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Short Notes

Uploaded by

varunivavaroor
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© © All Rights Reserved
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2024 – 25

Waves

General Equation of Wave Motion


d2y d2y
= v2
dt 2 dx 2
 x
y ( x, t ) = f  t  
 v
where, y(x, t) should be finite everywhere.
 x
f  t +  represents wave travelling in –ve x-axis.
 v
 x
f  t −  represents wave travelling in + ve x-axis.
 v
y = A sin(t  kx + )

Terms Related to Wave Motion (For 1-D Progressive Sine Wave)


Wave Number (or Propagation Constant) (k)

k = 2 /  = rad m −1
v
( )
Phase of Wave
The argument of harmonic function (t  kx + ) is called. phase of the wave.
Phase difference () : difference in phases of two particles at any time t.
2
 = x where x is path difference

2
Also  =  t
T

Speed of Transverse Wave Along the String


T
v= where T = tension

 = mass per unit length

Velocity of Longitudinal Waves


Y
• Velocity of longitudinal waves in solid, v =

K
• Velocity of longitudinal waves in liquid and gas, v =

Where Y → Young’s modulus, K → Bulk modulus

Newton’s Formula:
P
Velocity of sound in gas, v =

Laplace Formula:
P C
v= , where  = P and P = adiabatic pressure.
 CV

Power Transmitted Along the String

Average Power  P = 22 f 2 A2v


 P
Intensity I= = 22 f 2 A2v
S

Reflection of waves
• If we have a wave
yi(x, t) = a sin (wt – kx) then,
(i) Equation of wave reflection at a rigid boundary yr(x, t) = a sin(kx + wt + ) or yr(x, t) = –a sin(kx + wt)
i.e the reflected wave is 180° out of pahse.
(ii) Equation of wave reflected at an open boundary yr(x, t) = a sin(kx + wt)
i.e. the reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave.

Standing/Stationary Waves
y1 = A sin ( t − kx + i )

y2 = A sin ( t − kx + 2 )

  −    + 
y1 + y2 = 2 A cos  kx + 2 1  sin  t + 1 2 
 2   2 

  − 
The quantity 2 A cos  kx + 2 1  represents resultant amplitude at x. At some position resultant amplitude is zero
 2 
these are called nodes. At some positions resultant amplitude is 2A, these are called antinodes.
Distance between successive nodes or antinodes = 
Distance between adjacent nodes and antinodes = /4.
All the particles in same segment (portion between two successive nodes) vibrate in same phase.
Since nodes are permanently at rest so energy can not be transmitted across these.

Vibrations of Strings (Standing Wave)


Fixed at Both Ends
First harmonics or Fundamental  1 T
frequency L= , f1 =
2 2L 
Second harmonics or First overtone 2 2 T
L= , f2 =
2 2L 
Third harmonics or Second overtone 3 3 T
L= , f3 =
2 2L 

nth harmonics or (n –1)th overtone n n T


L= , fn =
2 2L 
String Free at One End
First harmonics or Fundamental  1 T
frequency L= , f1 =
4 4L 

Third harmonics or First overtone 3 3 T


L= ,f =
4 4L 

Fifth harmonics or Second overtone 5 5 T


L= , f5 =
4 4L 

(2n + 1)th harmonic or nth overtone (2n + 1)


L= ,
4
(2n + 1) T
f 2 n +1 =
4L 

Organ Pipes
1. In a closed organ pipe only odd harmonics are present.
V
v1 = (fundamental)
4L
v2 = 3v (third harmonic or first overtone)
v3 = 5v
vn = (2n – 1)v
2. In an open organ pipe both odd and even harmonics are present.
V
v '1 = = v' (first harmonic)
2L
v '2 = 2v ' (second harmonic or first overtone)
v '3 = 3v '
v 'n = (2n − 1)v '
3. Resonance tube: If l1 and l2 are the first and second resonance length with a tuning fork of frequency ‘ν’ then
the speed of sound.
v = 4v ( L2 + 0.3D ) Where D = internal diameter of resonance tube v = 2v(l2 + l1)
l2 − l1
End correction = 0.3D =
2
Beats Frequency
• Beat frequency = Difference in frequency of two sources = No. of beats per second, Beat frequency = |v1 –v2|
• v2 = v1  beat
• Beat frequency is always a positive value. This fact can be used to decide about + or – sign in the above equation.
Collisions
(a) Collision is the interaction between two (or) more particles where exchange of momentum takes place.
(b) In case of collisions as the impulsive force acting during collision is internal, the total momentum of system
always remains conserved.
(c) If the velocities of the colliding particles are along the same line before and after the collision then the collision
is said to be one dimensional collision.
(d) In a collision, if the motion of colliding particles before and after the collision are not along the initial line of
motion, then the collision is said to be oblique collision.
(e) In an oblique elastic collision, if m1 = m2 and m2 is initially at rest, then after the collision the two masses will
move in directions inclined at 90° to each other.

Doppler Effect in Sound


1. If V, Vo, Vs and Vm are the velocity of sound, observer, source and medium respectively, then the apparent
V + Vm  Vo
frequency v = v
V + Vm Vs
2. If the medium is at rest (vm = 0), then
V  Vo
v' = v
V Vs

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