electronics

Article
Machine-Learning-Based IoT–Edge Computing Healthcare Solutions
Abdulrahman K. Alnaim 1, * and Ahmed M. Alwakeel 2,3

1 Department of Management Information Systems, School of Business, King Faisal University,

Al Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
2 Faculty of Computers & Information Technology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
3 Sensor Network and Cellular Systems Research Center, University of Tabuk, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The data that medical sensors collect can be overwhelming, making it challenging to glean
the most relevant insights. An algorithm for a body sensor network is needed for the purpose of
spotting outliers in the collected data. Methods of machine learning and statistical sampling can
be used in the research process. Real-time response optimization is a growing field, as more and
more computationally intensive tasks are offloaded to the backend. Optimizing data transfers is
a topic of study. Computing power is dispersed across many domains. Computation will become
a network bottleneck as more and more devices gain Internet-of-Things capabilities. It is crucial
to employ both task-level parallelism and distributed computing. To avoid running down the
battery, the typical solution is to send the processing to a server in the background. The widespread
deployment of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices has raised serious privacy and security concerns
among people everywhere. The rapid expansion of cyber threats has rendered our current privacy and
security measures inadequate. Machine learning (ML) methods are gaining popularity because of the
reliability of the results that they produce, which can be used to anticipate and detect vulnerabilities
in Internet-of-Things-based systems. Network response times are improved by edge computing,
which also increases decentralization and security. Edge nodes, which frequently communicate
with the cloud, can now handle a sizable portion of mission-critical computation. Real-time, highly
efficient solutions are possible with the help of this technology. To this end, we use a distributed-edge-
computing-based Internet-of-Things (IoT) framework to investigate how cloud and edge computing
can be combined with ML. IoT devices with sensor frameworks can collect massive amounts of data
Citation: Alnaim, A.K.; Alwakeel, A.M.
for subsequent analysis. The front-end component can benefit from some forethought in determining
Machine-Learning-Based IoT–Edge
Computing Healthcare Solutions.
what information is most crucial. To accomplish this, an IoT server in the background can offer advice
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027. https:// and direction. The idea is to use machine learning in the backend servers to find data signatures of
doi.org/10.3390/electronics12041027 interest. We intend to use the following ideas in the medical field as a case study. Using a distributed-
edge-computing-based Internet-of-Things (IoT) framework, we are investigating how to combine the
Academic Editors: Samaneh
strengths of both cloud and edge computing with those of machine learning.
Madanian, Julie Dugdale and
Mahyar T. Moghaddam
Keywords: ML; edge computing; IoT; cloud computing
Received: 17 December 2022
Revised: 11 February 2023
Accepted: 15 February 2023
Published: 18 February 2023 1. Introduction
The term “Internet of Things” (IoT) refers to a network infrastructure in which dis-
parate computing devices can communicate with one another, facilitating the collection
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
and exchange of data without requiring human intervention. IoT is a relatively new field
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of study that promises to usher in a plethora of technological advances. Many fields have
This article is an open access article benefited greatly from the innovations made possible by this technology. The Internet of
distributed under the terms and Medical Things (IoMT) is a growing subset of IoT that has found widespread use in the
conditions of the Creative Commons healthcare industry [1–5].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Implanted medical devices (IMDs) and wearable devices are two examples of the kinds
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ of IoT applications that can be used in a healthcare system based on the Internet of Things
4.0/). to help doctors and patients receive the best possible care. There are clear advantages

Electronics 2023, 12, 1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12041027 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 2 of 16

to remote patient monitoring, as shown by studies. Through the use of this technology,
non-critical patients can be monitored remotely, relieving stress on medical personnel and
hospital resources [6–9].
Such a system enables the medical team to keep tabs on the health of their patients no
matter where they happen to be located and allows elderly patients the freedom to remain
in the comfort of their own homes while still receiving the care they need. Medication plans,
such as those for rehabilitation, diabetes management, and ambient assisted living (AAL),
have benefited from the incorporation of IoMT technology in numerous works [2]. In cases
involving patients with physical injuries, a system has been developed to determine the
most effective medication regimen. By comparing the patient’s case to those already in the
system’s database, the system is able to determine the most effective rehabilitation strategy
and necessary medications. In 87.9% of cases where doctors accepted the generated plan, the
system was highly effective. The treatment of Parkinson’s disease is another medical area
where IoMT technology has been put to use. Incorporating vision-based technology into
medical wearable devices would allow for continuous monitoring of the patient’s physical
state, as well as for the identification of security attacks, such as DDoS attacks [9–14].
The obesity-related disease diabetes has been analyzed elsewhere. Two blood glucose
measurements are needed in this system: one is a fluctuating blood sugar level, and the
other is an inaccurate reading. The system takes these two measurements as inputs and
decides whether to notify the patient directly, the medical staff, or the patient’s loved ones.
Preemptive heart attack detection is another area where the IoMT has found usefulness.
An electrocardiography (ECG) sensor is used to monitor the heart’s electrical activity. This
information is then sent to the patient’s mobile device via a microcontroller for further
analysis. Many people’s lives could be spared with the help of this system by allowing
doctors to intervene before a heart attack even occurs [15–19].
For at-home care of the elderly, a system called SPHERE has been proposed. By
utilizing this system, the elderly are able to remain in the comfort of their own homes,
rather than making frequent trips to the hospital, or even having to stay there. However,
protecting patients’ personal information has emerged as a major concern. With patients’
medical records being transmitted over wireless channels and stored in a database, there
is a greater potential for security breaches. A patient’s privacy and safety could be at
risk if they were to use a piece of technology incorrectly. One of the primary goals of
modern healthcare IT, therefore, is to guarantee the safety of remote patient monitoring
and emergency response.
The main contributions of this study are as follows:
• The design of edge-based computing to collect patients’ data.
• To secure the communication between edge nodes and secure the patient data.
• The application of a new hybrid model to predict and mitigate cyberattacks in a
medical healthcare system consisting of IoT and edge nodes.
• Development of new machine learning algorithms specifically tailored for use on edge
devices with limited resources.
• Investigation of privacy and security concerns surrounding the collection and trans-
mission of personal health data.
• Studies on the effectiveness of IoT–edge-computing-based solutions for improving
patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs.
• The possibility of new IoT devices and sensors for use in healthcare applications.
• Integration of IoT–edge computing with other technologies, such as 5G networks, to
improve data transmission and processing capabilities.
• Comparison of different edge computing architectures (fog computing, cloudlets, etc.)
and their suitability for healthcare applications.
• Investigating the scalability and reliability of IoT–edge-computing-based solutions for
healthcare applications
• Development of models for data fusion and data analytics for healthcare applications.
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 3 of 16

