EET 2201-Applied Electronics II

Chapter 3 - Operational Amplifier

 INTRODUCTION
Historically, an operational amplifier (OPAmp) was designed
to perform such mathematical operations as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation. Hence, the
name operational amplifier.
An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier and
consists of a differential amplifier stage, a high-gain CE
amplifier stage and class B push-pull emitter follower.
An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is an *integrated circuit
and is widely used in computers, as video and audio
amplifiers in communication electronics. Because of their
multi-purpose use, OP-Amps are used in all branches of
electronics, both digital and linear circuits.
 Fig. 3.1 shows the block diagram of an operational
amplifier

The key electronic circuit in an OP-Amp is the differential

amplifier.
The following are the important properties common to
all operational amplifiers (OP-amps):
(i) An operational amplifier is a multistage amplifier.
The input stage of an OP-amp is a differential
amplifier stage.
(ii) An inverting input and a noninverting input.
(iii) A high input impedance (usually assumed infinite)
at both inputs.
(iv) A low output impedance (< 200 Ω).
(v) A large open-loop voltage gain, typically 105.
(vi) The voltage gain remains constant over a wide
frequency range.
(vii)Very large CMRR (> 90 dB).
Schematic Symbol of Operational Amplifier
Fig. 3.2(i) shows the schematic symbol of an operational
amplifier.
The following points are worth noting :
(i) The basic operational amplifier has *five
terminals: two terminals for supply voltages +V
and –V; two input terminals (inverting input and
non inverting input) and one output terminal.

(ii) Note that the input terminals are marked + and –.

These are not polarity signs. The – sign indicates
the inverting input while the + sign indicates the
noninverting input. A signal applied to plus
terminal will appear in the same phase at the
output as at the input.
A signal applied to the minus terminal will be
shifted in phase 180° at the output.

(iii) The voltages v1, v2 and vout are node

voltages. This means that they are
always measured w.r.t. ground. The
differential input vin is the difference of
two node voltages v1 and v2. We
normally do not show the ground in the
symbol.
(iv) For the sake of *simplicity, + V and –V terminals are
often omitted from the symbol as shown in Fig. 3.2(ii). The
two input leads are always shown on the symbol
regardless of whether they are both used.

(v) In most cases, if only one input is required for an OP-

amp circuit, the input not in use will be shown connected
to ground. A single-input OP-amp is generally classified as
either inverting or non inverting.
.
(vi) The OP-amp is produced as an integrated circuit (IC).
Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry of an
OP-amp, the OP-amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit
diagrams
 Output Voltage From OP-Amp

The output voltage from an OP-amp for a given pair

of input voltages depends mainly on the following
factors:
1. The voltage gain of OP-amp.
2. The polarity relationship between v1 and v2.
3. The values of supply voltages, +V and –V.
1. Voltage gain of OP-amp.
The maximum possible voltage gain from a given OP-
amp is called open-loop voltage gain and is denoted by
the symbol AOL. The value of AOL for an OP-amp is
generally greater than 10,000. The OP-amps are almost
always operated with negative feedback.
Refer to fig. 3.3.
 Here Ri is the input resistance and Rf is the feedback
resistor. Consequently, the voltage gain of OP amplifier is
reduced. When a feedback path is present such as Rf
connection in Fig. 3.3, the resulting circuit gain is referred
to as closed-loop voltage gain (ACL).
2. OP-Amp Input/Output Polarity Relationship.
The polarity relationship between v1 and v2 will
determine whether the OP-amp output voltage
polarity is positive or negative.
 3. Supply Voltages.

