International Business University

Sandra Lucio

Information, Technology, and Digital Transformation

Assignment #4

Chapters 5 & 6

1. How often should a business back up its data?

It depends on several factors, including the nature of the business, the volume of data, and how
critical that data is.
• Critical Data: For businesses with critical data or high transaction volumes (e.g., financial
institutions, e-commerce), backups should be performed continuously or several times a
day. This approach minimizes the risk of data loss and ensures business continuity.
• Regular Operations: For businesses with less frequent updates, daily backups are often
sufficient. This routine ensures that you have up-to-date copies of your data without the
overhead of continuous backups.
• Less Frequent Updates: If your business generates data less frequently, weekly backups
might be adequate. However, consider the potential impact of losing a week’s worth of
data when deciding on this frequency.
• Backup Types: Combining different backup strategies can be effective. For example, you
might perform full backups weekly and incremental backups daily or multiple times a day.
• Disaster Recovery Plans: Ensure that your backup strategy aligns with your disaster
recovery plan. Test your backups regularly to ensure they can be restored quickly and
accurately.
2. What is the difference between a disaster recovery plan and a business
continuity plan?
A Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP)
• Focus: Primarily on the recovery of IT systems and data after a disaster or major disruption.
It deals with how to restore hardware, software, and data to ensure that the IT infrastructure
can resume normal operations.
• Scope: Includes processes for data backup, data restoration, and the recovery of IT
infrastructure. It often involves specific steps to recover from cyberattacks, hardware
failures, or data loss.
• Objective: To minimize downtime and data loss by quickly restoring IT systems to normal
functioning after a disruptive event.
Business Continuity Plan (BCP)
• Focus: Broadly addresses maintaining the continuity of business operations during and
after a disruption. It encompasses all aspects of the business, including people, processes,
and facilities, beyond just IT.
 • Scope: Includes strategies for maintaining essential functions, such as alternative
workflows, communication plans, and resource management. It ensures that critical
business functions can continue even if there are significant disruptions.
• Objective: To ensure that the business can continue operating and serving its customers
despite disruptions, and to minimize the impact on overall business operations.
Principal Differences
Scope: DRP is more focused on IT recovery, while BCP covers a wider range of business
operations.
Purpose: DRP aims to restore IT systems and data, whereas BCP aims to ensure that business
functions continue or are quickly restored.

3. What are the three forms of MIS infrastructures and what do they support
Information?

1. Data Infrastructure
Purpose: This infrastructure supports the collection, storage, and management of data. It includes
databases, data warehouses, data lakes, and other data storage systems.
Support: It helps in organizing and storing large volumes of data in a structured manner, making
it accessible for analysis and decision-making. Data infrastructure ensures that data is accurate,
secure, and retrievable when needed. Manages and stores data, enabling analysis and reporting.

2. Application Infrastructure
Purpose: This infrastructure supports the deployment, operation, and maintenance of software
applications used by the organization. It includes application servers, development platforms, and
middleware.
Support: It provides the necessary environment for business applications to run effectively. This
includes customer relationship management (CRM) systems, enterprise resource planning (ERP)
systems, and other business applications that help in automating processes and facilitating
operations. Supports the deployment and operation of software applications that facilitate business
processes.
3. Network Infrastructure
Purpose: This infrastructure supports the connectivity and communication between various
systems and users within an organization. It includes hardware like routers, switches, and cables,
as well as networking protocols and services.
Support: It enables the seamless transmission of data between different parts of the organization,
both internally and externally. Network infrastructure ensures that information can be shared and
accessed efficiently, supporting collaboration and communication across various departments and
locations. Ensures connectivity and communication, allowing data and applications to be accessed
and shared.

