurs at the same time
translate from one to another. This places a huge burden on that learning of science (concepts) occurs. This is one of the
the learner. Fluency in the language of chemistry is not only a reasons why science is difficult. Students experience problems
pre-requisite for further learning, it also enculturates learners when learning science in a language other than students’ first
into the community of chemists (Hodson and Hodson, 1998). language (e.g. English) (Yong, 2003; Romaizah, 2009). In fact,
Understanding the language of science also contributes to some believe that language is a bigger barrier to learning
scientific literacy (Wellington and Osborne, 2001). According science than content itself (Gabel, 1999; Yong, 2003). Indeed,
to Norris and Phillips (2003), scientific literacy enables one to research in chemistry education has shown that language
infer meaning from text, and use language adequately during comprehension affects student achievement in science (Lewis
discourse on important issues related to life and society. and Lewis, 2007, 2008).
Most of the teaching and learning activities that we and Terminology that students encounter in chemistry takes on
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

our students engage in science classrooms are mediated by different meanings from every day usage. Such terminology takes
language (Fang, 2005; Markic et al., 2013). Language is central on a specialized meaning when used in the context of science,
to the learning of science, and can thus hinder or foster (Cassels and Johnstone, 1984; Schmidt, 1991; Johnstone and
learning (Lee, 2001). In a classroom, students engage in reading, Selepeng, 2001; Jaisen, 2010, 2011; Markic et al., 2013). Examples
writing, problem solving, asking questions, communicating of these words that are problematic for students to use include
results of investigations and collaborative discourse, among other neutralization (Schmidt, 1991; Jaisen, 2010), and strong (Jaisen,
activities, which require the use of, and fluency in scientific 2011). One of the challenges posed by scientific vocabulary
language (Markic et al., 2013). Students need language in order pertains to the fact that words can and do take on different
to understand a subject, communicate what they understand, meanings based on context (Gee, 2005; Duschl et al., 2007). Such
and perform tasks related to their content. Language enables words have been called dual meaning vocabulary (DMV) (Song
students to think, ask questions, hold conversations, and and Carheden, 2014). Dual or multiple meaning words have the
ultimately learn in their discipline. Given the myriad of activ- potential to confuse students since they have context specific,
ities that take place in the classroom, such as reading, writing, narrow meanings that are different from the everyday meanings
answering questions, listening to the teacher and peers, it is that students know of (Duschl et al., 2007).
important for students to understand language in order to
participate in these activities.
Every discipline in school has a special language (academic
language), in which concepts in various topics are presented, Methodology
and conversations held (Snow, 2010). In particular, in science,
in addition to communicating scientific information, language Context and data collection
helps us understand the processes of science (Fang, 2005). For The work reported here came from a class activity in a general
young scientists, part of their induction into science involves chemistry (II) class (115 students) from a university in mid-
learning the academic language. Developing conceptual under- western United Sates in the spring semester of 2015. The class
standing in the science disciplines requires learning and met three times a week for a total of 150 minutes of instruction. As
understanding the language of science (Wellington and part of the course, group discussions were routinely used to
Osborne, 2001; Fang, 2005; Brown, 2013). Understanding the engage students. The activity occurred right before a second
academic language of science makes science accessible to semester general chemistry topic of acids and bases, but draws
learners (Gilbert and Yerrick, 2001; Varelas et al., 2002; Brown, on material that was covered in general chemistry (I) in a previous
2004; Brown and Spang, 2008), helps students develop scien- semester. It is worth mentioning that in general chemistry (I), as
tific literacy (Wellington and Osborne, 2001) and ultimately part of the topic on ‘‘reactions in aqueous solution’’ students
affects their performance in school science (Beck et al., 2002; learn about neutralization reactions, both qualitatively and quan-
Varelas et al., 2002). titatively. This work therefore also looks at the aspect of retention
Mastering the language of science is one of the biggest in addition to transfer. Institutional review board approval was
hurdles students face in learning science (Brown and Ryoo, sought and received for this study. Consent was also sought from
2008). One of the reasons for this observation is the fact that students to allow use of their responses as data for this research.
scientific language is not native to any student, meaning that for The following questions were posed to the class, and stu-
students, learning the scientific language is akin to learning dents were asked to discuss in their groups and write down a
a new language (Wellington and Osborne, 2001). Scientific group response. Student conversations in their groups were
language is often different from students’ everyday language also recorded to give an idea of participation, nature of con-
(Wellington and Osborne, 2001). Much of the scientific language is versation and language use (Fig. 1).

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 511
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

Fig. 1 Assessment instrument used for this study.

This tool was designed in such a way as to guide students in to provide the right formula for each reactant and product,
thinking about acids and bases, to ultimately be able to answer including the appropriate state symbols, and balance the
the last three questions. equations. The expected answer was NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

NaCl(aq) + H2O(l). Twenty three out of twenty six groups wrote

the chemical equation with the right formulas of reactants
Data analysis and products, with fifteen groups correctly balancing the
Data from all groups was first analyzed for conceptual correct- equation. Out of the twenty three groups, only four groups
ness. Specifically, student responses were coded for (i) the right included state symbols for reactants and products in their
equation for the acid base reaction, with appropriate state equations. The following is a transcript of the discussion by
symbols, (ii) appropriate particulate representation of the equa- one of the groups who provided an appropriate equation for the
tion, showing ions in the acid and base, and water molecules reaction.
with the right geometry and relative atomic sizes (iii) the right net S1: So basically it would be sodium hydroxide (NaOH) plus the
ionic equation (iv) the correct prediction of the trend in electrical hydrochloric acid which is
conductivity (v) correct sketch of the predicted trend and (vi) the S2: You can just put it here
correct explanation for the expected trend in conductivity. Audio S1: I just want you to be able to see
data was transcribed verbatim, and analyzed for language fluency S3: Okay as long as we can still see
(such as vocabulary used and how it was used). S1: HCl aqueous and then
Grounded theory was used to analyze data collected for this S4: Is it like a double displacement reaction?
study. In grounded theory, themes emerge from the data (Cohen S2: I believe mmmh. . . am not sure. Double displacement so
et al., 2011). Data analysis occurred at two levels. Student written would it be like
responses were examined for conceptual correctness. For exam- S3: So it would be like switching then we would have H2O and
ple, for question a, a correct response would have the correct NaCl
formulae of reactants and products, with associated state sym- S1: Yea. NaCl is a liquid right? Or is it a solid?
bols. Group discussions (audio) data was also analyzed for both S3: I believe it is aqueous
conceptual understanding and language fluency. Decisions on S4: And I believe the equation is balanced
conceptual understanding and language fluency emerged from The group came to a consensus on the following
or were based on data from student work. equation:

Results This group successfully translated text into symbols, show-

ing ability to navigate the two languages. The conversation in
In the following sections, results will be presented by question. the group reveals their use of language, in vocabulary such as
Sample student written responses, and in some cases where ‘double displacement’ and ‘aqueous’. In the group, student
appropriate, group discussion transcripts will be used to illus- struggles with very fundamental ideas are apparent. For example,
trate results. one student does not know what a double displacement reac-
tion is, while the student who is not sure whether NaCl is a
a. Writing a balanced equation liquid or solid lacks an understanding that NaCl is a soluble
This question assessed students’ ability to transfer written text salt (therefore it would not be a solid), and that given the
(information) to symbols. Specifically, students were expected reaction, the physical state of the salt should be aqueous as

512 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

opposed to liquid. It is also interesting that in the conversation, b. Drawing of particulate representations
students who seem to have a better understanding in the This question required students to translate from the symbolic
group do not seem to help their peers with ideas they are to the particulate levels of representation. This requires an
struggling with and come to a shared understanding as a understanding that in an aqueous solution, there would be ions
group. In the transcript above, when one of the students (S4) of the acid, base and salt, in addition to water molecules
asks whether it is a double displacement reaction, the group (product). Drawing these particles requires an understanding
does not address the question when the second student is not of the appropriate symbolic language. The expected response
sure. When another student (S1) asks whether NaCl is liquid or was to have Na+(aq), OH (aq), H+(aq) and Cl (aq) ions on the
solid, another student responds by saying it is aqueous, without reactant side. On the products side, Na+(aq) and Cl (aq) ions as
further explanation. well as H2O(l) molecules (product) were to be drawn. (Students
As noted above, most groups did not include state symbols, were familiar with this convention in the course). Because of
which convey important information about the physical what students had covered in the course, they were not
states of reactants and products in an equation of a chemical expected to draw solvent (water) molecules as part of their
reaction. Omitting state symbols is an indication of lack of particulate drawing.
understanding of the meaning of terms such as aqueous, and None of the twenty six groups drew appropriate particulate
solution, and how they translate to symbols. For example,
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

representations of the reactants and products, with the right

one group who omitted state symbols provided the following ionic species, charges, and relative atomic sizes in the case of
equation: water especially for students who chose to explicitly show the
relative sizes of hydrogen and oxygen in water. The drawings
provided by the groups varied widely. For example, two groups
provided a macroscopic drawing of a titration apparatus, as shown
in Fig. 2 below. The following transcript shows a conversation
Two of the groups that did not write the correct formulas of in one of these two groups, detailing their decisions as they
reactants and products wrote the following equations, where solve the problem and plan the drawing:
they used an equilibrium sign. In total, three groups wrote S1: So I think he is trying to say that on the molecular level what
equations with the equilibrium sign. is happening
S2: Do you want to draw that
S1: Sure. So on one side, you have the reactants
S3: And this would be like inside the cup of reactants
S4: Yes, yes
S1: So we have the reactants which are going to be the NaOH
and HCl
S2: So the NaOH is already in there right?
The inability to provide correct formulas for some reactants S3: No that is the base
and products is an indication of students’ inability to navigate S2: So the HCl is already in the Erlenmeyer flask
from written text to symbols, an important aspect of the S3: And then they are adding NaOH from the top
language of chemistry. Also notable in both equations is the S1: Okay. And it is probably better to do like in steps. So here we
use of the equilibrium sign, which is not correct for a reaction have the little drip thing. This is the NaOH and once they get
involving a strong acid and a strong base. Students in the two dripped in, then
groups whose responses are shown above did not know the S2: Looks good
correct formula of sodium hydroxide and water, in addition to S4: And then it breaks into ions right?
not knowing the products of an acid–base reaction, specifically S3: So would these then be Na ions and Cl ions? Is that how this
that water is produced. These students also failed to recognize will work?
the fact that because the reaction involves a strong acid and a S1: I think so. I will fix the ions, so we have Na plus and then Cl
strong base, the reaction is not reversible. minus. Okay we got it.
In another group, students’ struggles with very fundamental,
elementary ideas were evident in their conversation. For exam-
ple, some students did not know which one of the reactants was
the acid and which was the base:
S1: Which is the base and acid again?
S2: NaOH is the base and HCl is the acid.
While other studies have documented student difficulties
with identifying acids and bases in a reaction when given
formulae of reactants and products (Sheppard, 2006), in this
study, some students were not able to translate written text into
symbols (syntax). Fig. 2 Macroscopic drawing depicting the acid–base reaction.