The supply voltages for an OP-amp are normally equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign
e.g., ± 15V, ± 12V, ± 18V.
These supply voltages determine the limits of output voltage of OP-amp.
These limits, known as saturation voltages, are generally given by;
+ Vsat = + Vsupply – 2V
– Vsat = – Vsupply + 2V
Suppose an OP-amplifier has Vsupply = ± 15V and open-loop voltage gain
AOL = 20,000.
Let us find the differential voltage vin to avoid saturation.
Vsat = Vsupply – 2 = 15 – 2 = 13V
∴ Vin = Vsat/AOL=13V/ 20,000 = 650 µV
If the differential input voltage Vin exceeds this value in an OP-amp, it will
be driven into saturation and the device will become non-linear.
 A.C. Analysis of OP-Amp
(i) Practical OP–amp.
Fig. 3.4 shows the a.c. equivalent circuit of a practical
OP-amp.
The characteristics of a practical OP-amp are :
• very high voltage gain,
• very high input impedance and
•very low output impedance.
The consequences of these properties of a practical OP–
amp are :
(a) Since the voltage gain (Av) of a practical OP-amp is
very high, an extremely small input voltage (vin) will
produce a large output voltage (vout).
(b) Since the input impedance (Zin) is very high, a
practical OP-amp has very small input current.
(c) Since the output impedance (Zout) of a practical OP-
amp is very low, it means that output voltage is
practically independent of the value of load connected
to OP-amp.
(ii) Ideal OP-amp. Fig. 3.5 shows the a.c. equivalent
circuit of an ideal OP-amp. The characteristics of an
ideal OP-amp are : infinite voltage gain, infinite input
impedance and zero output impedance.
The consequences of these properties of an ideal OP-
amp are :
(a) Since the voltage gain (Av) of an ideal OP-amp is
infinite, it means that we can set vin = 0V.
(b) Since the input impedance (Zin) is infinite, an ideal
OP-amp has zero input current.
(c) Since the output impedance (Zout) of an ideal OP-
amp is zero, it means the output voltage does not
depend on the value of load connected to OP-amp.
 Bandwidth of an OP-Amp
All electronic devices work only over a limited range
of frequencies. This range of frequencies is called
bandwidth.
The bandwidth of an OP-amp depends upon the
closed-loop gain of the OP-amp circuit. One important
parameter is gain-bandwidth product (GBW).
ACL × f2 = funity = GBW
where
ACL = closed-loop gain at frequency f2
funity = frequency at which the closed-loop gain is
unity
It can be proved that the gain-bandwidth
product of an OP-amp is constant.
Since an OP-amp is capable of operating as
a d.c. amplifier, its bandwidth is (f2 – 0).
The gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp
is an important parameter because it can
be used to find :
(i) The maximum value of ACL at a given
value of f2.
(ii) The value of f2 for a given value of ACL
 Slew Rate
The slew rate of an OP-amp is a measure of how fast the
output voltage can change and is measured in volts per
microsecond (V/µs). If the slew rate of an OP-amp is
0.5V/µs, it means that the output from the amplifier can
change by 0.5 V every μs.
Since frequency is a function of time, the slew rate can be
used to determine the maximum operating frequency of
the OP-amp as follows:
Maximum operating frequency,

fmax = Slew rate /2πVpk

Where Vpk is the peak output voltage.

Frequency Response of an OP-Amp
The operating frequency has a significant effect on
the operation of an OP-amp. The following are the
important points regarding the frequency response
of an OP-amp :
(i) The maximum operating frequency of an OP-amp
is given by;

fmax =Slew rate/ 2π Vpk

Thus, the peak output voltage limits the maximum

operating frequency.
(ii) When the maximum operating frequency of an
OP-amp is exceeded, the result is a distorted
output waveform.
(iii) Increasing the operating frequency of an OP-
amp beyond a certain point will :
(a) Decrease the maximum output voltage swing.
(b) Decrease the open-loop voltage gain.
(c) Decrease the input impedance.
(d) Increase the output impedance.
 Applications of OP-Amps

The operational amplifiers have many practical

applications. The OP-amp can be connected in a large
number of circuits to provide various operating
characteristics.

Here are some important applications of OP-amps.

 1. Inverting Amplifier
An OP amplifier can be operated as an inverting
amplifier as shown in Fig. 3.6.
An input signal vin is applied through input
resistor Ri to the minus input (inverting input).

The output is fed back to the same minus input

through feedback resistor Rf.

The plus input (noninverting input) is grounded.

