EEE 334

Lab Experiment 3
PN Junction Diodes and Applications

Dr.Ozev

Wataru Tamaki (1222401232)

Hoyeol Bae (1220518572)

 Introduction:
………….

Equipment & Components table:

Equipment name Quantity

Breadboard 1

Curve Tracer 1

Oscilloscope 1

Digital Multimeter 1

Signal Generators 1

DC Power Supply 1

Transformer 1

Component name Value Quantity

Diodes 1N5234, 1N5237, 1N5239, 1 each
1N4005
Capacitors 1000µF, 100nF 2, 1, respectively

Resistors 100kΩ 1

10kΩ 1

1kΩ 2 in 3.4 / 1 in the other

560Ω 1
Bridge rectifier DB101 1

Course of action:
3.1 Current-Voltage Characteristics of PN junction diodes

We followed the lab manual instructions, utilizing a curve tracer and oscilloscope
to collect measurements. The obtained values for forward and reverse bias curves on
three diodes were exported to a CSV file. In Excel, we created scatter plots with voltage on
the x-axis and the current on the y-axis, allowing us to visualize the curves. By identifying
points where voltage spikes occurred and having Excel generate a trendline through them,
we derived equations for the diode’s Turn-on Voltages and Breakdown Voltages for each
diode. This is done by solving for the x-intercept by substituting 0 for y.

3.2 DC analysis of a diode

We assumed Vd = 0.7 (V), then calculated the Vout and id; Vo = (V), id = 4.3 (mA).
Then we followed the manual instructions and constructed the circuit then measured the
Vo, Vd, and id using DMM (digital multimeter). We compared the results to the calculated
values and obtained %errors. We also simulated those parameters in LTSpice and
compared the results to the calculated results and the measured results.

3.3 Small signal (AC) analysis of a diode

We first calculated the Id using the assumption of Vd which is Vd = 0.7V. Then we

constructed the circuit along the manual instructions. We obtained the waveform of Vout
and Vd using the oscilloscope. We also obtained the waveform of Id by utilizing the MATH
function built in the oscilloscope. DMM was also used to measure the DC and rms(AC)
values of Vout and Vd. The DC and rms of id were also obtained by using the result of Vout
and the value of the resistor. We then compared the DMM results to the LTSpice simulation
results to obtain the %errors.

3.4 Half-Wave Rectifier

In this section, we constructed the circuit along the manual instructions and
obtained the waveform with the oscilloscope. The circuit includes two 1kΩ resistors, a
diode (1N4005), and the signal generator as a voltage source. We applied 1kHz sine wave
with 15 Vpp. We checked the function of this circuit (Half-Wave Rectifier) by comparing
the waves of the Vs and the Vout.

3.5 Full-Wave Rectifier

In this section, we utilized the pre-built circuit which contains a transformer and a
Bridge Rectifier in the lab room to obtain the waveform and observe the function of
Full-Wave rectifiers.

3.6 Peak Detector (Rectifier)

In this section, we constructed a circuit with a 100kΩ resistor, a 100nF capacitor,

and a diode (1N4005) following the manual instructions. We utilized the oscilloscope to
obtain the waveform of the Vs and the VL with peak-peak and rms values as relevant
parameters. We checked the function of Peak Detector Rectifiers by comparing the waves
of the Vs and the Vout. We also simulated the circuit in LTSpice and compared the results
with the ones from the physical circuit.

3.7 Diode Clamper

In this section, we constructed the circuit following the manual instructions and
measured the Vs and the Vout. We used a 100nF capacitor and a diode (1N4005) to
construct the circuit. We then applied 1kHz of sine wave with 15Vpp and 5V of DC voltage
to the circuit to obtain the waveform of the Vs and Vout with their Vpp and Vrms by using
the oscilloscope. We also simulated the circuit and compared the simulated results to the
measured results including the waveforms from both parts.

3.8 Diode Limiter (Clipper)

In this section, we constructed the circuit following the manual instructions and
obtained the waveform and the relevant parameters of the Vs and the Vout. In LTSpice, we
drew the equivalent circuit and conducted the simulation. We compared the measured
results with the simulated results including the waveforms from both parts.

