186 Electricity and Magnetism

about a few mega he

of the alloys by
(4)
vehicl

12
Transient Currents
12.1. Growth of current in circuit
a
containing a resistance and
inductance
Consider a circuit having an inductance L and a resistance R
connected in series to a cell of steady emf E
(Fig. 12.1). When the key K is pressed, there is
a gradual growth
of current in the circuit from
zero to maximum value l. Let I be the
instantaneous current at any instant. K
E
Then, the induced back emf e = - L Fig. 12.1

E = RI + 1 (1)
When the current reaches the maximum value Io, the back emf,

0.

Hence E = RIo . (2)

Substituting this value for E in Eq. (1),
dl
RI = RI+Lor R - ) =L
dt

or

Integrating, -log% )=+C . (3)

where C is the constant of integration.

When t0, I= 0, - -

log, I, = C
Substituting this value of C in Eq. (3),

- log( , - D = l o g / or log, - -log,= -

188
 189
Transient Currents

log -
= e
- (R/L) or 1 =(RIL)r

(RIL)r . (4)
I =- current in the LR circuit.
Eq. (4) gives the value of the instantaneous circuit.
The quantity (UR) is called the time constant of the

k0- ) = 1-4=0.632
I l=

a L-R circuit is
the time taken by the
Thus, the time constant LUR of maximum value of
to 0.632 times the steady
Current to grow from zero
current in the circuit.) be
when t =
2/R, 3L/R..., the value of current will
Similarly,
final maximum current.
0.8647, 0.9502,... of the
when t oo, 1 =%
When t= 0, I 0 and
=

the current I to
is the time taken by
Greaterthe value of LUR, longer
reach its maximum value (Fig. 12.2).
E/R

Medium(LIR)
Mc
(1T)
Large(L/R)

Time (milliseconds)
Fig. 12.2
Circuit Containing
L and R
Decay of Current in a d
12.2. again
broken, an induced emf, equal to -Lis
When the circuit is
the rate of decay of the
L and it slows down
inductance to zero.
produced in
the from maximum value l
The current in the circuit decays 0. The emf
E =
time t. In this
current. case
curent at
let/ be the
During the decay, c u r r e n t is
for the decay of
equation . (1)
0 RI+ L ddt

-a
 190 Electricity and Magnetism

R
Integrating. log, 1+C whereCisa constant.
I =-

When = 0, I= log, =C
log,= -

+log,0 or log, L
(R/L)

I= I e (RIL)
.2)
Eq. (2) represents the current at any instant f during decay. A
between current and time is shown in graph
Fig. 12.3.
When t UR, I = le=o =0.365 %
t 2UR, I =
lge =
0.1035 %
t 3UR, I =Ihe =
0.05
Therefore,
the time constant LIR of a R-L circuit
may also be defined
as the time in which the current in the
circuit falls to 1le of its maximum
value when external source of e.m.f. is removed.

I
ay of Curnente Lar
medium (Lge (L/ R)
malSmal (LIR
Fig. 12.3 Fig. 12.4
The rate of decay of current is
(R/IL)' - -
Thus it is clear that
greater the ratio R/L, or
smaller the time constant ''******'***"'***'****"

UR, the more rapidly does Growth

the current die away (Fig.

12.4). Decay
shows that
Fig. 12.5 0
the growth and decay Time
curves are complementary.
Fig. 12.5
 Transient Currents 191

Example 1. An e.m.f. 10 volts is applied to a circuit havirng a

resistance of 10 ohms and an inductance of 0.5 henry. Find the time
required by the current to attain 63.2% of its final value. What is the

constant of the circuit ?

