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CONTROL SYSTEMS
(20A02502T)

PREPARED BY
P.I.D.T.BALADURAIKANNAN
Associate Professor
Department Electrical & Electronics Engineering
VEMU IT
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• Control System Definition

- Consists of subsystems and processes/plants assembled for the
purpose of controlling the outputs of the processes.
- Provides an output or response for a given input or stimulus
- A control system is an interconnection of components forming a
system configuration that would provide a desired output in
response to input signals.

Input; stimulus Control System Output; response

Actual response
Desired response

Basic Block Diagram of Control System

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• The output signal of OLCS is not fed back to influence the control action
• The control action of an OLCS depends only on the input signal
• OLCS are not capable of filtering disturbances or noise
• OLCS are suitable when input signal for satisfactory system performance can be
estimated/approximated and does not change
• Advantages of OLCS are that its structure is simple compared to a closed loop
control system and is cheaper to build.

3
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• The output signal of a CLCS is fed back to influence the control action and improve the
overall system performance
• Examples: robot arms, velocity control systems, temperature control systems
• However, in practical, a combination of both OLCS and CLCS is normally used. For
example, washing machine: the process of filling up the tank with water is a CLCS
operation, while the process of washing and rinsing is an OLCS operation

4
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Type of System Advantages Disadvantages Examples

OLCS • Simple construction and ease of • The system response very • Toaster
maintenance. sensitive to external • Rice cooker
• Less expensive than a disturbance and internal • Electric fan
corresponding closed-loop variations in system • Photocopy machine
control system parameters.
• There is no stability problem • Recalibration is necessary
• Convenient when output is hard from time to time in
to measure or measuring the order to maintain the
output precisely is economically required quality in the
not feasible output

CLCS • insensitive to external • Risk instability • Positioning CS (robot

disturbance and internal • Complexity in analysis arms)
variations in system parameters. and implementation and • Velocity CS (vehicles
• Possible to use relatively expensive cruise system)
inaccurate and inexpensive • Temperature CS (Air-
components to obtain the conditioner)
accurate control of a given plant.
• Better control of transient &
steady-state response
• Increased accuracy
• Increased ability to reproduce
output with varied input

5
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block diagram: reduction example

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
G1G2
+_ + G3
1  G1G2 H 1

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block diagram: reduction example

H2
G1
R _ C
G1G2G3
+_ +
1  G1G2 H 1

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block diagram: reduction example

R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2

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block diagram: reduction example

R G1G2G3 C
1  G1G2 H1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3

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SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

• Alternative method to block diagram
representation, developed by S.J.Mason.
• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph
gain formula, also called Mason’s gain
formula.
• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in
which nodes are connected by directed
branches.
• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of
a system to another and gives the
relationships among the signals. Note that
the signal flows in only one direction.

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Definitions
• Node - a point representing a signal or variable.
• Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
• Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that
can be traversed from one node to another node.
• Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the
same node and along the path no node is met twice.
• Nontouching loops – two loops are said to be nontouching if
they do not have a common node.

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Mason’s gain formula

The linear dependence Tij between the independent variable xi
(also called the input variable) and a dependent variable xj is

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P  k k
Write the gain formula in a simplified form: T k


Systematic approach:
1. Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for
each forward path k
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider nontouching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ not touching forward
path k
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1.Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for each forward path k.

PP1 G G
1 1 1G
GG2 3
G31)G4and(path
G 2(path
4 P  G 1) (path 2) P2  G5G6G7 G8 (path 2)
G G G and
2 5 6 7 8

2.Calculate all loop TF’s.

L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
3.Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time.
Loops L1 and L2 do not touch Loops L3 and L4

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4. Consider nontouching loops 3 at a time.

None.
5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.
  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 
6. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ not touching
forward path k.

1  1  L3  L4  and  2  1  L1  L2 

The TF of the system is

Y ( s) P   P2  2
 T ( s)  1 1
R( s ) 

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UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

• We have already discussed the affect of location of poles and zeros on
the transient response of 1st order systems.

• Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system

exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described.

• Varying a first-order system's parameter (T, K) simply changes the speed

and offset of the response

• Whereas, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can

change the form of the response.

• A second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-order

system or, depending on component values, display damped or pure
oscillations for its transient response.
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Introduction
• A general second-order system is characterized by the
following transfer function.

C(s) n2

R(s) s 2  2 n s  n2

n un-damped natural frequency of the second order system,

which is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.

 damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure

of the degree of resistance to change in the system output.
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C(s) n2

R(s) s 2  2 n s  n2

• Two poles of the system are

 n  n  2  1

 n  n  2  1

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 n  n  2  1

 n  n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories:
1. Overdamped - when the system has two real distinct poles (  >1).

jω

δ
-c -b -a

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 n  n  2  1

 n  n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories:

2. Underdamped - when the system has two complex conjugate poles (0 < <1)

jω

δ
-c -b -a

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 n  n  2  1

 n  n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories:

3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).

jω

δ
-c -b -a

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 n  n  2  1

 n  n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories:

4. Critically damped - when the system has two real but equal poles ( = 1).
jω

δ
-c -b -a

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Time-Domain Specification
For 0<  <1 and ωn > 0, the 2nd order system’s response due to a
unit step input looks like

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Step Response of underdamped System

C(s) n2 Step Response n2
 C(s) 
R(s) s 2  2 n s  n2 
s s 2  2 n s  n2 
• The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as

C(s) 
1
 s  2 n
s s 2  2 n s   n2

n2 1   2 
C(s) 
1
 2 s  2 n
s  2 n 2 s s  2 n s   
2 2
  2
  
2 2
n n n

C(s) 
1
 s  2 n
s s  n 2  n2 1   2  
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Step Response of underdamped System

C(s) 
1
 s  2 n
s s  n 2  n2 1   2 
• Above equation can be written as

1 s  2 n
C(s)  
s s   n 2   d2
• Where d  n 1   2 , is the frequency of transient oscillations
and is called damped natural frequency.
• The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained
easily if C(s) is written in the following form:

C(s) 
1
 s   n  n

s s   n  2
 d2 s   n 2  d2
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Step Response of underdamped System

C(s) 
1
 s   n  n

s s   n  2
 d2 s   n 2  d2
 n 1 2
1 s   n 1 2
C(s)   
s s   n   d
2 2
s   n 2  d2

C(s) 
1
 s   n  d

s s   n  2
 d2 1 2 s   n 2  d2
 nt 
c(t)  1  e cos d t  e nt sin d t
1 2

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Step Response of underdamped System

 nt 
c(t)  1  e cos d t  e nt sin d t
1 2

 

c(t)  1  e nt cos d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 

• When   0
d  n 1   2
 n

c(t)  1  cos n t
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Time Domain Specifications

Rise Time Peak Time

     
tr   tp  
d d  1   2
n 1   2 n

Settling Time (2%)

4
t s  4T  Maximum Overshoot
 n


3 1 2
t s  3T  Mp e 100
 n
Settling Time (4%)
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• The concept of a control system is to sense deviation of the output

from the desired value and correct it, till the desired output is
achieved.
• The deviation of the actual output from its desired value is called an
error. The measurement of error is possible because of feedback.
• The feedback allows us to compare the actual output with its desired
value to generate the error.
• The controller is an element which accepts the error in some form
and decides the proper corrective action.
• The output of the controller is then applied to the process or final
control element. This brings the output back to its desired set point
value.
• The controller is the heart of a control system. The accuracy of the
entire system depends on how sensitive is the controller to the error
detected and how it is manipulating such an error.
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Most industrial controllers may be classified according to their control

actions as:
1. Two-position or on-off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers

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• In this control mode, the output of the controller is simple proportional

to the error e(t).
• The relation between the error e(t) and the controller output p is
determined by constant called proportional gain constant denoted as Kp.
• The output of the controller is a linear function of the error e(t).
• Thus each value of the error has a unique value of the controller output.
• The range of the error which covers 0 % to 100 % controller output is
called proportional band.
• The basic relationship between output of the controller and error signal
is given by,
p(t) = Kp e(t)
Taking Laplace transform,
P(s) = Kp E(s)

Kp = Proportional gain constant

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• In the proportional control mode, error reduces but can not go to

zero.
• It finally produces an offset error. It can not adapt with the changing
load conditions. To avoid this, another control mode is often used in
the control systems which is based on the history of the errors. This
mode is called integral mode or reset action controller.
• In such a controller, the value of the controller output p(t) is changed
at a rate which is proportioned to the actuating error signal e(t).
Mathematically it is expressed as,
dp t 
 K iet
dt
Ki = Constant relating error and rate
Taking Laplace transform,
sP(s) = Ki E(s) or P(s) = (Ki/s) E(s)
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• The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the

rate at which the error is changing de(t)/dt.
• The mathematical equation for the mode is,
det 
p t   K d
dt
where Kd = Derivative gain constant.
Taking Laplace transform
P(s) = Kd s E(s)

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• This is a composite control mode obtained by combining the

proportional mode and the integral mode.
• The mathematical expression for such a composite control is,
t
p t   K p et  K p K i  et dt  p 0 
0

Taking Laplace transform,

 K K 
Ps  K p  p i  E s 
 s 
P s   K p 1  i  E s 
K
 s 

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• The series combination of proportional and derivative control modes

gives proportional plus derivative control mode.
• The mathematical expression for the PD composite control is,
det 
p t   K p et  K p K d  p 0 
dt
• Taking Laplace transform,
P s   K p  K p K d s E s 
• The addition of a derivative mode to a proportional controller
modifies its response to inputs.
• A PD controller provides an element to the response which is largest
when the rate of change of the error is greatest and diminishes as it
becomes smaller.
• The derivative mode is never used alone because it is not capable of
maintaining a control signal under steady error conditions.
• It is always used with the proportional mode and often additionally
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• The composite controller including the combination of the

proportional, integral and derivative control mode is called PID
control mode and the controller is called three mode controller.
• It is very much complex to design but very powerful in action.
• Mathematically such a control mode can be expressed as,
t
det 
p t  K pet  K p K i  et dt  K p K d  p0
0
dt

  K p Ki 
P s    K p  K p K d s  E s 
 s 

P s   
s K d  s  K i Es
Kp 2
s


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• This mode has advantages of all the modes.

• The integral mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional
mode and the response is also very fast due to derivative mode.
• The sudden response is produced due to derivative mode.
• Thus it can be used for any process condition.
• With the PID control action, there is no offset, no oscillations with
least settling time.
• So there is improvement in both transient as well as steady
state response.

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It arrest the change of the Measured Value

Proportional
Arrests but always with an Offset from the
action (P)
Measured Value
Integral action
Restores It removes the Offset
(I)
Derivative
Accelerates It speeds up the removal of the Offset
action (D)

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UNIT III STABILITY ANALYSIS

IN TIME DOMAIN
ROUTH –HURWITZ CRITERIA:-
• Introduces additional combinations of
coefficients
• Based on Sturm’s theorem.
Central is the idea of the “Routh Table”

Step 1: Write the polynomial as

d(s) = an s n + an − 1 s n − 1 + · · · + a1 s + a0

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Step 2

Write the coefficients in 2 rows

• First row starts with a n
• Second row starts with a n − 1
• Other coefficients alternate between rows
• Both rows should be same length
) Continue until no coefficients are left
) Add zero as last coefficient if necessary

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Step 3

Complete the third row.

• Call the new entries b1 , · · · , bk
) The third row will be the same length as the first two

a4 a2 . a 4 a0 . a4 0.
det .. det .. det ..
a3 a1 . a3 0 . a3 0.
b1 = − b2 = − b3 = −
a3 a3 a3

• The denominator is the first entry from the previous row.