3.9 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

In this section, we used 560Ω and 1kΩ resistors and a diode (1N4005) to
construct the circuit following the manual instructions. We then applied 1kHz of sine wave
with 5Vpp and obtained the waveform and the relevant parameters of the Vs and the Vout.
In LTSpice, we drew the equivalent circuit and conducted the simulation. We compared the
measured results with the simulated results including the waveforms from both parts.

3.10 Voltage Multiplier circuit

In this section, we used a 10kΩ resistor, two 1000nF capacitors, and two 1N4005
diodes to construct the circuit following the manual instructions. We applied 20Vpp sine
wave at 1kHz to obtain the waveform with the relevant parameters of the Vout. In LTSpice,
we drew the equivalent circuit and conducted the simulation. We compared the measured
results with the simulated results including the waveforms from both parts.

Results:

3.1 CURRENT VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODES:

 Figure 1. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5234 in Forward
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.

Result: Estimated turn on voltage: 0.685V

 Figure 2. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5237 in Forward
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.

Result: Estimated turn on voltage:0.732V

 Figure 3. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5239 in Forward
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.
 Result: Estimated turn on voltage: 0.693V

Figure 4. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5234 in reverse
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.
Result: Estimated break down voltage: -0.672V
 Figure 5. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5237 in reverse
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.

Result: Estimated break down voltage: -0.695V

 Figure 6. A chart from excel displaying the Diode Characteristics of 1N5239 in reverse
Bias. Xaxis = Voltage (V), Y - axis - Current (mA or A) with a trend line displaying the
equation of intercept.
 Result: Estimated break down voltage:

-0.705V

Discussion:

——————————————————

3.2 DC Analysis of diode:

Hand calculation : Find Id and Vout

Vout: Vout = Vt -Vd = 5 -0.7 =4.3V

Id: Id= (Vout)/R = 4.3/1000 = 4.3mA

LTSPICE diagram and result and plot: .op and dc sweep

Hardware: Measurement
 Vout= 4.1V

id = 0.136mA

Vd= 0.649V

Error Calculation:

% error = |Actual - expected| / expected * 100

Find % error:

Vd hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 0% 7.3%

LTspice 0% NA 7.3%

Hardware 7.3% 7.3% NA

Id hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 0% 2.56%

LTspice 0% NA 2.56%

Hardware 2.56% 2.56% NA

Vo hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 0% 2.56%

LTspice 0% NA 2.56%

Hardware 2.56% 2.56% NA

 Discussion:

The initial part of the lab provides a solid groundwork for comprehending the
subsequent sections. Serving as a precursor to exploring the practical applications of
diodes, this segment aims to establish a tangible cognitive framework in students,
elucidating the behavior of diodes in response to input voltages and currents. Although
this phase likely consumed the most time, it was primarily due to the meticulous
processing of data obtained from the oscilloscope. Notably, no issues or unexpected
results arose during this experiment. Furthermore, the data served to reinforce the
assumptions underlying diode calculations, as each diode tested exhibited no output until
the source voltage reached approximately 0.7V, thus offering empirical support for the
constant voltage drop model.

———————————————-

3.3 Small Signal Analysis of Diode:

Hand calculation: Vout and Id

LTspice: diagram, plot (.tran) and result:

Figure 3.3.1 V across the diode (Vd)

Figure 3.3.2 V across the load (Vout)

 Figure 3.3.3 I Across the load (Id)

Hardware:
● Oscilloscope output graph showing Input Voltage, Output Voltage and Id and Vd.
Vs, Vout, and Id
Vd with DC coupling
 Vd with AC Coupling
● Digital multimeter readings
● DC - Vout, Vd, id
Vout =4.19V
Vd = 0.650V
Id = 4.15mA
● AC - RMS of Vout, Vd, Id and find regular Vout, Id and Vd using formula:
Vout(ac) = Vout(rms) * sqrt(2) and similarly for Vd and Id.
Vout = 0.333V
Vd = 3.47mV
● Find total Vout, Id, Vd using formula:
○ Vout(total) = Vout(dc) + Vout(ac)
 Vout,tot = 4.52V