2. Related Work
The field of IoT–edge-computing-based healthcare solutions is relatively new, but it
has been growing rapidly in recent years. The key drivers behind this growth include
the increasing availability of low-cost IoT devices, advancements in machine learning and
edge computing technologies, and the need for more cost-effective and efficient healthcare
delivery [20–24].
One of the earliest research topics in this area focused on the use of wireless sensor
networks (WSNs) for remote monitoring of patients with chronic conditions, such as
diabetes and heart disease. These studies demonstrated the feasibility of using WSNs to
collect and transmit patient data, but they also highlighted the need for more advanced
data processing and analysis capabilities at the edge [25–28].
More recent research has focused on the development of new machine learning al-
gorithms specifically tailored for use on edge devices, as well as the integration of edge
computing with other technologies, such as 5G networks. There have also been a number
of studies investigating the privacy and security concerns associated with the collection
and transmission of personal health data.
Research has also been carried out on the effectiveness of IoT–edge-computing-based
solutions for improving patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs. These studies
have shown that these solutions can lead to improved patient outcomes and reduced
healthcare costs.
In addition, there has been a growing interest in developing new IoT devices and sen-
sors for use in healthcare applications, as well as the exploration of different edge computing
architectures (fog computing, cloudlets, etc.) and their suitability for healthcare applications.
Overall, the research background on IoT–edge-computing-based healthcare solutions
is still developing, and there are a lot of areas to be explored.
Edge computing is a rapidly expanding trend in the computing industry. In numerous
traditional applications, distributed cloud computing is used at the edge to complete tasks.
The system is more complicated than cloud computing because of constraints on resources,
transmission efficiency, functionality, and other edge-network-based considerations. When
edge devices work together, an inherently unstable state emerges. In this research area,
Raj et al. [29] presented a novel framework for optimizing cooperative networks at the
network’s periphery. In addition, the collaboration of edge nodes can be optimized to boost
performance on specific activities. In order to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed
architecture, real datasets collected from the elderly and their wearable sensors are em-
ployed. Extensive experimentation is also helpful in verifying the effectiveness of the given
optimization algorithm.
Using deep learning to sift through massive amounts of raw sensor data from IoT
devices in real-world settings holds great promise. Deep learning is well suited for applica-
tion at the edge of the network because of its modular design. Conventional models of edge
computing are inflexible. IoT–edge computing benefits from a more adaptable architectural
design. The proposed approach integrates many agents and a versatile edge computing
architecture for deep learning at the edge. Due to the low processing power of current
edge nodes, researchers [30] have also developed a unique offloading approach to boost
the efficiency of deep learning applications deployed on the edge. Flexible and advanced,
the FEC architecture is a concept for Internet-of-Things systems that can adapt to different
settings and focus on the needs of individual users. The performance of deep learning
tasks executed in the FEC architecture for edge computing environments was evaluated.
Analyses of the data demonstrate that, compared to other optimization strategies for deep
learning for IoT, our strategy is the most effective.
Emerging ICT technologies such as wearables, the Internet of Things, and edge com-
puting are rapidly transforming healthcare into digital health. Consumer gadgets such
as smart, wearable fitness watches are also becoming increasingly popular as a means
of tracking one’s health and fitness. Despite these developments, the healthcare system
has not yet made full use of these devices’ potential to capture longitudinal behavioral
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 4 of 16