• The numerator is the determinant of the entries from the previous
two rows:
) The first column
) The next column following the coefficient
an an − 2k
det .
an − 1 na− 2 k − 1 .
bk = −
an − 1
) If a coefficient doesn’t exist, substitute 0.
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Treat each following row in the same way as the third row
• There should be n + 1 rows total, including the first row.

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Now examine the first column

Theorem 1.
The number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh table equals the
number of roots of the polynomial in the Closed Right Half-Plane (CRHP).

Note: Any row can be multiplied by any positive constant without changing
the result.

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Stability of CT Systems in the s-Plane

• Recall our stability condition for the Laplace transform of the impulse response of a CT
linear time-invariant system:
bM s M  bM 1 s M 1  ...  b0
H ( s)   Re  pi   0 for i  1, 2, ..., N
s N  a N 1 s N 1  ...  s0
• This implies the poles are in the left-half plane.
This also implies:
 LHP
h(t )  0 as t   and  h(t ) dt  

• A system is said to be marginally stable
if its impulse response is bounded:
h(t )  c t
In this case, at least one pole of the system
lies on the j-axis.
• Recall periodic signals also have poles on the j-axis because they are marginally stable.
• Also recall that the left-half plane maps to the inside of the unit circle in the z-plane for
discrete-time (sampled) signals.
• We can show that circuits built from passive components (RLC) are always stable if there
is some resistance in the circuit.

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Stability of CT Systems in the s-Plane

• Example: Series RLC Circuit 1 / LC

H ( s) 
s 2  ( R / L) s  1 / LC
Using the quadratic formula:
2
R  R  1
p1 , p 2      
2L  2L  LC
Case 1 :
2
 R  1
    0  two real poles Case 2 :
 2L  LC 2
 R  1
2     0  two complex poles,
R  R  1  2L  LC
      0  pole in LHP
2L  
2 L LC
Rep1   
R
 always stable
 always stable 2L

2
R  R  1
     0 The RLC circuit
2L  
2 L LC
is always stable. Why?
R
quadratic term must be 
2L
 always stable
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The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Test

• The procedures for determining stability do not require finding the roots of the
denominator polynomial, which can be a daunting task for a high-order system (e.g., 32
poles).
• The Routh-Hurwitz stability test is a method of determining stability using simple algebraic
operations on the polynomial coefficients. It is best demonstrated through an example.
• Consider:
A( s)  a N s N  a N 1 s N 1  ...  a1 s  a0
• Construct the Routh array:

sN aN a N 2 a N 4 
s N 1 a N 1 a N 3 a N 5  N even : ( N / 2)  1 columns
s N 2 bN  2 bN  4 bN 6  N odd : ( N  1) / 2 columns
s N 3 c N 3 c N 5 c N 7 
a N 1 a N 2  a N a N 3 a a
     bN  2   a N  2  N N 3
a N 1 a N 1
s2 d2 d0 0  a a  a N a N 5 a a
s1 e1 0 0  bN  4  N 1 N  4  a N  4  N N 5
a N 1 a N 1
s0 f0 0 0 
Number of sign changes in 1st column = number of poles in the
RHPRLC circuit is always stable
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Routh-Hurwitz Examples

• Example: A( s)  s 2  a1 s  a0
s2 1 a0
s1 a1 0
a1 a0  (1)(0)
s0  a0 0
a1
if a1  0 and a0  0  one sign change  1 RHP pole  unstable
if a1  0 and a0  0  one sign change  1 RHP pole  unstable
if a1  0 and a0  0  two sign changes  2 RHP poles  unstable

• Example: A( s)  s 3  a 2 s 2  a1 s  a0

s3 1 a1
s2 a2 a0
a 2 a1  (1)a 0 a
s1  a1  0 0
a2 a2
s0 a0 0

if a2  0 and a0  0  two sign changes  2 RHP poles  unstable

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Analysis of the Step Response For A 1st-Order System

• Recall the transfer function for a

1st-order differential equation:
k num = 1; den = [1 –p];
H ( s) 
s p t = 0:0.05:10;
X ( s )  Lu (t ) 
1 y = step(num, den, t);
s
k
Y ( s)  H ( s) X ( s) 
s( s  p)
k/ p k/ p
Y ( s)  
s s p
k
 
y (t )   1  e pt u (t )
p
• Define a time constant as the time it takes for the
response to reach 1/e (37%) of its value.
• The time constant in this case is equal to
-1/p. Hence, the real part of the pole, which is the
distance of the pole from the j-axis, and is the
bandwidth of the pole, is directly related to the
time constant.
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Consider the transfer function

1
Gˆ(s) =
s 5 + 2s 4 + 2s 3 + 4s 2 + 11s + 10
The Routh Table begins:
s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 0 6 0
The next entry in the table will be

2 4.
det ..
0 6. −12
− =
0 0
Which is problematic.
Note: If there is a zero in the first column, the system is only marginally
stable
• Small changes in the coefficients lead to instability.
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The solution is to use ϵ instead of 0 in the first column.

s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 ϵ 6 0

Now the next entry in the table will be

2 4.
det ..
ϵ 6. −(12 −4ϵ)
− =
ϵ ϵ
Because ϵ is infinitely small, we let 12 −4ϵ = 12.
Assume ϵ > 0
• We have at least one sign change
• At least one unstable pole.

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We can keep calculating if necessary.

s5 1 2 11
s4 2 4 10
s3 0 6 0
s3 ϵ 6 0
4ϵ − 12
s2 ϵ є
10є 0
−12
s2 10 0
ϵ
10є2 +72
s
6 12 0 0
s 0 0
1 10 0 0
So there are two sign changes

• Two unstable poles

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Root Locus:
the locus of roots of the characteristic equation of
the closed-loop system as a specific parameter (usually,
gain K) is varied form 0 to ∞.
The advantages of RL approach:
1. Avoiding tedious and complex roots-solving
calculation
2. Clearly showing the contributions of each loop
poles or zeros to the location of the closed-loop poles.
3. Indicating the manner in which the loop poles
and zeros should be modified so that the response
meets system performance specifications.