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 513
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

S4: Then in that case, we have them mixing and then making Correctly identifying the particles involved in the reaction (and
that liquid as well. visualizing these particles) in question ‘b’ above was an impor-
S2: So this is are they both solid or are they liquid? tant step in answering this question. In addition, this question
S1: They are ions was also meant to help students come to the conclusion that in
S2: Ions. So they just exist in there the neutralization reaction, the net reaction involved hydrogen
S1: So they are kinda chilling in there (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH ) ions reacting to form water
S2: Sweet. All liquids still. So this is the H2O and Na plus Cl (H+(aq) + OH (aq) - H2O(l)). Eight groups wrote the correct
(referring to the mixture in the flask). net ionic equation, as in the example below.
Even though the question explicitly directed students to ions
and molecules, this group chose to draw flasks, reminiscent of
what they do in a typical laboratory experiment involving a
titration. It is interesting to see a water molecule and Na+ and
Cl ions identified as the products of the reaction. In the In conversations of groups who did not provide a correct net
transcript, students use various relevant vocabulary words, ionic equation, student struggle was evident as students wrote
such as reactants, and ‘on the molecular level’. In the transcript their net equation. For example, the transcript below shows a
the students do not know whether sodium chloride would be a discussion in one of the groups that did not write the correct
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

solid. An understanding of solubility rules, which were covered ionic equation:

in general chemistry I, would lead to the conclusion that the S1: So the net ionic that after that is like is like the ionizing that
salt is soluble, which would mean that the salt is aqueous. In will be after the ionizing and then you subtract like what like the
addition, on a general level, students struggled to communicate changes or something
using appropriate scientific language (academic language). For S2: It has been a long time
example, instead of correct, specific vocabulary, the students S3: I think I remember that HCl will break up, then you get rid
used slang, such as ‘they are kinda chilling in there’ (S1) and of something. I can’t remember.
generic visual descriptions, such as ‘the little drip thing’, (S1) to S4: NaOH will break into this (silence) and HCl into this
communicate. (silence) and water into this (silence). Then you have NaCl.
In another group, students provided the following drawing: S1: That makes sense.

Notable in this drawing is the use of a covalent bonding S4: Then you subtract water so this H plus and this OH minus so
model for ionic compounds (sodium hydroxide and sodium we are left with this Na plus and Cl minus to give NaCl. The group
chloride), the drawing of dyslexic water, in addition to using an provided the following response:

incorrect geometry for water. Another critical student error was Students in this group were initially successful in determin-
the drawing of NaOH and HCl, since in reality, there are no ing the ions in the reaction mixture. The interview transcript
NaOH and HCl particles in the reaction mixture. Instead, NaOH reveals underlying struggles in students’ understanding of the
and HCl exist as Na+(aq), OH (aq), H+(aq) and Cl (aq) ions process of ionization in solution. The fact that they settle on
respectively. These results confirm past research which found sodium ions and chloride ions reacting to form sodium chloride
that even successful chemistry students have problems visua- shows a lack of understanding neutralization, a fundamental
lizing particulate level interactions in titration experiments concept in the reaction of acids and bases. Another elementary
(Suits et al., 2005). piece of knowledge missing is how to go from a complete ionic
to a net ionic equation, specifically the idea of ‘spectator ions’.
c. Writing the net ionic equation In the transcript, it is evident that one of the students (S3) is
To correctly respond to this question, students should know the struggling to remember a process of writing ionic equations
meaning of the terms ‘neutralization’ and ‘net ionic equation’. from previous experience. This might be an indication of

514 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

reliance of rote memorization instead of conceptual under- d. Prediction of electrical conductivity

standing. Two other groups wrote the same net ionic equation This question required students to think about particulate level
as this group. interactions in the reaction between the acid and base, and how
In one of the groups, the students provided the complete the ionic composition in the reaction mixture changed with the
ionic equation, identifying the particles involved in the reac- titration. The correct response takes into account the fact that
tion. They however stopped at the complete ionic equation, as the reaction progresses towards the equivalence point,
indicating they did not understand the idea of a ‘net ionic electrical conductivity would decrease, and would be minimum
equation’, an aspect of vocabulary in chemistry. They provided at the equivalence point, beyond which it will begin to rise
the following response again, with the addition of excess sodium hydroxide.
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

This group also mistakenly assigned the symbol ‘g’ to the Sixteen groups predicted that conductivity would increase
hydroxide (OH ) and hydrogen (H+) ions. It is interesting that as the titration progressed, six groups predicted a decrease,
the group decided to assign different states to Na+ and OH , two groups predicted that the mixture would not conduct
both from NaOH(aq). It is not clear if this is a mistake due to any current, one group did not make a prediction, while the
carelessness. The group also assigned a negative charge to the remaining group provided a response that was considered
water molecule in the equation. irrelevant. In effect, based on the instructions in the question
Two other groups reproduced the complete molecular equa- where the base was added till in excess, none of the groups
tion meant for part ‘a’ above, again showing a lack of under- provided a correct prediction as all of the groups that predicted
standing of the terms ‘ionic equation’. For example, one group a decrease did not account for the statement that the base was
provided the following equation: added till in excess. As an example, the following is a transcript

This group made a first mistake of labelling NaCl as a solid, from one of the groups who predicted decreasing electrical
pointing to a lack of understanding of solubility (a connection conductivity, and reasoning thorough their answer:
to this being table salt would have told students that it is S1: So electrical conductivity will decrease because you are
soluble). It is not surprising that this group did not assign having the ions come together to form a neutral, because this is
physical states (symbols) in their equation. This decision most neutral, I mean this is dipolar but (silence)
likely led to the next incorrect step. This group cancelled out S2: This is a strong electrolyte. What makes a strong electrolyte?
hydrogen, hydroxide and water, the very species that are indeed S3: They are both liquid
part of the net ionic equation in the context of a neutralization S4: They are not conductive by themselves. I just know in my
reaction. At the core of this response is a lack of understanding notes all acids and all bases by themselves are electrolytes, but
of particulate level interactions in a neutralization reaction. when you add them together, they are neutralized they don’t have
In this question, students were expected to write a complete electric
ionic equation, identify and cancel out spectator ions, and then S3: Yea
write down the net ionic equation. A number of groups did not S4: Because these aren’t
correctly answer this question, confirming a finding from S3: These aren’t acids and bases (probably referring to the salt
previous studies involving high school students (Dumon and and water).
Laugier, 2004). From these results, one can hypothesize that S1: I thought this NaCl will conduct?
some students answered the question algorithmically. Students S4: Okay, I am overthinking again. So this is a salt. Is it not
who wrote the net ionic equation as involving sodium and going to be an electrolyte again? Yea if there are ions if you have
chloride ions to produce sodium chloride might have just been water breaking apart the ions in salt water, now it is an electrolyte
going through the mechanics of writing a net ionic equation, so it can conduct from negative to positive but
not informed by an understanding of the process of neutraliza- S2: Well, just thinking like is salt water more conductive than
tion, specifically in the context of the reactants in the scenario regular water?
provided. S4: Yes it is.