patterns. User-generated data from such devices could form part of a more comprehensive
and preventative healthcare solution if they could be collected without compromising
an individual’s privacy. A previous paper [31] proposed an edge-assisted data analytics
framework that makes use of federated learning to retrain local machine learning models
with user-generated data. This approach has the potential to utilize pretrained models to
derive user-specific insights without compromising confidentiality or cloud infrastructure.
We also highlight research issues that might be investigated further within the proposed
framework, and indicate some possible application scenarios.
For effective and equitable resource allocation, such as electricity and battery life, in
IoT-based industrial applications, edge computing has surpassed cloud computing. This
is due to several factors, including the former’s processing complexity and the latter’s
additional latency. Meanwhile, the use of AI for efficient and precise resource management
has gained widespread attention, particularly in industrial settings. Coordination of AI at
the edge will significantly increase the range and processing speed of IoT-based devices
in industrial settings. However, inappropriate and inefficient conventional trends of fair
resource allotment pose a significant challenge in the context of these power-hungry, short-
battery-life, delay-intolerant portable gadgets. In addition, large-scale industrial datasets
suggest that conventional methods of extending the battery’s life and reducing power
consumption—such as predictive transmission power control (PTPC) and Baseline—are
insufficient for supporting a dynamic wireless channel. To address this issue, [32] presented
a forward central dynamic and availability approach (FCDAA) by adjusting the cycle
time of sensing and transmission operations in mobile devices based on the Internet of
Things. IoT energy dissipation was evaluated using a system-level battery model and data
reliability model for edge AI-based IoT devices in a hybrid TPC/duty-cycle network. To
provide effective monitoring of industrial platforms, two major scenarios were introduced:
static (i.e., product processing) and dynamic (i.e., vibration and defect diagnostics). By
experimentally tweaking the duty cycle and TPC, the suggested FCDAA improves energy
efficiency and battery longevity, with acceptable reliability (0.95).
Cognitive computing, artificial intelligence, pattern recognition, chatbots, wearables,
and edge-distributed ledgers can all help collect and interpret medical data for decision-
making in the present epidemic. Cognitive computing is especially useful in the medical
field because it can quickly analyze large datasets and provide highly personalized, insight-
ful recommendations to aid in the diagnosis of disease. However, the world is currently
experiencing a pandemic of COVID-19, and early identification is crucial to lowering the
fatality rate. Radiologists can benefit from deep learning (DL) models while looking over
huge datasets of chest X-rays. However, they need a massive quantity of training data,
which must be stored in a single location. So, for DL-based COVID-19 detection, the FL
approach may be utilized to construct a shared model without relying on local data. In their
study, Lydia et al. [33] demonstrated a federated-deep-learning-based COVID-19 (FDL-
COVID) detection model running on an IoT-enabled edge computing platform. First, data
from the patient are collected by the IoT devices, and then a DL model is developed with
the help of the SqueezeNet model. Using the SqueezeNet model, the cloud server receives
the encrypted variables from the IoT devices and conducts FL on the important variables
to generate a global cloud model. Moreover, the hyperparameters of the SqueezeNet archi-
tecture are properly tuned using the glowworm swarm optimization technique. Results
from a variety of studies performed on the benchmark CXR dataset were evaluated on a
number of different metrics. The experimental results demonstrated that the FDL-COVID
method outperformed the others.
Patients today want a healthcare system that is as fast-paced and individualized as
their lives require. Real-time gathering and analysis of health data requires a low-latency,
low-energy environment that may be achieved with the help of 5G speeds and cutting-
edge computing methods. Prior healthcare research has mostly concentrated on novel
fog architecture and sensor types, ignoring the need for optimal computing techniques
such as encryption, authentication, and classification employed on the devices deployed
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 5 of 16

in an edge computing architecture. The primary objective of [2] was to provide a compre-
hensive overview of the state-of-the-art and cutting-edge edge computing architectures
and methodologies for healthcare applications, as well as to outline the specific needs and
difficulties associated with devices for diverse use cases. Most edge computing use cases
revolve around health data categorization, such as heart rate and motion sensor monitoring,
or fall detection. Disease-specific symptom monitoring is performed by other low-latency
applications, such as for gait problems in Parkinson’s disease patients. The authors also
provide a comprehensive analysis of data operations in edge computing, including topics
such as data transfer, encryption, authentication, categorization, reduction, and prediction.
Despite these benefits, edge computing has its own unique set of difficulties, such as the
need for advanced privacy and data reduction techniques to achieve the same level of
performance as cloud-based alternatives while reducing the computational complexity.
Researchers have found potential new areas of study in edge computing for healthcare that
might improve patients’ lives.
Data synchronization prior to cutover and migration is a significant barrier for modern
cloud-based architecture. The requirement for a centralized IoT-based system has been
hindered by the cloud’s limited scalability with regard to security issues. The fundamen-
tal reason for this is that health-related systems such as health monitoring, etc., demand
computational operations on high-volume data, along with the sensitivity of device delay
that has evolved during these systems’ operation. Fog computing is a novel approach to
enhancing cloud computing’s efficiency, since it allows for the utilization of both remote
and onsite resources to best serve customers [34]. There are still several shortcomings in the
current fog computing models that need to be addressed. For example, it is possible to man-
age result accuracy and overestimate reaction time separately, but doing so simultaneously
reduces system compatibility. In order to improve real-world healthcare systems, such as
those dealing with heart disease and other conditions, a new framework called FETCH has
been created. This framework collaborates with edge computing devices to work on deep
learning technology and automated monitoring. The suggested fog-enabled cloud comput-
ing system makes use of FogBus, which exhibits its value in terms of power consumption,
network bandwidth, jitter, latency, process execution time, and the correctness of its results.
Though they are not necessarily connected, cloud computing and the IoT both play
important roles in our daily lives. The combination of these two technologies has the
potential to improve several areas, including medicine, security, assisted living, farming,
and asset monitoring. However, due to network latency issues, cloud computing is not a
good fit for applications that need instantaneous replies. As a result, a new method called
“edge computing” was developed to move processing to the “edge of the network”, where it
may experience lower latency. Real-time answers, battery power, bandwidth costs, and data
security and privacy are only some of the issues that may be addressed by edge computing.
This paper focuses on how edge computing and IoT may be used in the medical industry.
Kumar et al. [35] focused on the potential for incorporating cloud/edge computing and
machine learning paradigms into a distributed-computing-based IoT framework. The goal
is to be able to sift through the massive amounts of data produced by the front-end sensor
frameworks in IoT devices and find the specific pieces of information that are relevant.
Front-end modules can be made smarter so that they can prioritize data on their own. A
backend IoT server can offer advice on how to do this. The proposal is for the backend
server to include machine-learning-based implementations so that it can automatically
learn data signatures of interest from the data it has already received.
Smart healthcare services that are timely, inexpensive, and effective are in high demand
because of the rise in both technology and population. Intelligent approaches to overcoming
the challenges in this area are required to keep up with the rising demands placed on this
vital infrastructure. This is because, unlike conventional cloud- and IoT-based healthcare
systems, edge computing technology may move processes closer to the data sources,
thereby reducing latency and energy usage. In addition, AI’s ability to automate insights in
smart healthcare systems raises the prospect of earlier detection and prediction of high-risk
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 6 of 16