4. List the characteristics of an agile MIS infrastructure and explain why they
are all critical for supporting change.

a) Scalability: The ability to scale resources up or down based on demand. Why It's Critical:
As business needs change or fluctuate, scalable systems can handle increased workloads
 or reduce resources without significant downtime or reconfiguration, ensuring continuous
performance and flexibility.
b) Flexibility: The capacity to adapt to new requirements, technologies, or processes. Why
It's Critical: Businesses often face evolving market conditions or regulatory changes.
Flexible systems can be reconfigured or updated to meet these new demands without
overhauling the entire infrastructure.
c) Modularity: An infrastructure designed with separate, interchangeable components or
modules. Why It's Critical: Modular systems allow for easier updates, replacements, or
integrations of new functionalities. This means changes or improvements can be made to
one part of the system without affecting the whole.
d) Interoperability: The ability of different systems and technologies to work together
seamlessly. Why It's Critical: As businesses integrate new tools or technologies,
interoperable systems can ensure smooth communication and data exchange, facilitating
the incorporation of new solutions without disrupting existing processes.
e) Resilience: The ability to recover quickly from disruptions or failures. Why It's Critical:
Resilient systems can handle unexpected issues or failures with minimal impact on
operations. This is crucial for maintaining business continuity during periods of change or
crises.
f) Real-Time Processing: The capability to process and analyze data immediately as it is
generated. Why It's Critical: Real-time processing provides up-to-date information,
allowing businesses to make timely decisions and respond quickly to changes or emerging
trends.
g) User-Centric Design: Systems designed with the end user’s needs and usability in mind.
Why It's Critical: User-centric systems are more easily adopted and used effectively,
reducing training time and increasing the efficiency of operations. This is essential when
changes require new workflows or interfaces.
h) Automated Processes: The use of technology to perform repetitive tasks without human
intervention. Why It's Critical: Automation increases efficiency and reduces errors,
allowing the organization to focus on strategic changes rather than routine tasks.
Automated systems can also adapt more quickly to new business processes.
i) Data Integration: The ability to consolidate and utilize data from various sources. Why It's
Critical: Integrated data provides a comprehensive view of business operations, facilitating
better decision-making and more effective responses to change. It ensures that all relevant
information is accessible and usable across different systems.
j) Security and Compliance: Measures and protocols to protect data and ensure adherence to
regulations. Why It's Critical: As changes occur, maintaining data security and regulatory
compliance is crucial to prevent breaches and legal issues. An agile MIS infrastructure
must ensure that security and compliance requirements are consistently met even as other
aspects evolve.
5. Compare the differences among a hot, cold, and warm site.

Characteristics Advantages: Disadvantages:

Hot Fully Operational: A hot site is Minimal Downtime: Because High Cost: Maintaining a
Site a fully operational backup it is fully operational and hot site is expensive due
facility equipped with all synchronized, a hot site can to the need for duplicate
infrastructure, ongoing
 necessary hardware, software, quickly take over if the data replication, and high
and network connections. primary site fails. operational costs.

Real-Time Data Replication: Complete Systems: All

Data and applications are necessary systems,
continuously replicated from the applications, and data are
primary site to the hot site, often available and up-to-date.
in real-time or near real-time.
Immediate Availability: It can
be immediately utilized to
resume business operations with
minimal downtime.
Cold Basic Infrastructure: A cold site Lower Cost: Cold sites are Significant Downtime:
Site provides only the basic physical less expensive because they Due to the need to set up
infrastructure, such as space, require minimal ongoing systems and restore data,
power, and cooling, but it does maintenance and do not there can be significant
not have pre-installed hardware, involve continuous data downtime before
software, or data. replication. operations can resume.
No Real-Time Data Replication: Flexibility: Businesses can Preparation Time: The
Data and applications are not customize the setup time needed to get the
replicated. Instead, they need to according to their specific cold site ready can
be restored from backups if the needs when a disaster occurs. impact recovery speed.
primary site fails.
Setup Time Required: It takes
time to set up and install the
necessary systems and restore
data before operations can
resume.
Warm Partial Setup: A warm site is Moderate Cost: Warm sites Limited Real-Time
Site partially equipped with offer a middle ground in Readiness: There may be
hardware and software, but it terms of cost, being more a lag in data availability
might not have the latest data or affordable than hot sites but compared to a hot site,
full system configurations. more capable than cold sites. and some setup may still
be required.
Periodic Data Replication: Data Faster Recovery Than Cold Higher Cost Than Cold
and applications are periodically Sites: While not as Sites: Warm sites are
backed up or synchronized, but immediate as a hot site, a more expensive than
not in real-time. warm site typically allows cold sites due to the
for faster recovery than a partial setup and periodic
cold site due to pre-installed data replication.
infrastructure and periodic
data updates.
 Moderate Availability: It is
ready to be activated with some
preparation, but not as
immediately operational as a
hot site.