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Properties of Root Loci

1 K  0 and K   points of Root Loci

2 Number of Branches on the RL

3 Symmetry of the RL

4 Root Loci on the real-axis

5 Asymptotes of the RL

6 Breakaway points on the RL

7 Departure angle and arrival angle of RL

8 Intersection of the RL with the imaginary axis

9 The sum of the roots and the product of the roots of the
closed-loop characteristic equation

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1 K  0 and K   points
Root loci originate on the poles of G(s)H(s) (for K=0) and
terminates on the zeros of G(s)H(s) (as K=∞).
m
K  ( s  Zi )
RL
Equation: G( s) H ( s)  i 1
n
 1
 (s  P )
i 1
i

m n
K  s  Zi  sP i
Magnitude
Equation:
i 1
n
1 K＝ i 1
m

 sP
i 1
i  sZ
i 1
i

K 0  s  Pi Root loci start from poles of G(s)H(s)

K   s  Zi Root loci end at zeros of G(s)H(s).

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2 Number of branches on the RL

nth-order system, RL have n starting points and RL have n
branches
m
K  ( s  Zi )
RL
Equation: G( s) H ( s)  i 1
n
 1
 (s  P )
i 1
i

The order of the characteristic equation is n as K varies from 0

to ∞ ,n roots changen root loci.
For a real physical system, the number of poles of G(s)H(s) are
more than zeros，i.e. n > m.
n root loci end at open-loop zeros（finite zeros)；
m root loci end at open-loop zeros（finite zeros)；
（n－m）root loci end at (n－m) infinite zeros.
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3 Symmetry of the RL
The RL are symmetrical with respect to the real axis of
the s-plane.

The roots of characteristic equation are real or complex-

conjugate.

Therefore, we only need to draw the RL on the up half s-plane

and on the real-axis, the rest can be obtained by plotting its
mirror image.

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4 RL on the Real Axis

On a given section of the real axis, RL for k>0 are found in the
section only if the total number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the
right of the section is odd.

zero：z1 poles：p1、p2、p3、p4、p5
Pick a test point s1 on [p2，p3]
1 5
G ( s1 ) H ( s1 )   ( s1  zi )  ( s1  pi )
i 1 i 1

？ G( s1 ) H ( s1 )＝(2l  1)180

The sum of angles provided by every pair of
complex conjugate poles are 360°;
The angle provided by all the poles and zeros on
the right of s1 is 180°;
The angle provided by all the poles and zeros on the left of s1 is650°.
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Example Consider the following loop transfer function

K ( s  1)( s  4)( s  6)
G(s) H (s) 
s ( s  2)( s  3)
2 2

Determine its root loci on the real axis.

jw
Poles: Zeros:
S-plane
Repeated poles:

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

On the right of [-2，-1] the number of real zeros and poles=3.

On the right of [-6，-4], the number of real zeros and poles=7.

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5 Asymptotes of RL
When n ≠ m, there will be 2|n-m| asymptotes that describe the
behavior of the RL at |s|=∞.
m
K  ( s  Zi )
RL
Equation: G( s) H ( s)  i 1
n
 1
 (s  P )
i 1
i

The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are（i= 0，
1，2，… ,n-m-1） ：
(2i  1)180
a 
nm
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at：
n m

p  z i i
 a＝ i 1 i 1

nm
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Example Consider the following loop transfer function
K (0.25s  1) K * (s  4)
G( s) H ( s)  
s(s  1)(0.2s  1) s(s  1)(s  5)
Determine the asymptotes of its root loci.

3 poles：0、-1、-5
n-m = 3 -1 = 2
1 zero：-4

The asymptotes intersect the real axis at

n m

p  z i i
(0)  (1)  (5)  (4)
 a＝ i 1 i 1
  1
nm 3 1
The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are

(2i  1)180
a  , i  0,1 a  90 , 270
nm
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Example Consider the following loop transfer function
K ( s  1)
G(s) H (s) 
s ( s  4)( s 2  2s  2)
Determine the asymptotes of its root loci.

4 poles：0、-1+j、-1-j、-4 n-m=4-1=3
1 zero：-1

The asymptotes intersect the real axis at

n m

 p z i i
 a＝ i 1 i 1

nm
(0)  (1  j )  (1  j )  (4)  (1) 5
 
4 1 3
The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are
(2i  1)180
a  , i  0,1,2
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6 Breakaway points on the RL

Breakaway points on the RL correspond to multi-order roots of the
RL equation.
The breakaway points on the RL are determined by finding the
roots of dK/ds=0 or dG(s)H(s)=0.
j
p3
[s]

p2 p1
0 

p4

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Example The poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) are shown in the following
figure, determin its root loci.
jω
Rule 1、2、3
RL have three branches，starting from
poles 0、－2、－3，ending at on finite
-3 -2 -1 0 σ zero －1 and two infinite zeros. The RL are
symmetrical with respect to the real axis.