diseases, together with reduced patient healthcare expenditures and improved treatment
efficacy. The authors of [36] aimed to discuss the advantages of using AI and other forms of
edge intelligence in smart healthcare systems. On top of that, the authors proposed a new
smart healthcare paradigm to increase the use of AI and edge technology in healthcare IT.
The report also addresses problems and potential future research avenues brought up by
the combination of these technologies. Table 1 shows the comparative analysis of previous
state-of-the-art studies:

Table 1. Comparative analysis.

References Datasets Techniques Outcome

Real datasets obtained from Edge cooperative network is
Optimization framework is developed
[29] elderly people and their optimized with a
for ECN
wearable sensors novel framework
Combines deep learning into
Outperforms other optimization solutions on
[30] edge computing and flexible
deep learning for IoT
edge computing
Forward central dynamic and FCDAA enhances energy efficiency and
Large-scale available approach, data battery lifetime at acceptable reliability
[32]
industrial datasets reliability model for edge (~0.95) by appropriately tuning the
artificial intelligence duty cycle
Federated-deep-learning-
Federated-deep-
based COVID-19 Enhanced performance of the
[33] learning-based
(FDL-COVID) FDL-COVID technique
COVID-19 dataset
detection model
Current and emerging edge
Comparable performance to
[2] Edge nodes dataset computing architectures
cloud-based counterparts
and techniques
FETCH is a Complex deep learning model to set edge
[34] Edge nodes dataset
proposed framework computing standards
The endpoint IoT device; such a solution can
[35] Edge nodes dataset Edge computing also pull data from the cloud and handle any
offloading that needs to be performed
Smart healthcare systems benefit from edge
Edge technology along with
[36] Edge nodes dataset technology since it lessens the system’s
AI techniques
reliance on the network and its energy usage

3. Materials and Methods

Safe AI-based edge-distributed ledger assistance in the healthcare system is depicted
in Figure 1 below. In addition to the user, wireless network, edge-distributed ledger, trusted
agent, and healthcare server, an expert system is also part of the system. It is possible that
users have been cured of a disease or are infected with a different one. In order to monitor
the patient’s health, they use a number of implanted and external sensors. Smartphones
and other personal digital assistant (PDA) devices can also be used to collect and store
medical data from sensors. An individual can use a personal digital assistant (PDA) to
record their medical history, which can then be encrypted and uploaded on a regular basis
as a block to the edge-distributed ledger. The data, timestamp, and other details from the
preceding block are included in each link here.
Permitted agents come in two varieties: those that validate, and those that record. A
subset of nodes, known as validating agents, ensures that each and every transaction is
legitimate (VA). For a transaction to be included in the edge-distributed ledger, it must
have been verified by the network’s validators. After verification, recording agents save
the data in blocks that can only be accessed by authorized users.
 The network includes separate ledgers kept by the medical staff, the hospital, and
the diagnostic expert system. A diagnostic expert system can be relied upon to make
accurate and informed decisions, just like a human specialist. Prior to the advent of the
encrypted edge-distributed ledger, data analysis was used to detect various diseases.
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027
With the help of sensors implanted in the patient’s body, life-saving medications can be
7 of 16
administered remotely. A schematic depicting the essence of our proposed model is
presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Proposed
Proposed architecture.
architecture.

3.1. Medical Healthcare

The network System
includes separate ledgers kept by the medical staff, the hospital, and the
diagnostic expert system. A diagnostic
There is a dearth of hospitals, expert
medical system and
supplies, can be relied upon
qualified to make
medical accurate
professionals.
and informed decisions, just like a human specialist. Prior to the advent
Lack of universal access to accurate medical diagnosis has resulted in the prematureof the encrypted
edge-distributed ledger, data
deaths of many citizens. analysis was
The proposed used toallows
paradigm detectfor
various diseases. With
the monitoring the help
and diagnosis
of
of sensors implanted
large numbers in the at
of people patient’s body, may
once, which life-saving medications
prove useful can be administered
in addressing such a wide-
remotely. A schematic
spread crisis. Healthcaredepicting theand
facilities essence of our
patients proposed
can model
share data usingis presented
this system.in Patients’
Figure 1.
medical records are managed on the edge-distributed ledger via a distributed database.
3.1. Medical Healthcare System
Data authenticity, confidentiality, and integrity are all protected by the public-key cryp-
There Based
tosystem. is a dearth
on theof patient’s
hospitals,past
medical supplies,
medical andAI
records, qualified medical
recommends professionals.
a specialist, dis-
Lack of universal access to accurate medical diagnosis has resulted in the premature
ease category, and medication. Figure 2 shows the edge-based medical healthcare system deaths
of many citizens. The proposed paradigm allows for the monitoring and diagnosis of
large numbers of people at once, which may prove useful in addressing such a widespread
crisis. Healthcare facilities and patients can share data using this system. Patients’ medical
records are managed on the edge-distributed ledger via a distributed database. Data
authenticity, confidentiality, and integrity are all protected by the public-key cryptosystem.
Based on the patient’s past medical records, AI recommends a specialist, disease category,
and medication. Figure 2 shows the edge-based medical healthcare system.