Sol. RilL

Given L 63.2, R= 0.5 =20

20
100 L
63.2 20r

100
= 1 -e
20
1 0.632 0.368
e = -
=

1 = 2.717
0.368
20r log,2.717
t x 2.3026 x log,o 2.717
2.3026x 0.4341 = 0.05 sec.
20
The time constant of the circuit is

902020 Sec.
inductance of 500 mH and a
resistance of 5 ohms are
Example 2. An Find the final current. If now
10 volts.
connected in series with an e.mf of
wo terminals are
connected together, find the
the cell is removed and the
and (i) 0.2 sec.
current after (i) 0.05 sec.
24
Finalcurrent
=
Sol.
RUL

During discharge,
I =
he
5
Now 00x500 x 10
10
- 10x0.05=
2e = 1.213A
1.213A
0.05 sec., I =

() When
=

I =
- 10x0.2
2e 0.271A
When t = 0.2 sec.,
(ii) a Resistor

12.3 Charge
and Discharge ofa Capacitor Cthrough
a resistance
R are
and
of Charge. A capacitor When the
a Growth a Morse key K (Fig. 12.6).
cell of emf E through let
connected to a
current I flows through
R. At any instant r,
a momentary
key is pressed, capacitance C.
on the capacitor of
b e the charge
across capacitor =
Q/C
P.D.
across
resistor RI
P.D.
 192 Electricity and Magnetism

The emf equation of the circuit is R

E = (0/C) + RI . (1)
E = (0/C) + R(40/dt)

I= dQ/dt.
The capacitor continues getting
charged till it attains the maximum charge E
o At that instantl= dQldt = 0. The Fig. 12.6
P.D. across the capacitor is E =
QyC
i.e., when, o =0and E=

o - ) CR2
dt
do . (2)
-

Integrating,- log, (Q, CR

t K

where K is a constant.
Whent 0, = 0 - log, 2 = K

log, ( - ) =CR- log, Q

log (O 0)=-R log, O

log, (Q- ) -

log, Lo =
- *CR
lo -
CR

CR
or 1 =CR
Qo
1- eR ... (3)
The term CR is called time constant of the circuit.
At the end oftime t= CR, Q = (1 - e") = 0.6322

Thus, the time constant may be defined as the time taken by the

capacitor to get charged

to U.032 imes its maximun value.7
Transient Currents 193

The growth of charge is shown

in Fig. 12.7.
The rate of growth of charge is
Q
ddt CR =T-
CR
Charge

Thus it is seen that smaller the

product CR, the more rapidly does
Discharge
the Time
charge grow the capacitor.
on

The rate of growth of the

is rapid in the beginning Fig. 12.7
charge and
it becomes less and less as the
charge approaches nearer and nearer the steady value.
( b ) Decay of charge (Discharging of a Capacitor through
Resistance)
Let the capacitor having charge , be now discharged by releasing
the Morse key K (Fig. 12.6). The charge flows out of the capacitor and this
constitutes a current. In this case E = 0.

R dt 0 . (1)

or

log = - +K, where K is a constant

Integrating, CR
When=0, Q = o log, 2o =K

log, =R log.

- tICR
or o CR o e

= t/CR
.(2)
This shows that the charge in the capacitor decays exponentially and
becomes zero after infinite interval of time (Fig. 12.7).
The rate of discharge is

tUCR
(3)
dt CR CR
Thus, smaller the time-constant CR, the quicker is the discharge of
the capacitor.
In Eq. (2), if we put t = CR, then Q = e = 0.368 Q
Hence time constant may also be defined as the time taken by the
Current to fall from maximum to 0.368 of its maximum value.
 Electricity and Magneusn

a
194 through
DC supply
is charged
by
to reach
the charge
1. A capacitor s e c o n d s for ?
/Example takes 0.5 the capacitor
it 1f capacitance of
Yesistdnce of
2 megaohms. what is the
itsfinal value,
three quarters of 3/4.
1 = 0.5s, Q/2
Sol. Here R =2x 10° 2, e)
=(1
-

or =
0 , (1
0.5 . 16
O
Cx(2x 10)
or 1 e

0.5
0.5
. -= log, 4

or e Cx(2x 10) =4 or
Cx (2x 10)
0.5 = 0.18 x 10 F =0.18 F.
C
or
(2.3026 logo 4) (2x 10) and
0.1 pF is first charged the
capacitor of capacitance Find the time,
Etample 2. A of 10 megaohm.
a resistance
ther discharged through
its original value.
take to fall to half
potential will
CK
-CR of
Or O = e
tCR or In
Sol. Q= 2e

t CR ln

Q CV ard, =CV
t CR In

Here, C 10 F; R = 10' Q, v/V =F 2.

t= 10 x 10 x In 2 = 0.6931 s.