Ruel 4The intersections [-1,0] and[-3,-2] on the real axis are RL.
Rule 5The RL have two asymptotes(n－m＝2)
n m

a 
(2i  1)180
 90, 270 p  z i i
0  (2)  (3)  (1)
nm  a＝ i 1 i 1
  2
i  0,1 nm 2
Rule 6The RL have breakaway points on the real axis (within[-3,-2])
1 1 1 1
＝ ＋ ＋  b  2.47
 b＋1  b  0  b＋2  b＋3
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Example K
G( s) H ( s) 
s( s  4)( s 2  4s  20)

jω Rule 1、2、3、4 n=4,m=0

j4 the RL are symmetrical with respect
to the real axis;
the RL have four branches which
start from poles 0,-4 and -2±j4 ;
the RL end at infinite zeros;
the intersection [-4,0] on the real-
-2 0 σ axis is RL
-4
Rule 5
The RL have four asymptotes.
(2l  1)180
a  (l  0,1,2,3)
-j4 nm
 45， 135, 225，315
n m

p  z i i
0  (4)  (2)＋(2)
 a＝ i 1 i 1
  2
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Example
K
G( s) H ( s) 
s( s  4)( s 2  4s  20)

jω Rule 6the breakaway point of the

j4
RL
K
1  G( s) H ( s)  1  0
s( s  4)( s  4s  20)
2

K  s(s  4)(s 2  4s  20)

-4
-2 0 σ  ( s 4  8s3  36s 2  80s)

dK
 (4 s 3  24s 2  72s  80)  0
ds
-j4  b1  2

 b 2, 3  2  j 2.45

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7 Angles of departure and angles of arrival of the RL

The angle of departure or arrival of a root locus at a pole or zero,

respectively, of G(s)H(s) denotes the angle of the tangent to the
locus near the point.

74
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Angle of Departure:
m n
 pj＝(2l  1) ＋ ( p j  zi )   ( p j  pi ), l  0, 1,
i 1 i 1
i j

Pick up a point s1 that is close to p1

Applying Angle Equation (AE)

( s1  z1 )  ( s1  p1 )  ( s1  p2 )  ( s1  p3 ) 
(2l  1)

s1p1 (s1  p1 ) angle of departure θp1

 p1＝(2l  1)＋( p1  z1 )  ( p1  p2 )  ( p1  p3 )

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Angle of Arrival:
n m
 zj＝(2l  1) ＋ ( z j  pi )   ( z j  zi ), l  0, 1,
i 1 i 1
i j

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Example Consider the following loop transfer function
Ks
G (s) H (s) 
 s  1  s  1
2

Determine its RL when K varies from 0 to ∞.

3 poles P1,2=-1(repeated poles) P3=1；1 zero Z1=0，n-m=2。
3 branches ，2 asymptotes

n m j
P Z i i
1  1  1  0
a  i 1 i 1
  0.5
nm 3 1

(2l  1)  3
a   , -1 -0.5
nm 2 2 1

Angle of departure:

  3
 pl  (2l  1)       ,
2 2 2
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8 Intersection of the RL with the Imaginary Axis

Intersection of the RL with The characteristic equation have

Im-axis? roots on the Im-axis and the
system is marginally stable.

Method 1 Use Routh’s criterion to obtain the value of

K when the system is marginally stable, the get ω
from K.
Method 2
s  j  1  G ( s ) H ( s )  0  1  G ( j ) H ( j )  0
Re1  G ( j ) H ( j )  0
 
Im1  G ( j ) H ( j )  0

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Example Consider the following loop transfer function
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K
G( s) H ( s) 
s( s  1)( s  2)
Determine the intersection of the RL with Im-axis.
Method 1
Closed-loop CE: s( s  1)( s  2)  K  s 3  3s 2  2s  K  0
Routh’s Tabulation:

s3 1 2 Marginally stable:
K =6
s2 3 K
1 6 K Auxiliary equation:
s 0
3
s 0
K 3s 2  6  0

Intersection point: sj 2

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Example Consider the following loop transfer function
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K
G( s) H ( s) 
s( s  1)( s  2)

Determine the intersection of the RL with Im-axis.

Method 2
Closed-loop CE: s( s  1)( s  2)  K  s 3  3s 2  2s  K  0
→Closed-loop CE  1  G( j ) H ( j )  0
s  j
( j)3  3( j)2  2( j)  K  ( K  3 2 )  j(2   3 )  0

Real par t : K  32＝0

  2 K 6
Imaginary part: 2   3＝0

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UNIT IV FREQUENCY
RESPONSE ANALYSIS
What is frequency response of a system?

 The frequency response of a system is defined as

the steady-state response of the system to a
sinusoidal input signal.
 The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the
resulting output signal for a linear system, as well
as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in
the steady-state.
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What is Bode Plot?

Bode Plot is a (semi log) plot of the transfer
function magnitude and phase angle as a
function of frequency.

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• The transfer function can be separated into magnitude and

phase angle information
H(j) = |H(j)| Φ(j)

e.g., H(j)=Z(j)

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r (t )  A sin t y (t )  B sin( t   )
L.T.I system

Magnitude: B Phase: 
A
r (t ) y (t )
G(s)
＋
－ Steady state response
H(s)

Y ( s) G(s)

R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
s    j  s  j

Magnitude:
G ( j ) Phase: G ( j )
1  G ( j ) H ( j ) [1  G( j ) H ( j )]

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2 2
Decade : dec  log 10 Octave : oct  log 2
1 1
dB


1 2 3 4 10 20 100
• The gain magnitude is many times expressed in terms of decibels (dB)
dB = 20 log10 A
where A is the amplitude or gain
– a decade is defined as any 10-to-1 frequency range
– an octave is any 2-to-1 frequency range
20 dB/decade = 6 dB/octave
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Y ( s) k ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) 

R( s) ( s  p1 )( s  p2 )( s 2  as  b) 
Case I : k GH (dB)


Magnitude:

0.1 1 10
k dB  20 log k (dB)
GH
Phase: 180 0

 0 o 900
,k  0
k   o 
180 ,k  0

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Case II : 1
sp
GH (dB)
Magnitude: p2

1 p 1
( j ) p
 20 p log  (dB) 
dB 0.1 1 10

GH
Phase:

1 900

( j ) p
 (90o )  p
p 1

 900
p2
 180 0

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Case III :
sp
p2
GH (dB) p 1
Magnitude:

( j ) p
dB
 20 p log  (dB) 
0.1 1 10

GH
Phase: 0
p2
180
0
p 1
90
( j )  (90 )  p 
p o

 900
 180 0

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a 1
Case IV : or ( s  1) 1
( s  a) a
a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j ) 1  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  [20 log   20 log a] 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  0  tan
0


a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a

  a     GH   tan 1   90o
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Case V : ( s  a) 1
or ( s  1)
a a a 1
Magnitude:
GH (dB)
 