3.2. Security and Privacy Preservation

The proposed approach uses an identity-based cryptosystem based on the elliptic-
curve cryptosystem in order to protect patient information. The IBC does not need to
verify the recipient’s public key. By comparison, ECC arithmetic is approximately 20 times
more efficient than modular exponentiation. According to RSA’s bit-length comparison, a
1024-bit RSA key is just as secure as a 128-bit ECC key. The unique characteristics of IBC
and ECC can be used to benefit IoT applications in a variety of different ways.

3.3. Proposed Edge-Node-Based Healthcare IoT System

Edge node communication can be classified into two types—in vivo and in vitro—
depending on the location of the radio signal. Individuals in the body domain network
can be identified using a new in vivo communication approach called body-coupled com-
munication. Because most edge node devices are worn on the person, we are referring to
low-power, short-range communication. This might be an example of “external communi-
cation”. Figure 3 shows the proposed edge node sensors–IoT-based system.
 12, 1027
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of 17
16

Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Figure 2. Edge-based medical healthcare system.

3.2. Security and Privacy Preservation

The proposed approach uses an identity-based cryptosystem based on the ellip-
tic-curve cryptosystem in order to protect patient information. The IBC does not need to
verify the recipient’s public key. By comparison, ECC arithmetic is approximately 20
times more efficient than modular exponentiation. According to RSA’s bit-length com-
parison, a 1024-bit RSA key is just as secure as a 128-bit ECC key. The unique character-
istics of IBC and ECC can be used to benefit IoT applications in a variety of different
ways.

3.3. Proposed Edge-Node-Based Healthcare IoT System

Edge node communication can be classified into two types—in vivo and in
vitro—depending on the location of the radio signal. Individuals in the body domain
network can be identified using a new in vivo communication approach called
body-coupled communication. Because most edge node devices are worn on the person,
we are referring to low-power, short-range communication. This might be an example of
“external communication”. Figure 3 shows the proposed edge node sensors–IoT-based
system

Figure 3. Proposed edge node sensors–IoT-based system.

Figure 3. Proposed edge node sensors–IoT-based system.

3.4. Proposed Edge-Distributed Ledger Model

P2P networks are responsible for ensuring that communication between nodes on an
edge-distributed ledger is unlimited. This is necessary given that nodes can be located
anywhere in the world and still have equal access to the application. P2P networks are
also responsible for ensuring that communication between nodes on an edge-distributed
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 9 of 16

3.4. Proposed Edge-Distributed Ledger Model

P2P networks are responsible for ensuring that communication between nodes on an
edge-distributed ledger is unlimited. This is necessary given that nodes can be located
anywhere in the world and still have equal access to the application. P2P networks are
also responsible for ensuring that communication between nodes on an edge-distributed
ledger is unlimited. The peer-to-peer network does not use a centralized server; thus,
every node is both a user and a creator of content at the same time. Establishing and
maintaining connections with other nodes is a necessary step in the routing process, as
is propagating and validating transactions and syncing data blocks. There are numerous
nodes in a network (both transactions and blocks are data structures of the edge-distributed
ledger, as described below). This demonstrates the lack of a central authority and the
flat topology that characterizes P2P networks. APIs (application programming interfaces)
are available in a lot of edge-distributed ledger apps. These application programming
interfaces (APIs) make it possible for customers to communicate directly with the service
without respect to the underlying technology.

3.5. Public Edge-Distributed Ledger Technology

We have made use of the technology that allows anyone to join a public edge-
distributed ledger network at any time, and we have found that it is extremely useful. As
a general rule, participation is available to anybody and everybody. As a consequence of
this, everyone will be able to view the ledger and take part in the process of developing
the consensus. One example of a public edge-distributed ledger network that springs
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW to
10 of 17
mind is Ethereum. Since the public edge-distributed ledger is available to anybody and
everybody, there is no one organization that can claim to have complete control over its
development. The ability for new users to join a distributed ledger at any moment is what
possible forwhether
determines users ofora not
public
the edge-distributed
ledger is considered ledger
to beto public.
have equal access tofor
It is possible and in-
users
volvement in the data of the ledger, as well as the ability to create new
of a public edge-distributed ledger to have equal access to and involvement in the data blocks of data. For
thethe
of most part,
ledger, as public
well as edge-distributed
the ability to create ledgers have been
new blocks utilized
of data. For the for the part,
most trading of
public
cryptocurrencies,ledgers
edge-distributed as well haveasbeenfor utilized
the mining of thoseof cryptocurrencies,
for the trading currencies. The as public
well
edge-distributed ledger strategy can serve to alleviate some of the challenges
as for the mining of those currencies. The public edge-distributed ledger strategy can associated
with to
serve data tempering
alleviate somethat
of thearechallenges
present in cloud-based
associated withdata
data storage.
tempering This
thatcan
arebe accom-
present in
plished by centralizing data storage within an edge-distributed ledger.
cloud-based data storage. This can be accomplished by centralizing data storage within Figure 4 showsan
the proposed P2Pledger.
edge-distributed communications.
Figure 4 shows the proposed P2P communications.