Vd,tot = 653mV

Id = 4.15mA

Error Calculation:

% error = |Actual - expected| / expected * 100

Find % error:

Vd hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 1% 7.14%

LTspice 1% NA 6.2%

Hardware 7.14% 6.2% NA

Vo hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 0% 2.56%

LTspice 0% NA 2.56%

Hardware 2.56% 2.56% NA

Id hand calculation LTspice Hardware

Hand Calculation NA 0% 3.49%

LTspice 0% NA 3.49%

Hardware 3.49% 3.49% NA

Discussion:
The primary objective of this particular section is to explore how a diode behaves when
subjected to an imperfect input signal. This is demonstrated by maintaining all parameters
identical to those in the DC analysis, except for the addition of a 1V peak-to-peak
waveform. Consequently, the focus shifts to understanding the extent of variation
introduced by a diode in an oscillating system. Hence, the lab requests images of the diode
voltage at both 200mV/div and 5mV/div to visually depict the slight oscillation in the
voltage drop across the diode. This oscillation results in variation in the voltage across the
resistor, influenced by both the 1V sinusoidal voltage and the fluctuating voltage drop
across the diode.

While conducting experiments in this section, challenges were encountered, primarily of a

conceptual nature. Instead of determining the percent error based on the difference
between the AC equivalent of the output voltage through the diode and zero, an attempt
was made to compare the small signal AC variation using a relative root mean square
between the experimental and simulated diode. However, due to the exceedingly small
values involved, the error values exceeded the expected tolerances. Resolving this issue
involved recalculating the root mean square of the AC voltage from zero, rather than
basing it solely on the minute (~6mV peak-to-peak) variance in the diode voltage
observed in the SPICE simulations.

———————————————

3.4 Half wave rectifier:

LTspice: Diagram, plot (.tran) , result

Figure 3.4.1 Vs vs time

Figure 3.4.2 Vout vs time

Hardware: plot, result

Results LTSpice Lab

Vsp (V) 7.5 7.4

 VLp (V) 1.7 1.8

%Error Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

Vsp 1.33%

VLp 5.88%

%Error Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

Vs,rms 1.24%

VL,rms 2.41%

Discussion:

In this segment of the lab, the primary focus was on introducing the utilization of diodes
for processing input signals. This aspect serves as a fundamental step in comprehending
how diodes are employed as tools for signal regulation in subsequent sections. Given that
the complexity of the half-wave rectifier is nearly equivalent to that of DC analysis, there
were no conceptual challenges to grasp. Essentially, the purpose of this section is to
demonstrate to students how logical deductions regarding diode functionality can be
utilized effectively.

———————————————

3.5 Full wave rectifier:

Hardware: plot, result

Discussion:

This introduces a
heightened level of intricacy to the half-wave rectifier discussed in the
preceding section, yet the objectives of this segment remain nearly identical
to those of the previous one. Essentially, this experiment aims to illustrate
the physical configuration of a full-wave rectifier more than anything else.
Since there is limited scope for experimentation in this regard, no issues were
encountered. In essence, if students grasp and can apply the concepts of the half-wave
rectifier, they can likewise apply those of the full-wave rectifier.

——————————————-

3.6 Peak detector

LTspice: Diagram, plot (.tran) , result

Figure 3.6.1 Vs vs time

 Figure 3.6.2 Vout vs time

Hardware: plot, result

Results LTSpice Lab

Vop (V) 0.35V 0.468V

 Vrms (V) 6.52V 6.47V

%Error Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

Vsp 1.33%

Vs,rms 1.43%

%Error Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

VLp 33.7%

VL,rms 0.767%

Discussion:

In this phase of the lab, the practical applications of various forms of diode-controlled
signal analysis start to become evident. Here, we introduce the incorporation of a
capacitor in parallel with the load resistor within a simple half-wave rectifier circuit. This
arrangement leads to the diode "charging" the capacitor when the input signal reaches a
sufficient level. Subsequently, the capacitor slowly discharges, maintaining the peak
voltage it experienced through the resistor. The rate of voltage decay depends on the
capacitance strength, and the amount discharged until the next input signal peak, causing
a recharge, is known as the "ripple voltage." In our specific case, as we endeavor to design
a peak detector, it's crucial to minimize the ripple voltage.