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 515
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

S2: It is? e. Sketch of the predicted trend

S4: Yes it is, salt water is. It is not a strong electrolyte but it still This question required students to demonstrate an understand-
decreases because salt water is a very low electrolyte. ing of particulate level interactions of ions, and what trend
After the discussion, the group provided the following would be observed if the interactions were tracked. If students
written explanation (this is also part of question f below): made the correct prediction, then they would translate their
Electrical conductivity would decrease because a neutral salt is prediction into a sketch, which is an element of the symbolic
formed in an aqueous solution but NaCl in water is still an language. The correct sketch would be labelled ‘conductivity’ on
electrolyte. the y-axis, and volume or amount of NaOH on the x-axis. The
In the transcript, students invoke relevant vocabulary, such sketch should indicate a decrease in electrical conductivity
as electrolyte, neutral, and ions. Student 4 (S4) notes correctly with the addition of NaOH, till the equivalent point, and then
notes that the acid and base are electrolytes, and the fact it would begin to rise with addition of excess sodium hydroxide.
that in water, NaCl will dissociate into Na+ and Cl ions (hence A U-shaped or V-shaped sketch was acceptable.
an electrolyte) which will conduct current. Worth noting None of the twenty six groups provided a sketch that would
are instances where student statements indicate a lack of be considered appropriate. The sixteen groups who predicted
understanding of associated chemistry concepts. For example an increase in conductivity therefore provided the most com-
the notion that when acids and bases react, the resulting product
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

mon sketch, where conductivity increased and levelled off at

is a non-electrolyte is not accurate especially in the context of the some point. At the core of this mistake is a lack of under-
reaction provided. It is possible that the student is confused standing of the particulate level interaction of H+(aq) from the
by the terms neutral and electrolyte. One student notes that acid and OH (aq) from the base, and how this would affect
salt water is not a strong electrolyte, and goes on to note that it electrical conductivity. Another common mistake made by most
is a ‘low electrolyte’, showing a lack of understanding of what of the groups was showing electrical conductivity starting at
electrolyte can be considered strong or weak. The explanation zero. Since the acid is fully ionized already, there would be
provided by this group, while partially correct, is not backed by current conducted right at the start of the measurement. Fig. 4
sound reasoning. The decrease in conductivity is due to the 1 : 1 below is an example of such a sketch:
replacement of fast moving H+(aq) ions by slower moving Six of the twenty six groups predicted a decrease in electrical
Na+(aq) ions, a fact which the group does not refer to. Their conductivity with the addition of the base to the acid. Four of
answer implies that formation of NaCl hinders conductivity. the six groups drew sketches showing electrical conductivity
As an example, one of the groups who provided an irrelevant only up to the end point, and therefore did not account for the
prediction provided the following response and the sketch in effect of excess sodium hydroxide on conductivity. Two out of
Fig. 3. the six groups drew sketches showing zero conductivity at the
In this group, students predicted that conductivity would end-point. Although some sketches indicated an initial trend of
change the precipitation of the solution, an irrelevant response decreasing electrical conductivity, they did not account for the
to the question. Also, this response, shows a lack of under- effect of the excess sodium hydroxide on conductivity. As an
standing of the products of the reaction, or that sodium example, one group provided the sketch in Fig. 5 below:
chloride, NaCl, is a soluble salt. Given that the question Two of the six groups who predicted decreasing electrical
identified variables that students were to base their prediction conductivity drew sketches showing zero conductivity at the
on, it is not clear whether students in this group understood end-point. Fig. 6 below is an example of such a sketch.
what was required of them in the question. This drawing (Fig. 6) points to a lack of understanding of the
The results here show that most students lacked predictive composition of the reacting mixture at the end point, so that
accuracy (Sheppard, 2006). This is possibly due to a lack of even if there were no more H+ ions as the group notes in the
understanding of the underlying chemistry, specifically the drawing in Fig. 6, there would be Na+ and Cl ions that would
interaction of particles during the acid base reaction.

Fig. 4 Sketch illustrating an increase in electrical conductivity with addi-

Fig. 3 Irrelevant prediction and sketch from one of the groups. tion of NaOH.

516 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

‘final conductivity’ is inaccurate given the composition of the

reacting mixture at the end point. Past research has also shown
that students think of the solutions obtained from neutraliza-
tion of acids and bases as having no H+ or OH ions since the
ions fully consume each other (Schmidt, 1991; Demerouti et al.,
2004; Demircioglu et al., 2005).
Other notable errors in students’ drawings or sketches
included missing labels or wrong labels for exes, as shown in
Fig. 7 below.
Twenty four groups provided sketches that were consistent
with their predictions (regardless of whether the predictions
were correct or not), with the remaining groups providing
Fig. 5 Sketch from a group indicating decreasing conductivity with addi- sketches that were not consistent with their predictions. For
tion of NaOH. example, in Fig. 8 below, the group provided a prediction that is
not consistent with what they drew, specifically since their
sketch has two lines.
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