6. What is Moore’s Law and how does it affect companies?

Moore's Law is a prediction made by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, in 1965. It states that the
number of transistors on a microchip would double approximately every two years, leading to an
exponential increase in computing power and a decrease in cost per transistor. Moore’s Law has
broadly held true for several decades, driving rapid advances in computing technology.

How Moore's Law Affects Companies

• Increased Computing Power: Impact: Companies benefit from more powerful and efficient
computing resources, which can lead to improved performance of applications and
services. This enables businesses to handle more complex tasks, process larger amounts of
data, and run more sophisticated algorithms.
• Cost Reduction: Impact: As transistor density increases, the cost per transistor decreases.
This leads to lower costs for computing hardware, making advanced technology more
affordable for businesses.
• Accelerated Innovation: Impact: The continuous increase in computing power fosters
innovation in technology and software. Companies can develop and deploy new
applications, services, and products that leverage the latest advancements.
• Shorter Product Lifecycles: Impact: As technology rapidly evolves, the lifecycle of
electronic products shortens. Companies must frequently update their hardware and
software to stay competitive and leverage the latest advancements.
• Competitive Advantage: Impact: Companies that stay ahead of the curve by adopting the
latest technology can gain a competitive edge. The ability to leverage cutting-edge
hardware and software can lead to better performance, efficiency, and new capabilities.
• Strategic Planning: Impact: Companies need to anticipate and plan for rapid technological
changes. This includes investing in scalable and future-proof infrastructure, as well as
training staff to handle new technologies.
• Increased Demand for Data Storage and Management: Impact: As computing power
increases, the ability to handle and store larger volumes of data becomes crucial.
Companies need to invest in advanced data storage solutions and data management
strategies.

7. List the business benefits of using grid computing.

a) Cost Efficiency: Grid computing can reduce the cost of IT infrastructure by utilizing
existing resources and leveraging distributed systems. Organizations can minimize the
need for expensive, dedicated hardware by pooling resources from multiple systems.
b) Scalability: It allows businesses to scale their computing resources up or down based on
demand. This flexibility is beneficial for handling peak loads or large-scale projects
without investing in additional infrastructure.
c) Increased Computational Power: By aggregating the processing power of multiple
computers, grid computing provides substantial computational capabilities that can be used
for complex calculations and data-intensive applications.
d) Enhanced Resource Utilization: Grid computing optimizes the use of available resources
by distributing tasks across multiple systems. This can lead to more efficient utilization of
computing power and storage.
e) Improved Reliability and Fault Tolerance: Distributing tasks across multiple nodes can
enhance reliability and reduce the risk of system failures. If one node fails, others can
continue to operate, minimizing downtime.
f) Flexibility and Adaptability: Grid computing environments can be adapted to different
types of workloads and applications, providing businesses with the flexibility to run a
variety of tasks efficiently.
g) Faster Time to Market: By leveraging grid computing, businesses can accelerate research
and development processes, leading to faster innovation and shorter time to market for new
products or services.
h) Enhanced Collaboration: Grid computing can facilitate collaboration among different
departments or organizations by providing a unified computing resource pool, allowing
teams to work together on shared projects more effectively.
i) Access to Large Datasets: Organizations can process and analyze large volumes of data
more efficiently by leveraging the distributed storage and processing capabilities of grid
computing.
j) Energy Efficiency: Optimizing resource usage can lead to more efficient energy
consumption compared to running many standalone servers, potentially reducing
operational costs and environmental impact.