A resistance R and 2uF capaciter i series are

Example 3. a
connected to a 200 volt direct supply. Across the capacitor is a neon lamnp
of R to the lamF trike
that strikes at 120 volis. Calculate the value
ma:e

5 seconds after switch has been closed.

Sol. The resistance kR must be such that the p.d. across the capacitor
should rise to 120 volt in 5 seconds after the switch is closed. The lamp
would then strike.
The equation of charging is
Q Q (1 - e IRC
 Transient Currents 195

or
CV CV (1 R
= -

or V= Vo (1-R
Here, V = 120 volt, V = 200 volt, t = 5 sec and

C 2x 10 farad, 1
120 200 (1 - e 5/2 x 10R

or 2x 10 R5
5 log, 2 1.6094 0.6931 = 0.9163
2x10R log, 5
= - =

R= 2.73x 10 ohm = 2.73 megaohm

2x 10x 0.9163
12.4Measurement of High Resistance by Leakage
When a capacitor of capacitance C and initial charge is allowed

to discharge through a resistance R for a time t, the charge remaining on

the capacitor is given by

/CR

Co = t/CR
e

1o CR
Clog, (2/0) 2.3026 Clogo (2/2)
If R is high, CR will be high and
will be
the rate of discharge of capacitor
very slow. Thus
if we determine Q/0
from experiment, then R can be calcu
lated. R
Connections are made as shown in ww
Fig. 12.8. C is a capacitor
of known ca- K2
resistance to be
pacitance, R is the high
measured, B.G. is a ballistic galvano-me B.G
and Ki, K2, K3 are tap K3
ter, E is a cell,
keys.
the ca-
Keeping K2 and K3 open,
depressing the key K1
pacitor is charged by
and at once Kq is
K. K is then opened Fig. 12.8

closed. The capacitor discharges through

196 Electricity and Magnetism

the galvanometer which records a throw 6,. The throw 6, is proportional to

o The capacitor is again charged to the maximum value keeping
Kz and K, open and closing K. K^ is then opened and K, is closed for a
known time t. Some of the eharge leaks through R. K, is opened and at once
K is closed. The charge Q remaining on the capacitor then discharges
through the galvanometer. The resulting throw is noted. Then Q 9

Now,

R:
2.3026C logjo (/6)
A series of values of t and 0 are obtained. A graph is plotted between
t and logio (6/0) which is a straight line. Its slope gives the mean value of

As C is known, the value of R can be calculated.

lo81o (8)
Example 1. If the charge on a capacitor of capacitance 2 uF in
leaking through a high resistance of 100 megaohms is
maximum value, calculate the time of reduced to half its
leakage.
Sol. R
2.3026 Clog1o
Here, C 2x10 F, R =10° Q, Q/0 2.
.
2.3026 CR logo Q/0) =
2.3026 (2 x10) 10° log1a2
= 138.7 s.

Example 2. In
experiment determine
an to
leakage, capacitor of 0.2 pF is used. It is first high resistance by
a

discharged through a B.G. The observed kick was 12 cmfully charged and
capacitor was fully charged again and allowed to leak on theRscale. The
The remaining charge in C through for 2 sec.
gave a kick of 6 cm on the same scale
discharged through the B.G. when
Calculate R.
Sol R
2.3026 C logo (00)
2
= 14.43 megaohms.
2.3026x (0.2 x 10 ) logo (12/6)
125 Growth of charge in a Circuit with
Resistance Inductance, Capacitance and
Consider a circuit containing an
inductance L,
resistance R joined in series to a cell of emf E capacitance C and
is oressed, the capacitor is (Fig. 12.9). When the key K
chaTgCa.
and/ the current in the circuit at
Let Q be the
an instant t charge on the
capacitor
during charging. Then, the p.d.
 197
Transient Currents
inductance coil
in the
across the capacitor is Q/C and the self induced emf
is L (dlldi), both being opposite
to the direction of E. The p.d.
L C
across the resistance R is
RI.