(1  j )  20 log 1  ( ) 2
a dB a

 10 log[ 1  ( ) 2 ]
 
a 0.1 1 10

  a   0  dB  10 log 1  0
a
  
  a  1  j   dB  20 log GH
a a a   a  450
dB  20 log   20 log a 180 0
  a  1  j1  dB  10 log 2  3.01 900
Phase: 
 1   900
(1  j )  tan

a a  180 0
  a   0  GH  tan 1 0  0o
a

  a     GH  tan 1   90o
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Case VI : T ( s)  2
s  2n s   n2
 n2 2n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
( n   2 )  2 jn ( n   2 )
2 2


2
1 n
T ( j )   T ( j )   tan 1
 2   2
(1  ( ) )  j 2 1 ( )
n n n

  
 1 ,  1
 0 ,
n
  n  0 0

   
T ( j )    20 log( 2 ) ,  1 T ( j )    90 , 1
0

 n  180o  n
 40 log(  ) ,   1  
   ,  1
 n n n
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  n

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Relative Stability
A transfer function is called minimum phase when all the poles and zeroes are LHP and
non-minimum-phase when there are RHP poles or zeroes.

Minimum phase system Stable

The gain margin (GM) is the distance on the bode magnitude plot from the
amplitude at the phase crossover frequency up to the 0 dB point. GM=-(dB of GH
measured at the phase crossover frequency)

The phase margin (PM) is the distance from -180 up to the phase at the gain
crossover frequency. PM=180+phase of GH measured at the gain crossover
frequency

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Open loop transfer function : G (s) H (s)

Closed-loop transfer function : 1  G ( s) H ( s)

Open loop Stability  poles of G ( s ) Hin( sLHP

) Im

Closed-loop Stability  RHP

poles of in left side of (-1,0)
G (s) H (s)
Re
(1,0) (0,0)

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 0dB
GH (dB) (1,0)  
 180 0

g  Gain crossover frequency: g

G.M.>0 phase crossover frequency: p

GH
180 0
Stable system
0
90

 900
P.M.>0 p
 180 0

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GH (dB)
G.M.<0
Unstable system
g


GH
180 0 Stable system
900

 900
p
 180 0
P.M.<0
Unstable system

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Gain and Phase Margin

Let's say that we have the following system:

where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration.

The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the
system unstable. Systems with greater gain margins can withstand greater changes in
system parameters before becoming unstable in closed loop. Keep in mind that unity
gain in magnitude is equal to a gain of zero in dB

The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make a
closed loop system unstable.

The phase margin is the difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg at
the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain cross
over frequency, Wgc).

Likewise, the gain margin is the difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at
the point corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the phase
cross over frequency, Wpc).
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Gain and Phase Margin

-180

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Polar plot
The polar form of G(jω)H(jω) is-

G(jω)H(jω)=|G(jω)H(jω)|∠G(jω)H(jω)

The Polar plot is a plot, which can be drawn between the magnitude and the
phase angle of G(jω)H(jω) by varying ω from zero to ∞. The polar graph sheet or
in a regular graph sheet is shown in the following figure.

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Rules for Drawing Polar Plots:

Follow these rules for plotting the polar plots.
•Substitute, s=jω in the open loop transfer function.
•Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω).
•Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=0.
So, the polar plot starts with this magnitude and the phase angle.
•Find the ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω)H(jω) by substituting ω=∞.
So, the polar plot ends with this magnitude and the phase angle.
•Check whether the polar plot intersects the real axis, by making the
imaginary term of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
•Check whether the polar plot intersects the imaginary axis, by making real
term of G(jω)H(jω) equal to zero and find the value(s) of ω.
•For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase
of G(jω)H(jω) by considering the other value(s) of ω
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Example
Consider a first order system

where τis the time constant.

Step 1 −Substitute, s=jωin the first order system.

Multiplying both numerator and denominator by the

conjugate of denominator

Step 2 -The magnitude of the transfer function is

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Step 3--The phase angle of the transfer function is

Step 4 Point Frequency (w) Magnitude Phase angle

1 0 1 0
2 ∞ 0 -90

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For one more frequence point: Taking ω= 1/τ , then one has

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Example

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Value at which plot cuts negative imaginary axis,

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Compensator
• The control system are designed to perform specific tasks. The
requirement of a control system are usually specified as
performance specifications.
• The specifications related to accuracy, relative stability and speed
of the response.
The design problem may be stated as follows:
• When a set of specifications are given for a system, then a
suitable compensator should be designed so that the overall
system will meet the given specification.
• The compensation schemes used for feedback control system is
either series compensation or parallel feedback compensation.

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Realization of lag compensator using

electrical network:

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Realization of lead compensator using

electrical network:

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S. Lag Compensator Lead Compensator Lag-Lead compensator

No
1 A compensator having the A compensator having the A compensator having the
characteristics of a lag characteristics of a lead characteristics of a lag-lead
network is called lag network is called lead network is called lag-lead
compensator. compensator. compensator.
2 If a sinusoidal signal is If a sinusoidal signal is If a sinusoidal signal is
applied, then in steady state applied, then in steady state applied, then in steady state
the output will have a phase the output will have a phase both phase lag and lead
lag with respect to the input. lead with respect to the occurs in the output, but in
input. different frequency region.
3 Lag compensation results in The lead compensation A lag-lead compensation
a large improvement in increases the bandwidth, combines the advantages of
steady state performance but which improves the speed of lag and lead
results in slower response the response and also compensations.
due to reduced bandwidth. reduces the amount of
overshoot.