8. Explain why a business today would want to follow sustainable MIS practices.
• Cost Savings: Implementing sustainable MIS practices can lead to significant cost
reductions. Energy-efficient data centers, optimized software, and reduced hardware needs
can lower utility bills and maintenance costs. For instance, using virtualization and cloud
computing can consolidate resources and reduce power consumption.
• Regulatory Compliance: Many countries and regions have introduced regulations and
standards related to environmental sustainability. Adhering to sustainable MIS practices
helps businesses comply with these regulations and avoid potential fines or legal issues.
• Enhanced Brand Reputation: Consumers and stakeholders are becoming more
environmentally conscious. Businesses that adopt sustainable practices can enhance their
reputation, attract eco-minded customers, and differentiate themselves from competitors.
• Risk Management: Sustainable practices can mitigate risks related to resource scarcity and
environmental impact. By investing in energy-efficient technologies and reducing waste,
businesses can lessen their vulnerability to fluctuations in resource availability and
environmental conditions.
• Operational Efficiency: Sustainable MIS practices often lead to more efficient operations.
For example, optimizing server usage and reducing redundancies can improve system
performance and reliability, leading to smoother business operations.
• Long-Term Viability: Focusing on sustainability ensures that business practices are viable
in the long term. By reducing their environmental footprint, businesses can contribute to
 the health of the planet, which supports the long-term stability of the ecosystem and human
society, ultimately benefiting the business itself.
• Attracting Talent: Many employees today prefer working for companies that demonstrate
a commitment to sustainability. Sustainable MIS practices can make a business more
attractive to top talent who are looking for employers with strong environmental and social
responsibility values.
• Innovation and Competitive Advantage: Sustainable practices can drive innovation.
Developing new, energy-efficient technologies and processes can provide a competitive
edge and open up new markets and opportunities.
• Investor Appeal: Investors are increasingly looking for businesses with strong
environmental, social, and governance (ESG) practices. Sustainable MIS can improve a
company's ESG profile, making it more appealing to investors who prioritize sustainability.
• Customer Loyalty: Customers are increasingly valuing environmental responsibility.
Businesses that practice and promote sustainability can build stronger relationships with
customers who are committed to supporting eco-friendly companies.

9. Why does a business need to be concerned with the quality of its data? Without
high.
• Informed Decision-Making: Accurate and reliable data is essential for making well-
informed business decisions. Poor-quality data can lead to incorrect conclusions,
misguided strategies, and ultimately, poor business outcomes. High-quality data ensures
that decisions are based on factual and current information.
• Operational Efficiency: High-quality data enables smoother and more efficient business
operations. Inaccurate or incomplete data can lead to errors, redundant processes, and
inefficiencies that waste time and resources. Quality data helps streamline processes and
improve productivity.
• Customer Satisfaction: Accurate data about customers—such as preferences, purchase
history, and contact information—is vital for delivering personalized and effective
customer service. Poor-quality data can result in incorrect recommendations, missed
opportunities, and diminished customer satisfaction.
• Regulatory Compliance: Many industries are subject to regulatory requirements that
mandate accurate record-keeping and reporting. Poor data quality can lead to non-
compliance, legal issues, and financial penalties. Ensuring high data quality helps meet
regulatory standards and avoid associated risks.
• Financial Accuracy: Financial reporting and analysis rely on high-quality data to ensure
accuracy in statements, forecasts, and budgeting. Errors or inconsistencies in financial data
can lead to inaccurate financial reporting, potential financial losses, and damage to investor
confidence.
• Risk Management: Reliable data is crucial for identifying and mitigating risks. Poor-
quality data can obscure potential risks or lead to incorrect risk assessments, making it
difficult to manage and address potential threats effectively.
• Strategic Planning: Effective strategic planning depends on accurate data to forecast trends,
understand market conditions, and set achievable goals. High-quality data supports
strategic initiatives and helps align business activities with long-term objectives.
• Competitive Advantage: Businesses that leverage high-quality data can gain a competitive
edge by identifying opportunities faster, optimizing operations, and making better strategic
decisions. Conversely, poor data quality can hinder a company’s ability to compete
effectively.
• Data Integration: Many businesses integrate data from various sources (e.g., CRM systems,
ERP systems). High-quality data is essential for seamless integration and for ensuring that
combined data sets are accurate and reliable.
• Customer Trust and Loyalty: Businesses that handle data responsibly and accurately are
more likely to build trust with customers. Data breaches, inaccuracies, and misuse can
erode customer trust and damage the company’s reputation.