Figure 4. Proposed
Figure 4. Proposed P2P
P2P communications.
communications.
3.6. Cloud-Based Edge-Distributed Ledger
3.6. Cloud-Based Edge-distributed ledger
The protection of their data is mostly the responsibility of many businesses’ central
The protection of their data is mostly the responsibility of many businesses’ central
databases. On the other hand, hackers are receiving a growing amount of attention.
databases. On the other hand, hackers are receiving a growing amount of attention. One
One of the most common strategies utilized by cybercriminals to gain access to large
of the most common strategies utilized by cybercriminals to gain access to large amounts
of data is to launch a script assault on a central database. However, distributed ledger
technologies and edge-distributed ledgers offer an additional layer of complexity. A sig-
nificant number of edge-distributed ledger research projects have the objective of en-
hancing the safety of data storage. It is possible that this will be a game-changer for the
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 10 of 16

amounts of data is to launch a script assault on a central database. However, distributed

ledger technologies and edge-distributed ledgers offer an additional layer of complexity.
A significant number of edge-distributed ledger research projects have the objective of
enhancing the safety of data storage. It is possible that this will be a game-changer for
the end user. It is feasible that edge-distributed ledgers will lead to data storage solutions
that are more secure, but that also give people unrestricted access to their own data.
Applications on the cutting edge of the distributed ledger space frequently make use of
the first cryptocurrency. Users are able to make money from the data of third parties,
which can help them avoid identity theft and other problems caused by recent large-scale
data breaches. Digital signatures offer two benefits to the transactions that take place on
edge-distributed ledgers: message integrity, and non-repudiation. A system for storing
data in the cloud that uses a distributed ledger at the edge is best suited for use with lesser
amounts of data. After that, an additional layer of security is dispatched throughout the
network. This is made feasible by the use of a hash algorithm, encryption using public and
private keys, and transaction logs. The storage of distributed ledgers at the edge has the
potential to be an alternative to cloud storage that is less expensive, more secure, and more
dependable. In order to guarantee the safety of the data, suppliers of centralized cloud
storage create multiple copies of the information and store them in a wide variety of data
centers. In previous research, the use of cloud storage presented a significant challenge due
to the ease with which data might be altered. In contrast, we made use of centralized cloud
storage for this analysis. Cloud storage firms ensure the safety of customers’ information
by making numerous backup copies of it and storing them in a wide variety of data centers.

3.7. Privacy Preservation Strategy

RSA, Blowfish, and the Advanced Encryption Standard are the three primary al-
gorithms that are used in cryptography. In this study, we present a hybrid method for
protecting privacy that is composed of all three of these algorithms. In order to protect sen-
sitive information, edge node networks (EDGE NODEs) make use of a number of different
encryption algorithms. However, the development of more advanced and cutting-edge
technologies is rendering these previously utilized methods outdated. The amount of time
needed to gain access to a cryptographic system has been drastically cut down thanks
to advancements in hardware. The present systems have been weakened as a result of a
variety of attacks.
These systems are now significantly more susceptible to being cracked by cryptogra-
phers as a result of cryptanalysis and other specialized mathematical attacks. Another risk
that modern systems are exposed to is one related to key security. Existing solutions suffer
from significant shortcomings in terms of both the storage and transfer of sensitive keys.
Another essential part of protecting sensitive data is making certain that their functioning is
not hindered in any way. Encryption algorithms typically use longer key lengths in order to
provide higher degrees of security; however, this might negatively impact the performance
of the system.
A standalone cryptosystem with a single layer of encryption can occasionally have
trade-offs that could result in data leakage and also reduce the level of key protection.
A system that operates in isolation is susceptible to a variety of weaknesses, which can
frequently compromise the data’s safety. Sometimes, the performance and speed of inde-
pendent systems are compromised because of the many problems that can arise from using
them. As a result, there is an ever-increasing demand for a system that can circumvent
the performance-versus-security trade-offs that are inherent to the usage of cryptographic
algorithms individually.
There are several examples of real-world applications of IoT–edge-computing-based
healthcare solutions:
Remote monitoring of patients with chronic conditions: Wearable devices such as
smartwatches and fitness trackers can be used to collect data on a patient’s vital signs, such
as heart rate, blood pressure, and activity level. These data are sent to an edge computing
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 11 of 16

device for real-time analysis, which can be used to identify patterns or anomalies that could
indicate a change in the patient’s condition.
Real-time drug dosing: Edge computing devices with machine learning capabilities
can be used to adjust the dosage of drugs in real time based on the patient’s vital signs.
This can help to prevent drug overdose and improve patient outcomes.
In-home care: IoT-enabled devices such as cameras and sensors can be used to monitor
patients in their homes, allowing healthcare providers to check in on them remotely.
Operating rooms: IoT-enabled devices can monitor patients’ vital signs during surgery,
and edge computing devices can analyze the data in real time to alert the surgical team to
any changes in the patient’s condition.
Assisted-living facilities: IoT sensors can monitor the movement of elderly patients in
assisted-living facilities and alert staff if there is a fall or other emergency.
In general, IoT–edge-computing-based healthcare solutions have the potential to
improve patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs by enabling real-time monitoring
and analysis of vital signs, providing more accurate and timely interventions, and allowing
patients to be monitored remotely.

4. Results
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW We were particularly concerned about the amount of power that would 12 ofbe
17needed for
the calculation of messages and their transmission across edge node networks as a result
of the utilization of distributed ledgers at the edge to safeguard patient data. In order to
guarantee
order the system’s
to guarantee safety,
the system’s we relied
safety, on on
we relied models based
models basedon
onmachine learningtoto fulfil the
machine learning
fulfil the requirement
requirement of early
of early detection.
detection.