f. Explanation of graphical sketch

The expected correct response is that as NaOH is added to the
acid, OH ions from the base react with H+ ions from the acid. At
the same time, H+ ions are replaced by Na+(aq) ions from the
base. The decrease in conductivity is due to the slower move-
ment of the electric field by Na+ ions which replace faster moving
H+(aq) ions. At the equivalence point, a solution of sodium
chloride is formed. Beyond the equivalence point, as more base
is added (excess NaOH), more Na+(aq) ions and OH (aq) ions
Fig. 6 Sketch showing zero conductivity at the end point. lead to increased conductivity, hence the rise in conductivity
beyond the end point. Since none of the groups provided a
correct prediction, and therefore correct sketch, none of the
conduct current. It also raises the question of whether students explanations were considered correct, even though most groups’
missed or did not take into account the implication of the explanations were consistent with their sketches. For example,
explicit statement that sodium hydroxide is added in excess. one group that provided the sketch in Fig. 9 below had the
The drawing also points to a potential for confusion from following conversation as they formulated an explanation:
the terms ‘end point’. The students wrote the statement ‘no S1: Okay so (silence while the student draws)
more H+ ions’, which is true in this context. Their statement S2: Is that how you draw it

Fig. 7 Sketches indicating errors in labelling or missing a label.

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 517
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

Fig. 8 A sketch that is inconsistent with a prediction.

In drawing their sketch, this group labeled their axes

correctly. Looking at the conversation in the transcript,
students in the group invoked vocabulary, such as ‘conductive’,
‘instantaneous’, ‘cation’ and ‘anion’, ‘dissociated’ and ‘saturated’.
However, there are problems with how they use the terms. The
acid and base are already dissociated, a fact that the students
do not seem to realize. Student 2 refers to ‘chlorine’ anion,
which is technically incorrect. The use of the term ‘saturated’ is
not relevant for this context. In the transcript, as the group
grapples with whether the reaction starts when the base is
added to the acid, they seem to imply that solid sodium
chloride is formed, dissolves and then dissociates. Student 4
Fig. 9 Sketch of trend in electrical conductivity from one of the groups. (S4) talks about the time it takes to dissolve, finally saying that
it would ‘probably’ be already dissociated, finally deciding that
it is instantaneous. Their explanation of the trend in electrical
S3: Yea I think that is probably how it should look. It should get conductivity does not make any reference to H+ and OH ions.
less conductive and then more conductive because it would take a Instead, this group says that current would plateau off since
little bit before the reaction actually starts taking place, right? ions are added constantly. A major error, showing a lack of
S1: Probably understanding of the nature of aqueous solutions is the fact
S4: I think you are not talking about the reaction. Like the that their sketch shows an initial current of zero. It is interesting
dissociation occurs instantaneously. I mean I think it does. Aside to note how often students interrupted each other during their
from the time it takes to dissolve. Well that is it. It is instantaneous. conversation, so that in some statements, some students did not
In fact, it is already dissociated probably get a chance to present their ideas. For example, student 2 (S2)
S2: Yes but if it would have dissociated, you would have the two was interrupted by students 3 and 4 (S3 and S4) in the transcript.
ions. Sodium as a cation and chlorine as an anion, you should still From the transcript, students in this group did not reach
be able to have consensus in some ideas. This may be attributed to the fact that
S3: Yea yea students in this study had not been explicitly instructed on how
S2: So I don’t think your DC will ever go down. to carry out a group discussion.
S3: Yea I don’t think it will ever go down In another group, the explanation provided for their sketch
S2: So it will just go maybe more was that ‘‘as the reactants ionize and dissolve in the solution,
S1: So it will go up maybe it plateaus or maybe it does not I the conductivity will increase. When excess NaOH is added, the
don’t know solution would become more basic, which will in turn increase
S2: So what if conductivity’’. In this response students do not realize that the
S4: I found a graph that says as you add it conductivity goes reactants are already ionized. It is not clear whether the group
down (this student probably tried to google the answer). is implying that ionization leads to dissolving. In addition to
S2: It is the same. Conductivity goes down but then once you continue a lack of understanding of particulate level interactions in
to add more NaOH to the solution, when it is saturated, conductivity the acid–base reaction, and its implications on conductivity,
goes back up. It plateaus because ions are added constantly. students in this group do not realize that the acid and base are

518 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

already ionized. They also do not seem to realize that when the such as sodium hydroxide. Even though this might look to be a
acid and base react, new products are formed, so that the acid simple exercise, writing the correct formula requires an integrated
and base are not dissolving in the solution. The last statement, understanding of a number of ideas (Sheppard, 2006). Such ideas
though accurate, seems to imply that the increased conductivity in this case include knowing the formula of an element or ion
is due to the ‘solution’ becoming more basic in its literal sense. (such as Na, Na+ and OH ) and how to determine the formulas
Even for groups that predicted and drew a sketch indicating using this information, especially if these formulas have not been
decreasing electrical conductivity, the explanations for their memorized. Besides knowing the formulas, students had to also
sketches were not correct. For example, one of the groups know the products of the acid–base reaction.
explained their sketch, saying that ‘‘because the base would This study uncovered many instances where students used
balance out the acid and keep it at a constant electrical ampage’’. language inappropriately. For example, using an ‘equilibrium’
In addition to the explanation being inconsistent with their sign in the acid–base reaction equation is incorrect, especially
drawing, this group’s response does not account for the initial given that the reaction involves a strong acid and a strong base.
trend of decreasing conductivity that they sketched. Another In one of the transcripts provided above, where students are
group whose sketch indicated decreasing conductivity noted that reasoning about their sketch, they invoke the term ‘saturation’
‘‘the graph reaches the end point at equilibrium’’. The explanation or ‘saturated’, which is not relevant in the context of the acid–
makes no reference to the neutralization reaction and its con- base reaction here. Knowing the relevant terminology is there-
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