10. Why would a company care about the timeliness of its data?

• Informed Decision-Making: Timely data ensures that decisions are based on the most
current and relevant information. Outdated data can lead to decisions that do not reflect the
current state of the market or business conditions, potentially resulting in poor strategic
choices.
• Competitive Advantage: In fast-paced industries, having access to the latest data can
provide a competitive edge. Timely information allows companies to respond quickly to
market changes, customer demands, and emerging opportunities, giving them an advantage
over competitors who may be working with outdated data.
• Operational Efficiency: Timely data helps streamline operations by providing current
insights into processes and performance. This allows businesses to address issues
promptly, optimize workflows, and make adjustments in real-time, improving overall
operational efficiency.
• Customer Satisfaction: In customer-facing scenarios, timely data is crucial for delivering
up-to-date information and services. For example, real-time inventory data enables
accurate stock availability, while current customer data supports prompt and relevant
customer service interactions.
• Risk Management: Timely data is essential for identifying and mitigating risks as they
arise. For instance, up-to-date financial data helps in monitoring cash flow and detecting
potential issues early, allowing for proactive risk management.
• Financial Accuracy: Financial decisions and reporting require timely data to ensure
accuracy. Delayed financial data can lead to misreporting, inaccurate forecasting, and
missed opportunities for adjustments or investments.
• Regulatory Compliance: Certain regulations require companies to report data within
specific timeframes. Timely data ensures compliance with these requirements and helps
avoid potential legal issues or fines.
• Market Responsiveness: Timely data allows businesses to react quickly to changes in
market conditions, such as shifts in consumer preferences, competitive actions, or
economic trends. This agility is crucial for maintaining relevance and capitalizing on new
opportunities.
• Strategic Planning: Effective strategic planning relies on current data to forecast trends, set
realistic goals, and allocate resources appropriately. Timely data helps ensure that strategic
plans are based on the latest information and are therefore more likely to be successful.
 • Performance Monitoring: Real-time or near-real-time data enables ongoing monitoring of
performance metrics and key performance indicators (KPIs). This allows for immediate
feedback and continuous improvement efforts, rather than relying on outdated reports.

11. What are the four primary traits that help determine the value of data?

a) Accuracy: Data must be correct and reliable. Accurate data is essential for making valid
conclusions and decisions.
b) Relevance: The data should be pertinent to the problem or question at hand. Relevant data
ensures that the information is useful and applicable.
c) Timeliness: Data should be up-to-date and available when needed. Timely data helps in
making informed decisions based on the most current information.
d) Completeness: Data needs to be comprehensive and cover all necessary aspects of the
subject matter. Incomplete data can lead to incorrect conclusions and missed insights.

12. What is the difference between an entity and an attribute?

Entity: An entity represents a distinct object or concept within a database. It is something that can
be uniquely identified and has a real-world existence. For example, in a university database,
entities might include Student, Course, or Professor. Each entity can have multiple instances (e.g.,
individual students, specific courses, or particular professors). An entity is a fundamental object
or concept within a database.

Attribute: An attribute describes a property or characteristic of an entity. It provides additional

details about the entity. For example, a Student entity might have attributes such as Student ID,
Name, Date of Birth, and Major. Attributes help to define and provide more information about the
entities. An attribute is a property or detail that describes aspects of an entity.

13. What is the purpose of data cleansing (or scrubbing)?

It is the process of identifying and correcting errors or inconsistencies in data to improve its quality
and reliability. The purpose of data cleansing includes:

• Enhancing Accuracy: It helps ensure that data is correct and reliable by fixing errors, such
as incorrect values, typos, or inconsistencies.
• Improving Consistency: It standardizes data formats and resolves discrepancies, ensuring
that similar data is represented consistently across the dataset.
• Eliminating Duplicates: It identifies and removes duplicate records to avoid redundancy
and ensure that each piece of data is unique and accurately represented.
• Completing Missing Information: It identifies and addresses gaps or missing values in the
data to ensure completeness and usefulness.
• Validating Data: It checks that the data conforms to specified rules or standards, such as
valid ranges or formats, ensuring that it meets the necessary quality criteria.
• Enhancing Decision-Making: Clean data provides a more accurate basis for analysis and
decision-making, leading to more reliable and actionable insights.
 14. What are the causes of dirty data?

• Human Error: Mistakes during data entry, such as typos, incorrect values, or
misinterpretation of data, can lead to inaccuracies.
• Inconsistent Data Formats: Variations in how data is recorded (e.g., date formats, units of
measurement) can create inconsistencies and make data integration and analysis
challenging.
• Duplicate Data: Multiple entries for the same entity due to errors in data collection or
merging of datasets can result in redundancy and inaccuracies.
• Outdated Information: Data that has not been updated regularly can become outdated,
leading to decisions based on obsolete information.
• Incomplete Data: Missing values or incomplete records can occur due to errors in data
collection, system failures, or inadequate data entry procedures.
• Data Integration Issues: When combining data from different sources, discrepancies in data
formats, definitions, or quality can lead to inconsistencies.
• Incorrect Data Collection Methods: Using flawed or inadequate methods for data collection
can lead to inaccurate or unreliable data.
• System Errors: Bugs or issues in software or data management systems can corrupt or
mishandle data.
• Lack of Standardization: Absence of standardized processes or rules for data entry and
management can result in varied and inconsistent data.
• Data Migration Issues: Errors that occur during the transfer of data from one system or
format to another can lead to data corruption or loss.