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UNIT V STATE SPACE ANALYSIS

OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
• Alternative method of modeling a system than
– Differential / difference equations
– Transfer functions
• Uses matrices and vectors to represent the
system parameters and variables

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Motivation for State-Space Modeling

• Easier for computers to perform matrix algebra
– e.g. MATLAB does all computations as matrix math
• Handles multiple inputs and outputs
• Provides more information about the system
– Provides knowledge of internal variables (states)

Primarily used in complicated, large-scale systems

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Transfer Functions vs. State-Space Models

• Transfer functions provide only input and output
behavior
– No knowledge of the inner workings of the system
– System is essentially a “black box” that performs some
functions

• State-space models also represent the internal

behavior of the system

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Definitions
V – Input vector Y – Output vector
• Can be multiple inputs • A function of the input and the
• Written as a column vector present state of the internal
variables

 v1 t    y1 t  
 v t   y t  
vt    2  y t    2 
     
   
vR t   yM t 

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Definitions
X – State vector X – “Next state” vector
• Information of the current • Derivative of the state vector
condition of the internal • Provides knowledge of where
variables the states are going
• N is the “dimension” of the state – Direction (+ or -)
model (number of internal state – How fast (magnitude)
variables) • A function fo the input and the
present state of the internal
variables

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DEFINITIONS
State:- The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of
variables (called state variables) that must be known at any
given instant in order that, the future response of the system to
any specified input may be calculated from the given dynamic
equation. These are the set of variables such that the
knowledge of these variables at t=t0, together with the input
for t>=t0 completely determines the behaiour of the sytems for
any time t>=t0.

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DEFINITIONS
State Variables: The state variables of a dynamic system are the smallest set of
variables which determine the state of the dynamic system. If at least n variables
x1(t),x2(t),………., xn(t) are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a
dynamic system (such that once
the input is given for t>=t0 and the initial state at t=t0 is specified, the future
state of the system is completely determined), then such n variables x1(t),
x2(t),……., xn(t) are a set of variables called STATE variables. It can also be noticed
that the state variables need not be physically measurable or observable
quantities. Practically, however, it is convenient to choose easily measurable
quantities for the state variables because optimal control laws will require the
feedback of all state variables with suitable weight.

State Space The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of

the x1 axis, x2 axis, ….. xn axis is called a state space. Any state can be
represented by a point in the state space.

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State-Space Equations
General form of the state-space model
x t 
Two equations –
y t 

x t   f  xt , vt , t 
y t   g  xt , vt , t 

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Linear State-Space Equations

x t   Axt   Bv t 
y t   Cxt   Dv t 

xt , x t   N 1 vectors A  N  N system matrix

vt   R 1 vector B  N  R input matrix
y t   M 1 vector C  M  N output matrix
D  M  R matrix representing direct
coupling from system inputs
to system outputs

If A, B, C, D are constant over time, then the system is also time invariant
→ Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system

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Construction of State Equations from a

Differential Equation
(Let there be no derivatives of the input)

• The dimension of the state equations (number of state variables) should

equal the order of the differential equation
• Let one state variable equal the output (y(t))
• Let one state variable equal the derivative of the output

• Let one state variable equal the (N-1)-th derivative of the output (where N
is the order of the differential equation)
• Find the derivative of each of the newly defined state equations
– In terms of the other state variables and the outputs
• Write the state equations

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The State Variables of a Dynamic System:

The time-domain analysis and design of control systems utilizes the concept
of the state of a system.

The state of a system is a set of variables such that the knowledge of these
variables and the input functions will, with the equations describing the
dynamics, provide the future state and output of the system.

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For a dynamic system, the state of a system is described in terms of a set of

state variables

[x1 (t ) x 2 (t )  x n (t )]
The state variables are those variables that determine the future behavior of
a system when the present state of the system and the excitation signals are
known. Consider the system shown in Figure 1, where y1(t) and y2(t) are the
output signals and u1(t) and u2(t) are the input signals. A set of state
variables [x1 x2 ... xn] for the system shown in the figure is a set such that
knowledge of the initial values of the state variables [x1(t0) x2(t0) ... xn(t0)] at
the initial time t0, and of the input signals u1(t) and u2(t) for t˃=t0, suffices to
determine the future values of the outputs and state variables.

Input Signals x(0) Initial conditions

Output Signals
u1(t)
u(t) y(t)
u2(t) System System
Input Output

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The state variables describe the future response of a system, given the
present state, the excitation inputs, and the equations describing the
dynamics.

A simple example of a state variable is the state of an on-off light switch.

The switch can be in either the on or the off position, and thus the state of
the switch can assume one of two possible values. Thus, if we know the
present state (position) of the switch at t0 and if an input is applied, we are
able to determine the future value of the state of the element.

The concept of a set of state variables that

represent a dynamic system can be illustrated in
terms of the spring-mass-damper system shown
k c
in Figure 2. The number of state variables chosen
to represent this system should be as small as
possible in order to avoid redundant state
m
variables. A set of state variables sufficient to
describe this system includes the position and the
velocity of the mass.
y(t) u(t)

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The State Differential Equation:

The state of a system is described by the set of first-order differential
equations written in terms of the state variables [x1 x2 ... xn]. These first-
order differential equations can be written in general form as

x 1  a11x1  a12 x 2   a1n x n  b11u1   b1m u m

x 2  a 21x1  a 22 x 2   a 2 n x n  b 21u1   b 2 m u m

x n  a n1x1  a n 2 x 2   a nn x n  b n1u1   b nm u m

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Thus, this set of simultaneous differential equations can be written in matrix

form as follows:
 x1   a11 a12  a1n   x1 
       b11  b1m   u1 
 a 2n  x 2  
        
d  x 2  a 21 a 22

dt           
       b n1  b nm  u m 
 x n  a n 1 a n2  a nn   x n 

n: number of state variables, m: number of inputs.