The construction and conceptual understanding of this section posed few challenges, and
there were no unexpected outcomes in the results obtained.

——————————————

3.7 Diode Clamper:

LTspice: Diagram, plot (.tran) , result

Figure 3.7.1 Vs vs time (LTSpice)

 Figure 3.7.2 Vout vs time (LTSpice)

Hardware: plot, result

%Error (Vs) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

Vsp 1.33
 Vrms 1.51

%Error (Vload) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

VLp 12.7%

Vrms 3.67%

Discussion:

The section on Diode Clamper delves deeper into the utilization of capacitors in diode
circuitry. Specifically, the diode clamper operates as a negatively biased circuit, intended to
lower the output voltage in comparison to the input. Additionally, this circuit incorporates
a DC reference voltage, primarily aimed at elevating the clamped level of the output
voltage.

This circuit is also referred to as a "level shifter," a designation that is self-explanatory.

Similar to the peak detector, its purpose is to adapt the input to meet the requirements of
the circuit designer. Constructing the circuit posed no difficulties, as none of the circuits in
this lab are overly complex to assemble.

——————————————

3.8 Diode Limiter (Clipper):

LTspice: Diagram, plots (1. Transient analysis V(vs), V(vl) ; 2. DC Sweep of Vs vs

VL)

Figure 3.8.1 Vs vs time (LTSpice)

 Figure 3.8.1 Vload vs time (LTSpice)

, result Hardware: 2 plots (same as ltspice), result Discussion:

Waveform of Vs and Vout
 Waveform of Vs and Vout in XY plane

%Error (Vs) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

 Vsp 5.3%

Vs,rms 0.57%

%Error (Vload) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

VLp 8.1%

VL,rms 4.3%

The Diode Limiter closely resembles the Clamper in its design. The primary distinction
lies in its use of a resistor instead of a capacitor. Consequently, when the input voltage
exceeds the level of the reference DC voltage, the positive voltage is "clipped." The circuit is
grounded, and according to the constant voltage drop model, the diode necessitates a 0.7V
drop. Therefore, with a fluctuating input signal, the voltage drop across the resistor
adjusts accordingly to maintain the 0.7V drop across the diode.

Designing this circuit wasn't overly intricate, as it essentially involved swapping out one
component.

——————————————

3.9 Zener diode voltage regulator:

LTspice: Diagram, plot (.tran), result

Figure 3.9.1 Vs vs time (LTSpice)

Figure 3.9.2 Vload vs time (LTSpice)

Hardware: Oscilloscope plot and measurement

Waveform of Vs and VL

Vsp = 2.4V

Vs,rms = 1.69V
 VLp = 1.15

VL,rms = 0.91V

%Error (Vs) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

Vsp 4%

Vs,rms 4.6%

%Error (Vload) Simulated (theoretical) vs Lab (actual)

VLp 0.17%

VL,rms 12%

Discussion:

The introduction of the zener diode marks a fresh addition to our lab work. Unlike the
other diodes we've encountered thus far, the zener diode permits reverse current flow. In
the circuit, the diode operates under reverse bias, utilizing this characteristic to uphold a
consistent output voltage despite fluctuations in the input. Both experimentally and
through simulations, this behavior was observed, with the circuit's output conforming to a
basic voltage division principle when the input is positive. However, when the input is
negative, the zener diode comes into play. In this reverse bias state, the diode's output
current remains relatively constant until breakdown occurs, resulting in a static output
voltage in parallel.

Designing this circuit was straightforward, although deciphering the small markings on
the zener diodes posed a challenge during construction. Nonetheless, the results aligned
entirely with our expectations.