nection to the trend in conductivity. Also, the reaction involving fore not sufficient if students do not use the vocabulary in
a strong acid and a strong base does not involve an equilibrium. appropriate ways.
This group also seems to explain the shape of the graph, as This study also highlights the inconsistency and potential
opposed to the trend they depicted, possibly because they did for confusion in how language is used in chemistry. In this
not interpret the question as intended. study, specifically in writing the equations, one runs into
language issues, particularly the meaning of the (aq) symbol.
This symbol means ‘hydrated’ or ‘in solution’. A species in the
Discussion and conclusion aqueous state (hydrated) is expected to be surrounded by water
molecules. With this in mind, one might interpret NaOH(aq) to
This study probed students’ conceptual understanding of aspects mean NaOH surrounded by water molecules. However, there is
of acid–base chemistry, and language fluency in the context of no NaOH in the reaction mixture, but rather Na+(aq) and
acid–base, neutralization. Specifically, the language fluency OH (aq) ions. It is not clear if the confusion is the reason
aspect pertains to students’ ability to translate text to symbols, students drew NaOH instead of the constituent Na+ and OH
their understanding and use of vocabulary, such as neutraliza- ions in question ‘b’ above where they were asked to provide a
tion, ionic equations, conductivity, and end-point of a reaction. drawing of the species taking part in the reaction.
The exercise also probed students’ fluency in representing infor- This study confirmed findings from past research that a lack
mation in multiple formats, such as text and symbolic represen- of conceptual understanding often underlies struggles with
tations, like a graphical sketch. From writing the equation of the language fluency (e.g. Lewis and Lewis, 2007, 2008). For example,
reaction, to sketching a graph of their predicted trend of electrical not knowing that an acid–base reaction (as in the scenario
conductivity, students demonstrated their understanding of the provided) forms a salt and water meant students would not
symbolic language. Since students dialogued in their groups, they predict the right products. Not understanding that a neutraliza-
were expected to use relevant academic language. From the tion reaction at the core involves a reaction between H+ ions and
results above, students were not fluent in using the academic OH ions underlies student’s inability to provide the correct net
language relevant to this activity. Their use of language in their ionic equation, or make the right prediction of electrical con-
groups also shed light on their conceptual understanding, which ductivity, which would lead to an appropriate sketch and correct
as seen above, is shaky. explanation for the trend in electrical conductivity. A lack of
Translating text to symbols demonstrates students’ facility understanding of the particulate level interactions is also partly
with the language of chemistry, to take information in text responsible for students who provided sketches with a current of
format and translate it into symbols. While most groups in this zero, as they did not realize that the acid has ions which will
study were successful at writing equations with the right conduct current initially.
formulas, most students did not provide state symbols, which Most students in this study were not fluent at using multiple
communicate important information such as the solubility of representations to depict phenomena. Students were asked to
reactants or products, and are an important part of the lan- write an equation of the reaction, draw particulate level repre-
guage of chemistry. Past research has shown that students are sentations of the reaction, write a net ionic equation of the
not successful at identifying acids and bases from an equation reaction, and sketch a graph of their predictions. One danger of
of an acid–base reaction (Sheppard, 2006). In this study, some students having limited understanding of multiple representa-
of participants were not able to write formulas from text, tions of phenomena as shown in this study is the likelihood
especially the formulas of water and sodium hydroxide. In of struggling in other topics in chemistry or with upper
chemistry, students are either expected to ‘know’ the formula level chemistry courses, especially related to acids and bases
of a compound by memory, or determine it from the name, (Bhattacharyya and Bodner, 2005).

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 519
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

A major goal of science instruction and learning is to equip equations from statements, it is important to explicitly point to
students with problem solving skills (Graulich, 2015). Transfer, students how words translate to symbols. For example, in
an aspect of problem solving, requires one to apply ideas addition to writing the formula of a reactant or product, it is
learned in one context to an unfamiliar setting or context. In important to explicitly point out the meaning of terms such as
this study, students were assigned an activity based on acids aqueous solution, and how that is presented in an equation of
and bases, requiring students to apply their knowledge of acid– a reaction.
base titrations to conductometry. From the results, students in Results from this study highlight an important area and goal
the general chemistry (II) course were not successful in many of science education, where students are expected to apply
aspects of the exercise. The results show a lack of conceptual disciplinary knowledge in multiple contexts (Graulich, 2015).
understanding on a very fundamental topic in chemistry. Given We also highlight the use of collaborative cooperative learning,
that the participants had encountered ideas of acids and bases, where students solve problems together, learning from each
and conducted titrations as part of their general chemistry (I) other as well as gaining vital skills such as communication and
laboratory experiments, the results show that the students problem solving. As researchers, the approach used in this
failed to transfer that knowledge to the context of conductometry. study can be applied to other fields of science, or used to see
This is most likely caused by a lack of conceptual understanding the extent to which students solve inter-context problems. The
of acid–base neutralization-specifically particulate level interac- results will be of interest to chemistry instructors and science
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