The column matrix consisting of the state variables is called the state vector
and is written as

 x1 
x 
x   2
 
 
x n 
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The vector of input signals is defined as u. Then the system can be

represented by the compact notation of the state differential equation as

x  A x  B u
This differential equation is also commonly called the state equation. The
matrix A is an nxn square matrix, and B is an nxm matrix. The state differential
equation relates the rate of change of the state of the system to the state of the
system and the input signals. In general, the outputs of a linear system can be
related to the state variables and the input signals by the output equation

yCxDu
Where y is the set of output signals expressed in column vector form. The
state-space representation (or state-variable representation) is comprised of
the state variable differential equation and the output equation.

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We can write the state variable differential equation for the RLC circuit as

 1
0   1
x   C x    u(t )
1 R C
0
    
L L
and the output as

y  0 Rx
The solution of the state differential equation can be obtained in a manner
similar to the approach we utilize for solving a first order differential equation.
Consider the first-order differential equation

x  ax  bu
Where x(t) and u(t) are scalar functions of time. We expect an exponential
solution of the form eat. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we have
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s X(s)  x 0  a X(s)  b U(s)

therefore,

x (0) b
X(s)   U(s)
sa sa

The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) results in the solution

t
x ( t )  eat x (0)   ea ( t ) b u () d
0
We expect the solution of the state differential equation to be similar to x(t)
and to be of differential form. The matrix exponential function is defined
as

A2t 2 Ak t k
e At  I  At   
2! k!
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which converges for all finite t and any A. Then the solution of the state
differential equation is found to be

t
x ( t )  e At x (0)   e A ( t   ) B u () d
0

X(s)  sI  A  x (0)  sI  A  B U(s)

1 1

where we note that [sI-A]-1=ϕ(s), which is the Laplace transform of ϕ(t)=eAt.

The matrix exponential function ϕ(t) describes the unforced response of
the system and is called the fundamental or state transition matrix.

t
x ( t )  ( t ) x (0)   ( t  ) B u () d
0

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THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE STATE EQUATION

The transfer function of a single input-single output (SISO) system can be

obtained from the state variable equations.

x  A x  B u
yCx
where y is the single output and u is the single input. The Laplace transform
of the equations

sX (s)  AX (s)  B U(s)

Y(s)  CX(s)

where B is an nx1 matrix, since u is a single input. We do not include initial

conditions, since we seek the transfer function. Reordering the equation

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[sI  A] X(s)  B U(s)

X(s)  sI  A  BU (s)  (s)BU (s)
1

Y(s)  C(s)BU (s)

Therefore, the transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/U(s) is

G (s)  C(s)B
Example:
Determine the transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/U(s) for the RLC circuit as described
by the state differential function

 1
0   1
x   C x u , y  0 R  x
1 R C
0
    
L L
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 R 1
 1  1 s  L  
(s)  sI  A  
1 C
 s C   
sI  A   1 R
(s)  1 s 
 s   L 
 L L
R 1
(s)  s  s 
2

L LC
Then the transfer function is

 R 
 s 
L  1  1
 
G (s)  0 R   (s) C (s)   C 
 
 1 s  0
 L (s)  (s) 
R / LC R / LC
G (s)  
 (s) s  s
2 R 1
L LC
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State transition matrix

d
x(t )  Ax(t )  Bu (t )
dt
y (t )  Cx(t )  Du (t )
The behavior of x(t) et y(t) :
1. Homogeneous solution of x(t)
2. Non-homogeneous solution of x(t)

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Homogeneous solution
x (t )  Ax(t ) 1 1
x(t )  L [( sI  A) ]x(0)
sX ( s)  x(0)  AX ( s)
 e At x(0)
X ( s)  ( sI  A) 1 x(0)
State transition matrix

(t )  e At  L1[( sI  A) 1 ]
x(t0 )  e At0 x(0)
 At0
x(0)  e x(t0 )
At  At0 A ( t t 0 )
x(t )  e e x(t0 )  e x(t0 )  (t  t0 ) x(t0 )
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Properties 
(t )  e At  L1[( sI  A) 1 ]

1. (0)  I
1
2.  (t )   (t )
3. x(0)   (t ) x(t )
4.  (t 2  t1 ) (t1  t0 )  (t 2  t0 )
(t )  (kt)
k
5.
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Non-homogeneous solution
d
x(t )  Ax(t )  Bu (t )
dt
y (t )  Cx(t )  Du (t )

sX ( s )  x(0)  AX ( s )  BU ( s )
( sI  A) X ( s )  x(0)  BU ( s )
1 1
X ( s )  ( sI  A) x(0)  ( sI  A) BU ( s )
x(t )  L1[( sI  A) 1 ]x(0)  L1[( sI  A) 1 BU ( s )]
t
x(t )   (t ) x(0)    (t   ) Bu ( )d
0

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t
x(t )  (t ) x(0)   (t   ) Bu ( )d
0
t
x(t )  (t  t0 ) x(t0 )   (t   ) Bu ( )d
t0
t
y (t )  C(t  t0 ) x(t0 )   C(t   ) Bu ( )d  Du (t )
t0

Zero-input response Zero-state response

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Example 1  x1   0 1   x1  0

 x    2  3  x   1u (t )
 2   2   
x(0)  0 0
T
let

 2e t
 e 2t
e 1  e 2t 
(t )  L1[( sI  A) 1 ]  e At   t  2t 
  2 e  2 e  e t  2e 2t 

t
x(t )  (t ) x(0)   (t   ) Bu ( )d
0

Ans:
 x1    2e t  e  2t 
1 3 L1[( sI  A) 1 BU ( s)]
x    2 2
 2    2e  2e  2t 
 t

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(t )  L1[( sI  A) 1 ]
 x1   0 1 0   x1  0 0
 x    0  4 3   x   1 0   u1 
 2   2    u 
 x3   1  1  2  x3   0 1  2 
 x1 
 y1 (t )  1 0 0  
 y (t )  0 0 1  x2 
 2   x 
 3

adj ( sI  A)
( sI  A) 1 
sI  A
 s 2  6s  11 s  2 3 
1  
  3 s 2
 2 3s
s ( s  4)( s  2)  3  3s  
 s4  s  1 s  4 s 
2


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