The equation of emf's is

K
E
Fig. 12.9

. (1)
L+RI +=E
But Ianddd de d

df
+ C E 0

or

R k, wehave
Putting= 2b and LC
0
.. (2)
2b + 0
-

CE) =

dt d
Letx = Q-CE. Then d and dt ddt
. (3)
Eq. (2) becomes, d+2 dt
+kr = 0
dt
is
general
solution of Eq. (3)
Hence the most

the capacitor.
steady charge
on
final
Now, CE =Q
x =Q CE =Q
Aeb
+N-
+ Vo.-ki¥ +Be
R-b-V-
Hence Q
.. (4)
or
Using initial conditions:

at 0, Q =0 .(5)
O Oo+ (A + B) or A +B = -
 198

Electricity and Magnetism

de
d A(-b+ Yb- d V-
BI- b -

V(B -K)1e-b-V-
Atr =0, =dt 0
0 A -b Y( k)] B[-
=
+
V(
-

+ b
Vb -

k) A B]
-

k)
b(A+ B) = -

be
or A B =- - Qb
.(6)
Solving Eqs. (5) and (6),

A- -6) .(7)

B -5
b )
. (8)

Substituting the values of A and B in

Eq. (4), we have
- 0| b
-.

b
(9)

Case I. If b> k, Nb -

k) is real. The
charge on the capacitor
grows exponentially with time and
:attains the maximum value Damped
2o
asymptotically, (curve l of Fig.| oscillatory
12.10). The charge is known as over
damped or dead beat. Critically
damped
Case II. If b' =
k, the charge
rises to the maximum value 2 in a Over damped
short time (curve 2 of Fig. 12.10).
Such a charge is called critically
damped.
III. If
Case Fig. 12.10
b k , VB - K) isimaginary.
 199
Transient Currents

Let Vp k = io where i = v-T and o= V -b

Eq. (9) may be written as

b
io

br
e
e
-

a 2 2i

bt

o Q cos
ar+sin or

(0 cos wt + b sin or)

and b k cos a so that tan a = o/b.

Let o = k sin a =

-bt
(k sin a cos ot + kcos a sin ot)

- bt

or
ke sin ( or + a ) | .. (10)

-a 1 -
sin

charge as shown by the

This equation represents a damped oscillatory settles
above and below 2, till it finally
curve (3). The charge oscillates
the circuit is given by
The frequency of oscillation in
down to 2, value.

2Tt 2T

When R = 0, V =
27 VLC
Resistor in
an inductor and
a
, 126Discharge ofa Capacitorinthrough
LCR circuit)
series (Decay of charge
C, an
Consider a containing a capacitor of capacitanceis a cell.
circuit
E
resistance R joined in series (Fig. 12.11).
inductance L and a
maximum charge Q, by
The capacitor is charged to
K, is kept open.
the capacitor
the key K. On opening K, and closing key Kz,
closing
200 Electricity and Magnetism

discharges through the inductance L

E
and resistance R. Let I be the current in
the circuit and be the charge in the
capacitor at any instant during
1s K2
discharge. The circuit equation then
L M
+RI
dt 0 L

Fig. 12.11
But and =

. (1)

Let2b and= then

+ 2 dko
dt
=o . (2)
d
The general solution of this equation is

A- V- +Beb-Ve-
. (3)
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
. . (4)
When t 0, Q and fromEq.(3), A + B
= =