tions (PNM) that lead to neutralization (Nakhleh and Krajcik, education researchers, especially in the context of helping our
1993; Nakhleh, 1994; Sheppard, 2006). students apply ideas across multiple contexts, and researching
It is evident from the transcripts in the results section that the extent to which students are able to accomplish this goal.
students in this study did not always take turns in talking; they Common titration experiments are done using indicators to
often interrupted each other, and at times, when a question was signify the equivalence point, or through the use of a pH meter.
posed in a group by one of the students, it was not always It may be necessary to expose students to methods such as
addressed. It is worth noting that students had not been conductometry, which are not as common, but which will help
explicitly instructed on these aspects of group work. It was students think about phenomena in multiple ways, such as
assumed that they would know how to productively engage in particulate level interactions as they explain observations. It is
group discussions, to give each other time to express their also important to present phenomena in multiple formats. In
ideas, and that when one of their peers asked a question, the addition to recording conductivity data in a table, the same
group would take time help their peer. It is not surprising that data could be plotted to see the trend displayed in a different
these qualities of a good group discussion were lacking in some format.
groups, as seen in the transcripts above. This study highlights one of the challenges to assessing
student understanding, such as handling assessments from
large enrolment classrooms. In the transcripts presented in the
Implications results section above, there are instances where students would
have benefited from immediate feedback in the groups, so that
This study highlights the central nature of language in chem- besides the activity being an assessment, it would also be a
istry. Indeed, in the collaborative discourse/discussions that learning opportunity. While this is a challenge, it is important
occurred in groups, students used language to communicate to recognize the potential of collaborative group activities such
with each other as well as to respond to the questions they were as the one reported here to develop language skills in students.
asked. Engaging students in collaborative discourse, as shown As students discuss in their groups, they get a chance to teach
here gives them a chance to use the language of chemistry, as and learn from each other. One way we have addressed this
well as giving instructors a window into both their fluency with challenge is through the use of student learning or teaching
the language, as well as conceptual understanding of particular assistants, so that there are more of us in the classroom. As we
chemistry concepts. Opportunities for students to use multiple go around the classroom, we listen in on group discussions,
representations and the academic language of chemistry, answer clarifying questions, and if necessary provide feedback
are necessary in order to help students become fluent in the to students such as in the use of academic language.
language of chemistry, as well as to deepen their conceptual Given the link between conceptual understanding and
understanding. language fluency demonstrated by this and other past studies,
Often, during instruction, students are exposed to both an important implication of this study is that in addition to
content and ‘academic’ language at the same time, a factor assessing for conceptual understanding, we need to find ways
that can make learning challenging (Brown and Ryoo, 2008). to assess language fluency, especially through ‘talk’. Also, if our
It is important to not assume that students will implicitly students have to become fluent in the ‘academic’ language of
understand the language we use in our lessons. Instead, as chemistry, we have to provide opportunities for students to
an example, it is necessary to take time and explicitly point out practice using the language. As noted above, we have to assess
and/or model to students how to switch from one language student fluency in language alongside content, and provide
form to another, such as going from equations to text or from feedback. In the process, we have to explicitly instruct our
text to equations as in this study. In an exercise in writing students on best practices of group work, such as taking turns,

520 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016
 View Article Online

Chemistry Education Research and Practice Paper

addressing each other’s questions, and arriving at shared Yerrick R. and Roth W.-M. (ed.) Establishing scientific
understanding through consensus. classroom discourse communities: multiple voices of teaching
and learning research, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, pp. 19–37.
Gilbert A. and Yerrick R., (2001), Same school, separate worlds:
References
A sociocultural study of identity, resistance, and negotiation
Beck I. L., McKeown M. G. and Kucan L., (2002), Bringing words in a rural, lower track science classroom, J. Res. Sci. Teach.,
to life: robust vocabulary instruction, New York: Guilford 38, 574–598.
Press. Graulich N., (2015), Intuitive Judgments Govern Students’
Bhattacharyya G. and Bodner G. M., (2005), ‘It gets me to the Answering Patterns in Multiple-Choice Exercises in Organic
product’: how students propose organic mechanisms, Chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 92(2), 205–211.
J. Chem. Educ., 82, 1402–1407. Hand B. and Treagust D. F., (1991), Student achievement and
Brown B., (2004), Discursive identity: assimilation into the science curriculum development using a constructivist fra-
culture of science and its implications for minority students, mework, Sch. Sci. Math., 91, 172–176.
J. Res. Sci. Teach., 41(8), 810–834. Hawkes S. J., (1992), Arrhenius confuses students, J. Chem.
Brown B. A., (2013), The language-identity dilemma: an examina- Educ., 69, 542–543.
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

tion of language, cognition, identity, and their associated Hodson D. and Hodson J., (1998), From constructivism to social
implications for learning, in Bianchini J. A., Akerson V. L.. constructivism: a Vygotskian perspective on teaching and
Brown A. B. and Ryoo K., (2008), Teaching Science as a learning science, Sch. Sci. Rev., 79(289), 33–41.
Language: A content-First Approach to Science Teaching, Huang W. C., (2004), The types and causes of misconceptions of
J. Coll. Sci. Teach., 45(5), 529–553. elementary students on acids–bases, Annual Report to the
Brown B. and Spang E., (2008), Double talk: synthesizing every- National Science Council in Taiwan (in Chinese), Taiwan:
day and science language in the classroom, Sci. Educ., 92, National Science Council.
708–732. Jasien P. G., (2010), You said ‘‘neutral’’, but what do you mean?
Cassels J. R. T. and Johnstone A. H., (1984), The Effect of J. Chem. Educ., 87(1), 33–34.
Language on Students Performance on Multiple Choice Test Jasien P. G., (2011), What do you mean that ‘‘strong’’ doesn’t
in Chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 61(7), 613–615. mean ‘‘powerful’’? J. Chem. Educ., 88, 1247–1249.
Chiu M.-H., (2004), An investigation of exploring mental models Johnstone A. H., (1991), Why is science difficult to learn?
and causes of secondary school students’ misconceptions in Things are seldom what they seem, J. Comput. Assist. Learn.,
acids-bases, particle theory, and chemical equilibrium, Annual 7, 75–83.
report to the National Science Council in Taiwan, Taiwan: Johnstone A. H., (1993), The development of chemistry
National Science Council. teaching: a changing response to changing demand,
Cohen L., Manion L. and Morrison K., (2011), Research methods J. Chem. Educ., 70, 701–705.
in education, 7th edn, London: Routledge. Johnstone A. H., (2000), Teaching of chemistry—logical or
Demerouti M., Kousathana M. and Tsaparlis G., (2004), psychological? Chem. Educ.: Res. Pract. Eur.,, 1, 9–15.
Acid–base equilibria, part I. upper secondary students’ Johnstone A. H. and Selepeng D., (2001), A Language Problem
misconceptions and difficulties, Chem. Educ., 9, 122–131. Re-visited, Chem. Educ.: Res. Pract. Eur., 2(1), 19–29.
Demircioglu G., Ayas A. and Demircioglu H., (2005), Conceptual Kala N., Yaman F. and Ayas A., (2013), The effectiveness of
change achieved through a new teaching program on acids Predict-Observe-Explain technique in probing students’
and bases, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 6(1), 35–51. understanding about acid–base chemistry: a case for the
de Vos W. and Pilot A., (2001), Acids and bases in layers: the concepts of pH, pOH and strength, Int. J. Sci. Math. Educ.,
stratal structure of an ancient topic, J. Chem. Educ., 78(4), 11(1), 555–574.
494–499. Lee O., (2001), Culture and language in science education: what
Dumon A. and Laugier A., (2004), The equation of a reaction: a do we know and what do we need to know? J. Res. Sci. Teach.,
cluster of obstacles which are difficult to overcome, Chem. 38, 499–501.
Educ. Res. Pract., 5(3), 327–342. Lewis S. E. and Lewis J. E., (2007), Predicting at-risk students in
Duschl R. A., Schweingruber H. A. and Shouse A. W., (2007), general chemistry: comparing formal thought to a general
Taking science to school: learning and teaching science in achievement measure, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 8, 32–51.
grades K-8, Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Lewis S. E. and Lewis J. E., (2008), Seeking effectiveness and
Fang Z., (2005), Scientific Literacy: A Systemic Functional equity in a large college chemistry course: an HLM investiga-
Linguistics Perspective, Sci. Educ., 89, 335–347. tion of peer-led guided inquiry, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 45,794–811.
Gabel D., (1999), Improving teaching and learning through Lin J.-W. and Chiu M.-H., (2007), Exploring the characteristics
chemistry education research: a look to the future, and diverse sources of students’ mental models of acids and
J. Chem. Educ., 76, 548–554. bases, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 29, 771–803.
Gee J., (2005), Language in the science classroom: academic Markic S., Broggy J. and Childs P., (2013), How to deal with
social languages as the heart of school-based literacy, in linguistic issues in chemistry classes, in Eilks, I and