—————————————-

3.10 Voltage Multiplier Circuit:

LTSpice: Diagram, Plot (.tran) , result - find multiplication factor using the formula
Multiplication factor = Vout(rms) / Vs(rms)

Figure 3.10.1 Vs vs time (LTSpice)

 Figure 3.10.2 Vout vs time (LTSpice)

Hardware: Oscilloscope plot showing the Vout

Measure Vout rms and Vs rms separately , result - multiplication factor with same

formula
 Waveform of Vout

We do not have the waveform for Vs as the manual says we only need Vout

waveform.

Multiplication Factor (MF) = Vout/Vs (V/V)

 Results LTSpice Oscilloscope

Vs (Vrms) 7.07 NA

Vout (Vrms) 17.43 16.8

MF (V/V) 2.49 NA

%Error Vs Vout

Simulated vs NA 3.61
Measured

Discussion:

This section presented perhaps the most challenging task in terms of breadboard design,
yet the fundamental concept behind it remained consistent with previous sections. This
circuit not only amplifies an input voltage but also converts it into a DC value. The method
it employs is entirely logical, involving the construction of a full-wave rectifier with large
capacitors on both the positive and negative regions. These capacitors play a crucial role
in maintaining a constant voltage difference, as one becomes positively charged while the
other becomes negatively charged. Consequently, the load resistor connected in parallel
experiences a steady voltage output, with the amplification factor determined by the
capacitance strength.

Although there were some issues encountered during the physical construction of this
circuit, they were attributed solely to a defective capacitor. Once resolved, the circuit
performed admirably, meeting all expectations.

—————————————

Closing Arguments:

This semester's lab work has developed deeper than any previous assignments, and with
good reason. Instead of merely viewing a diode as a signal cutoff mechanism, students
have been introduced to a wide array of diode applications, fostering a more versatile
comprehension of its circuit utility. While certain lab sections may have seemed repetitive,
each one played a vital role in achieving this overarching objective.

Post lab questions and answers

Post Lab Questions:

Complete all of the questions for the lab (use SPICE where applicable)

1. Explain the function of the Curve Tracer in this experiment

The Curve Tracer shows us the performance of the current or voltages as time goes
on. We can also plot the point to see the value of certain cases.

2. In Fig. 3.5 (DC analysis of a diode), what would be Id if:

a. The resistor, R, was shunted (parallel) with a resistor, Rshunt, of equal value (1kΩ)
b. The resistor R was connected with another 1kΩ resistor in series.

c. The diode, D, were shunted (parallel) with a diode, Dshunt (assumed to be

matched)
 ‘

3.

In Fig. 3.6 (Small signal (AC) analysis of a diode), what would happen if the polarity of
the DC voltage source were swapped?
4. What would happen if a capacitor C=1µF were added (in parallel with R) to the
diode circuit shown in Fig. 3.6?
V_pp remains unchanged, but it has been elevated by an amount equivalent to the

voltage drop across the capacitor.

5. Use LTSpice to implement and verify what would happen if the capacitor were
increased ten times in the Peak Detector Rectifier? Explain.
As the capacitor becomes ten times bigger, the voltage source remains the same, but
the voltage across the register becomes more smooth. It is almost a straight line.

6. Draw a circuit diagram to represent DB101 chip, as shown in Fig. 3.8. Make sure
that you label the input and output voltage in your drawing. Note: You do not have to
consider the transformer diagram in your drawing.

7. Discuss the operation of the voltage multiplier circuit.

A voltage multiplier circuit is designed to amplify the input voltage to yield a greater
output voltage. Essentially, it employs a combination of diodes and capacitors to store
and discharge energy from the input voltage in a predetermined sequence, thereby
generating an amplified output voltage.

8. What would happen if the capacitors (C1 and C2) were 1μF in the voltage multiplier
circuit? Explain.
The ripples become higher in low voltage when the capacitor is 1μF.
All team members stamped datasheets

Data sheet from Hoyeol Bae:

Data sheet from Wataru Tamaki:
Replacement of page 1 & 3