4.1. Communication
4.1. vs. Security
Communication Level Level
vs. Security in Edge
inNodes
Edge Nodes
Signcryption
Signcryption adds a large
adds amount
a large of communication
amount overhead.
of communication The transmission
overhead. The transmission
overhead
overhead is primarily determined
is primarily by thebysigned
determined message’s
the signed size. In size.
message’s a traditional EDGE
In a traditional EDGE
NODE, each user simply needs two bytes. Figure 5 depicts the cost of communication
NODE, each user simply needs two bytes. Figure 5 depicts the cost of communica-
and the level of security. As the level of security increases, so does the amount of com-
tion and the level of security. As the level of security increases, so does the amount
munication required.
of communication required.

Figure
Figure 5. Performance
5. Performance ofproposed
of the the proposed
systemsystem in communication.
in communication.

4.2.
4.2. Edge-Distributed
Edge-Distributed Ledger
Ledger Performance
Performance
InIn this
this subsection,
subsection, we tested
we tested the planned
the planned EDGE EDGE
NODE NODE
platformplatform with its distributed
with its distributed
ledger activated to ensure its performance. One ordered node and
ledger activated to ensure its performance. One ordered node and four peer nodes four peer nodes were
were
usedtototest
used testthe
theedge-distributed
edge-distributed ledger
ledger network’s
network’s efficiency.
efficiency. It was
It was determined
determined howhow many
datadata
many could be sent
could per
be sent second
per second(TPS)
(TPS) using theproposed
using the proposed EDGE
EDGE NODE
NODE technology after
technology
after experimenting with different send rates. There are many ways in which throughput
can be broken down. A consensus was reached on the definition of transaction
throughput as the sum of all edge-distributed ledger transactions processed in the time
allotted. The amount of reading performed by nodes on the periphery of the distributed
ledger networks was counted using readthrough during the specified time period.
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 12 of 16

experimenting with different send rates. There are many ways in which throughput can be
broken down. A consensus was reached on the definition of transaction throughput as the
sum of all edge-distributed ledger transactions processed in the time allotted. The amount
of reading performed by nodes on the periphery of the distributed ledger networks was
counted using readthrough during the specified time period. Transaction-read throughput
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
variations were calculated using different TPS transmission and random machine utilization
13 of 17
settings. Figure 5 depicts the entire transaction being read, and Figure 6 depicts the same
Electronics 2023, 12,thing being
x FOR PEER done. In Figure 7, we can see the total number of committed blocks from
REVIEW 13 of 17
concurrent transactions. Figure 8 displays the average throughput of the proposed edge-
distributed ledger per parallel transaction.

Figure 6. Read
Figure6. transaction
ReadFigure 6. Readthroughput.
transaction throughput.
transaction throughput.

Privacy Systems
Privacy Systems
600
600
508.8
508.8
500
500

400 367
400 367

300
300 231.2
231.2
200
140.53
200 122.6 121.4
140.53
100 122.6 121.4
50.206 53.74450004 55.10561916
34.0260998
23.45880341
100 15.6
50.206 53.74450004 55.10561916
0 34.0260998
23.45880341
15.6
Crypto-system (Blowfish-RSA-AES) Crypto-system (Blowfish) Crypto-system (RSA-AES)
0
Average Encryption Time
Crypto-system (Blowfish-RSA-AES) Average Decryption
Crypto-system Time Average Encryption
(Blowfish) Rate Average
Crypto-system Decryption Rate
(RSA-AES)

Average Encryption Time Average Decryption

Figure Time analysis
7. Performance Average Encryption
of the Rate Average
privacy preservation Decryption Rate
strategy.

Figure 7. Performance analysis of the privacy preservation strategy.

Figure 7. Performance analysis of the privacy preservation strategy.
Electronics 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 13 of 16

Figure 8. Hybrid classification model performance.