15. What is business intelligence and how can it help a company achieve success?

Business Intelligence (BI) refers to the processes, technologies, and tools used to collect, analyze,
and present business data in a meaningful way. The goal of BI is to support better decision-making
by providing actionable insights derived from data. Here’s how BI can help a company achieve
success:
• Improved Decision-Making: BI provides accurate and timely information, allowing
decision-makers to make informed choices based on data rather than intuition or
incomplete information. This leads to more strategic and effective decisions.
• Enhanced Operational Efficiency: By analyzing business processes and performance
metrics, BI helps identify inefficiencies and areas for improvement. This can lead to
streamlined operations and cost reductions.
• Competitive Advantage: BI tools can analyze market trends, customer behavior, and
competitive positioning, enabling companies to respond more effectively to market
changes and stay ahead of competitors.
• Better Customer Insights: BI allows companies to analyze customer data, such as
purchasing behavior and preferences. This can lead to improved customer segmentation,
targeted marketing strategies, and enhanced customer satisfaction.
• Data-Driven Strategy: BI enables companies to develop data-driven strategies by providing
insights into key performance indicators (KPIs) and trends. This supports strategic
planning and helps in setting achievable goals.
 • Risk Management: By identifying potential risks and analyzing past incidents, BI helps
companies anticipate and mitigate risks before they impact the business. This can improve
overall risk management and resilience.
• Financial Performance Tracking: BI tools can track financial metrics such as revenue,
expenses, and profitability. This helps in monitoring financial health, identifying trends,
and making adjustments to improve financial performance.
• Increased Accountability: With BI, organizations can set performance benchmarks and
monitor progress against goals. This promotes accountability and ensures that teams and
individuals are aligned with organizational objectives.
• Enhanced Collaboration: BI tools often facilitate sharing of insights and reports across
departments. This promotes better collaboration and alignment among teams by providing
a unified view of the business.
• Predictive Analytics: Advanced BI tools include predictive analytics capabilities that use
historical data to forecast future trends. This helps in proactive planning and decision-
making.

16. Why would a business be data rich, but information poor?

A business can be data rich but information poor when it has a lot of raw data but struggles to
extract actionable insights or make informed decisions from that data. Here are some key reasons
why this might happen:

• Data Overload: The sheer volume of data can be overwhelming, making it difficult to sift
through and find relevant information. Without effective data management, businesses can
be flooded with data points that are not useful or actionable.
• Lack of Analysis: Collecting data is only the first step; analyzing it is crucial. If a business
lacks the tools, processes, or expertise to analyze data effectively, it may not be able to turn
raw data into meaningful information.
• Poor Data Quality: If the data collected is inaccurate, incomplete, or outdated, it can lead
to misleading conclusions. High-quality data is essential for generating reliable
information.
• Ineffective Data Integration: Businesses often collect data from multiple sources. If these
data sources are not integrated properly, it can be challenging to get a cohesive view,
leading to information silos and fragmented insights.
• Lack of Relevant Metrics: Without clear objectives and relevant key performance
indicators (KPIs), businesses might collect data that doesn’t align with their goals, making
it difficult to derive useful information.
• Inadequate Tools or Technology: Without the right tools or technology for data processing
and visualization, it can be difficult to make sense of large datasets. Advanced analytics
and visualization tools are often necessary to turn data into actionable insights.
• Organizational Silos: Different departments may collect and use data in isolation, leading
to fragmented information that is not shared across the organization. This can prevent a
comprehensive understanding of overall performance.
• Poor Data Interpretation: Even with good data, incorrect interpretation can lead to poor
decision-making. Effective data interpretation requires a combination of analytical skills
and domain knowledge.
 • Lack of Data Strategy: Without a clear data strategy, businesses might not know what data
to collect or how to use it effectively. A strategic approach to data helps ensure that the
right data is collected and used appropriately.

References

Baltzan, P. (2004), “M: Information Systems”, McGraw Hill.