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 | 521
 View Article Online

Paper Chemistry Education Research and Practice

Hofstein A. (ed.) Teaching Chemistry-A studybook. A practical Smith K. J. and Metz P. A., (1994), Evaluating Student Under-
guide for student teachers, teacher trainees and teachers, standing of Solution Chemistry through Microscopic Repre-
Boston: Sense Publishers, pp. 127–152. sentations, J. Chem. Educ., 73(3), 233–235.
McClary L. M. and Bretz S. L., (2012), Development and Snow C. E., (2010), Academic language and the challenge of
Assessment of A Diagnostic Tool to Identify Organic Chem- reading for learning about science, Science, 328(23),
istry Students’ Alternative Conceptions Related to Acid 450–452.
Strength, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 34(15), 2317–2341. Song Y. and Carheden S., (2014), Dual meaning vocabulary
Nakhleh M. B., (1990), A study of students’ thought processes (DMV) words in learning chemistry, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.,
and understanding of acid/base concepts during the perfor- 15, 128–141.
mance of instrument-based titrations, PhD Thesis, Univer- Suits J., Kunze S. and Diack M., (2005), Use of Microcomputer-
sity of Maryland, Maryland. Based Laboratory Experiments to Integrate Multiple Repre-
Nakhleh M. B., (1994), Students’ models of matter in the sentations of Scientific Phenomena, in Kommers P. and
context of acid–base chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 71, 495–499. Richards G. (ed.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educa-
Nakhleh M. B. and Krajcik J. S., (1993), A protocol analysis of the tional Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2005,
influence of technology on students’ actions, verbal commentary, AACE: Chesapeake, VA, pp. 1924–1931.
and thought processes during the performance of acid–base Taber K. S., (2013), Revisiting the chemistry triplet: drawing
Published on 09 June 2016. Downloaded on 13/10/2016 14:01:46.

titrations, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 30, 1149–1168. upon the nature of chemical knowledge and the psychology
Norris S. P. and Phillips L. M., (2003), How literacy in its of learning to inform chemistry education, Chem. Educ. Res.
fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Sci. Educ., Pract., 14(2), 156–168.
87, 224–240. Talanquer V., (2011), Macro, submicro, and symbolic: the
Nyachwaya J. M., Warfa A. M., Roehrig G. and Schneider J. L., many faces of the chemistry triplet, Int. J. Sci. Educ.,
(2014), College chemistry students’ use of memorized algo- 33(2),179–195.
rithms in chemical reactions, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 15, 81–93. Varelas M., Becker J., Luster B. and Wenzel S., (2002), When
Romaizah S., (2009), Brunei primary pupils’ ideas of water genres meet: inquiry into a sixth grade urban science class,
cycle: effects of culture and language, Jur. Pend., 14, 70–80. J. Res. Sci. Teach., 39(7), 579–605.
Schmidt H. J., (1991), A label as a hidden persuader: chemists’ Watters D. J. and Watters J. J., (2006), Student understanding of
neutralization concept, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 13, 459–472. pH, Biochem. Mol. Biol. Educ., 34, 278–284.
Schmidt H.-J., (1995), Applying the concept of conjugation to Wellington J. and Osborne J., (2001), Language and literacy and
the Brønsted theory of acid–base reactions by senior high science education, Buckingham, England: Open University
school students from Germany, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 17, 733–741. Press.
Schmidt H.-J., (1997), Students’ misconceptions - looking for a Yager R. E., (1983), The Importance of terminology in teaching
pattern, Sci. Educ., 81, 123–135. K-12 science, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 20(6), 577–588.
Sheppard K., (2006), High School Students’ Understanding of Yong B. C. S., (2003), Language problems in the learning of
Titrations and Related Acid-Base Phenomena. Chem. Educ. biology through the medium of English, J. Appl. Res. Educ.,
Res. Pract., 7(1), 32–45. 7(1), 97–104.

522 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 509--522 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016