Figure 8. Hybrid classification model performance.
4.3. Privacy Preservation
4.3. Privacy Preservation
In this research, we have proposed a hybrid algorithm for privacy preservation con-
In this
sisting research,
of three mainwe have proposed
cryptography a hybrid
algorithms, i.e.,algorithm for privacy
the Advanced preservation
Encryption Standard,
consisting
Blowfish,ofandthree
RSA.main cryptography
Various encryptionalgorithms,
algorithms i.e., the Advanced
are used Encryption
in edge node networksStand-
(EDGE
ard, Blowfish, and RSA. Various encryption algorithms are used in edge
NODEs) to secure data. However, the advent of new and sophisticated technologies is node networks
(EDGE
making NODEs) to securesystems
these existing data. However,
obsolete.the advent of newinand
Advancements sophisticated
hardware technolo-
have significantly
gies is making these existing systems obsolete. Advancements in hardware
reduced the time required to break a cryptographic system. Various kinds of attacks have signifi-
have
cantly
weakened the existing systems. Figure 7 shows the results and performance analysisofofat-
reduced the time required to break a cryptographic system. Various kinds the
tacks havepreservation
privacy weakened the existing systems. Figure 7 shows the results and performance
strategy.
analysis of the privacy preservation strategy.
4.4. Prediction of DDoS Attacks
4.4. Prediction of DDoS
We collected Attacks data and trained a machine learning model to identify at-
transaction
tacks
Weon the edge-node-based
collected transaction dataedge-distributed ledger’slearning
and trained a machine privacymodel
preservation solution
to identify at-
for healthcare.
tacks on the edge-node-based edge-distributed ledger’s privacy preservation solution for
healthcare.
Hybrid Machine Learning Model
HybridEstimators in the field
Machine Learning of machine learning known as hybrid voting classifiers combine
Model
theEstimators
outputs ofinseveral
the fielddifferent baselearning
of machine estimators intoas
known a hybrid
single prediction [14–27].
voting classifiers com-The
aggregated score can be decided by a simple majority of the estimators. By
bine the outputs of several different base estimators into a single prediction [14–27]. The combining
several different
aggregated classification
score can be decided models
by a into
simpleone,majority
the hybrid
of voting classifier By
the estimators. estimator is able
combining
to overcome the limitations of its individual components. Using weights assigned to each
several different classification models into one, the hybrid voting classifier estimator is
class or class likelihood, a hybrid voting classifier can label records with the majority vote.
able to overcome the limitations of its individual components. Using weights assigned to
The ensemble classifier forecast is expressed mathematically as follows:
each class or class likelihood, a hybrid voting classifier can label records with the majority
vote. The ensemble classifier forecast
 is expressed
m mathematically
 as follows:
(max ) ∑ w j X A Ci,j ( x ) = i
y = arg j =1  (1)
(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝑤 𝑋t 𝐶 , (𝑥) = 𝑖
𝑦 = arg (1)
𝑡
where the classifier (Cj) is a variable, and the weight associated with its prediction (wj) is
a constant.
where the classifier (𝐶𝑗) is a variable, and the weight associated with its prediction (𝑤𝑗)
is a constant.
When the model is hybridized with a distributed ledger, it will be formulated as
follows:
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 14 of 16

When the model is hybridized with a distributed ledger, it will be formulated as follows:
 m

(max ) ∑ w j X A Ci,j (ψx ) = i
ψy = arg j =1  (2)
t

Or it can be written as follows:

 
m 
wj XA
 (max ) ∑ Ci,j (σ (h0 w0 + h1 w1 + h2 w2 + · · · + hn wn )) 

ψy = arg j =1
 (3)
=i 
t

The hybrid classifier was used to combine the best features of both models. The
information in y is used by XGB as an input for the logistic regression probability function.
The results of a separate logistic regression investigation showed that a hybrid classifier
significantly improved the accuracy to 99.7%.

5. Conclusions
The amount of data that medical sensors can capture can be overwhelming, which
makes it difficult to extract the information that is most pertinent. It is necessary to have
an algorithm for a body sensor network in order to identify anomalies in the information
that has been gathered. The research process can make use of a variety of methodologies,
including statistical sampling and machine learning. Real-time response optimization is a
field that is expanding as more and more jobs that need a significant amount of compu-
tational power are offloaded to the backend. A lot of research goes into finding ways to
make data transfers more efficient. The capacity for computation is distributed throughout
a wide variety of fields. As more and more devices are equipped to communicate over the
Internet of Things, computation will become a bottleneck in the network. It is essential to
make use of parallel processing at the task level, as well as distributed computing. The
conventional method to prevent the device’s battery from running down too quickly is to
offload the work to a server in the background.
People all over the world are becoming increasingly concerned about their privacy
and safety as a result of the widespread deployment of Internet-of-Things (IoT) devices.
Because of the exponential growth of online dangers, the privacy and safety precautions
that we currently take are no longer sufficient. This indicates that hackers stand to benefit
from the use of the Internet by anyone. The dependability of the findings that machine
learning (ML) methods provide is one of the reasons that they are rising in popularity.
These approaches can be used to predict and detect vulnerabilities in systems that are based
on the Internet of Things (IoT). Edge computing can reduce the amount of time that it takes
for a network to respond, while simultaneously boosting decentralization and security.
“Edge nodes”, which are often in communication with the cloud, are now able to manage a
sizeable amount of the computing that is mission-critical. Using the cloud in such a way
does not come with any negative consequences. With the help of this technology, it is
possible to achieve solutions that are both real-time and very efficient.
In order to achieve this goal, we studied how machine learning (ML) can be cou-
pled with cloud and edge computing by employing a distributed-edge-computing-based
Internet-of-Things (IoT) framework. Internet-of-Things devices that make use of sensor
frameworks are able to collect huge volumes of data that can then be analyzed. When
identifying what information is most important, the front-end component could benefit
from some careful planning and consideration. An Internet-of-Things server operating
in the background can provide guidance and recommendations to help achieve this goal.
The plan is to employ machine learning in the backend servers in order to search for data
signatures that are of interest. We intend to apply the resulting concepts as a case study in
the field of medicine. We are studying ways to combine the benefits of machine learning
Electronics 2023, 12, 1027 15 of 16

with those of cloud computing and edge computing through the use of a framework that is
based on the Internet of Things (IoT) and distributed edge computing. In future, we can
work on real-time systems and deep learning models.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K.A. and A.M.A.; methodology, A.K.A. and A.M.A.;
software, A.M.A.; validation, A.M.A.; formal analysis, A.K.A. and A.M.A.; investigation, A.K.A.
and A.M.A.; resources, A.M.A.; data curation, A.M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.A.;
writing—review and editing, A.K.A. and A.M.A.; visualization, A.K.A.; supervision, A.K.A.; project
administration, A.K.A.; funding acquisition, A.K.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research, Vice Presidency for Grad-
uate Studies and Scientific Research, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Project No. GRANT2729).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. This study does not report any data.
Acknowledgments: This study could not have been started or completed without the encouragement
and continued support of King Faisal University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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