=A (-b+V?- )+B+Ns' -ih

dt

+B-6 V2-) b -VEE

When, t =0, = 0

A (-b + V - K) + B(- b - VB - k) = 0

b(A B) +
b -k (A -

B) =0
- b e + Vb - k (A B) = 0

A B = bOo . (5)

From Eqs. (4) and (5), we g

b
and B =
- 1+
V -
 201
Transient Currents

Putting these values of A and B in Eq. (3), we get

+
V -k)

(1- b . (6)

positive and the charge of

Case I. If b > ki, V(b -

k) is real and
asymptotically (curveel
the capacitor decays exponentially, becoming
zero
non-oscillatory or
of Fig. 12.12). This discharge is known as
over damped,
dead beat. - bt

Case IL. When b = k, 0 Q, (1+ bt)e

is known
This represents non-oscillatory discharge. This discharge
a
The charge decreases to
zero
as criticalhy damped (Curve 2 of Fig. 12.12).
exponentially in a short time.
Case III. If b' < k, V(B -

k°) is imaginary.
6-K =
io, where a =V(k - b5

Time, t
Fig. 12.12
io
b e

-a - i00
iot
e
- br
2 2

- bt

(0 cos or + b sin aor)

and b k cos a so that tan o =

Let = k sin a =
 202 Electricity and Magnetism

O,e "k
(cos ot sin a + Cos & sin ot)

pe "k
sin ( + a)

21'

Sin

RLC
.. (7)
This equation represents a damped oscillatory charge as shown by
the curve (3). The charge oscillates above and below zero till it finally
settles down to zero value.
The frequency of oscillation in the circuit is given by

R
y2 2t 21 42

When R 0, V =
1
2T VLC
The condition for oscillatory discharge is

orR < 2
V
Importance in Wireless Telegraphy. The discharge
capacitor of a
through an inductance is oscillatory if the resistance R of the circuit is less
than 2 V(C). During the discharge, the energy of the
stored in the magnetic field produced in the inductance
charged capacitor is
coil, then again
back in the electric field between the
capacitor plates, and so on. If the
fields are caused to alternate rapidly, some energy escapes from the circuit
permanently in the form of
electro-magnetic waves which travel through
space with the speed of light. These waves form the basis of wireless
telegraphy.
Messages can be transmitted from one place to another with the help
of codes.

Example 1. Ifa battery, of emf 100 volts, is

connected in series with
an inductance of 100 mH,
capacitor ofa
0.05 uF and a resistance of
100 2, find (i) the frequency of the oscillatory
current, (i) the logarithmic
decrement and (iü) the final capacitor charge.
100
Sol. 2.5 x10
4x(10
Transient Currents 203

and 2x10
LC10x0.05x10 -6

R/4L'< 1/LC. Hence the charging ofthe capacitor is oscillator.

V -R N(2x 10 - 2.5x 10)

27t LC 42 2x3.14
= 7076.6 Hz.
100 = 0.707.
The logarithmic decrement =2 2x 10x 7076.6
The final capacitor charge Q = EC = 100x 0.05 x 10 = 54C.

is made to
Example charged capacitor of capacitance 0.01 uF
2. A
coil of inductance 0.I henry and
discharge through a circuit consisting ofa unknown
an unknown resistance. What
should be the maximum value of the
is to be oscillatory.
resistance, if the discharge of the capacitor
resistance for the discharge
Sol. If R is the maximum value of the
to be oscillatory, then
4x0.1
or R V
= 6324 Q2

4L
0.01x10
whether the discharge of a capacitor
Example 3. (i) Find out
the following elements, is oscillatory.
through a circuit containing R = 250 ohm
L = 10 mH,
C 0.2 uF,
find the frequency.
(ii) f so,

the maximum value of the resistance possible so as to

Calculate
(iii)
make the discharge oscillatory.
Sol.
oscillations is that
() The condition for

4L

R< V
Ac
orR or
C

4x 10x10 = 447 ohm

We have V 0.2x 10
250 ohm
It is given that R
=

R N
Therefore the discharge
is oscillatory.