Note that the resistor Rf provides the negative

feedback.
Voltage gain of Inverting Op-Amps
Amplifier.
An OP-amp has an infinite input impedance. This
means that there is zero current at the inverting input.
If there is zero current through the input impedance,
then there must be no voltage drop between the
inverting and non inverting inputs.
This means that voltage at the inverting input (–)
is zero (point A) because the other input (+) is
grounded. The 0V at the inverting input terminal
(point A) is referred to as virtual ground.

This condition is illustrated in Fig. 3.7. The point A

is said to be at virtual ground because it is at 0V
but is not physically connected to the ground (i.e.
VA = 0V).
Referring to Fig. 3.7 (ii), the current I1 to the
inverting input is zero. Therefore, current  in
flowing through Ri entirely flows through feedback
resistor Rf. In other words, f = in.
The negative sign indicates that output signal is inverted as
compared to the input signal. The following points may be
noted about the inverting amplifier :

(i) The closed-loop voltage gain (ACL) of an inverting

amplifier is the ratio of the feedback resistance Rf to the
input resistance Ri. The closed-loop voltage gain is
independent of the OP-amp’s internal open-loop voltage
gain.

Thus the negative feedback stabilises the voltage gain.

(ii) The inverting amplifier can be designed for unity
gain. Thus if Rf = Ri, then voltage gain, ACL = –1.
Therefore, the circuit provides a unity voltage gain
with 180° phase inversion.

(iii) If Rf is some multiple of Ri, the amplifier gain is

constant. For example, if Rf = 10Ri, then ACL = –10 and
the circuit provides a voltage gain of exactly 10 along
with a 180° phase inversion from the input signal. If
we select precise resistor values for Rf and Ri, we can
obtain a wide range of voltage gains. Thus the
inverting amplifier provides constant voltage gain.
 2. Non-inverting Amplifier
There are times when we wish to have an output
signal of the same polarity as the input signal. In
this case, the OP-amp is connected as non inverting
amplifier as shown in Fig. 3.8.
The input signal is applied to the non-inverting input
(+). The output is applied back to the input through the
feedback circuit formed by feedback resistor Rf and
input resistance Ri.
Note that resistors Rf and Ri form a voltage divide at the
inverting input (–).
Since the input signal is applied to the non-inverting
input (+), the output signal will be non-inverted i.e., the
output signal will be in phase with the input signal.
Hence, the name non-inverting amplifier.
 Voltage gain of Non-Inverting
Op-Amps Amplifier

If we assume that we are not at saturation, the

potential at point A is the same as Vin. Since the
input impedance of OP-amp is very high, all of the
current that flows through Rf also flows through Ri.
Keeping these things in mind, we have,
The following points may be noted about the noninverting
amplifier :
(i) ACL = 1+(Rf/Ri)
The voltage gain of non-inverting amplifier also
depends upon the values of Rf and Ri.
(ii) The voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier can be
made equal to or greater than 1.
(iii) The voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier will always
be greater than the gain of an equivalent inverting
amplifier by a value of 1. If an inverting amplifier has a
gain of 150, the equivalent noninverting amplifier will
have a gain of 151.
(iv) The voltage gain is positive. This is not surprising
because output signal is in phase with the input signal.
 Voltage Follower
The voltage follower arrangement is a special case of
non-inverting amplifier where all of the output voltage
is fed back to the inverting input as shown in Fig. 3.9.
Note that we remove Ri and Rf from the non-
inverting amplifier and short the output of the
amplifier to the inverting input. The voltage gain
for the voltage follower is calculated as under
Thus the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage
follower is 1. The most important features of the
voltage follower configuration are its very high input
impedance and its very low output impedance.
These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier
to be connected between high-impedance sources
and low-impedance loads
 Multi-stage OP-Amp Circuits
When a number of OP-amp stages are connected in series,
the overall voltage gain is equal to the product of individual
stage gains.
Fig. 3.10 shows connection of three stages. The first stage is
connected to provide non-inverting gain. The next two stages
provide inverting gains.
 Summing Amplifiers
A summing amplifier is an inverted OP-amp that
can accept two or more inputs. The output voltage
of a summing amplifier is proportional to the
negative of the algebraic sum of its input voltages.
Hence the name summing amplifier.

Fig. 3.11 shows a three-input summing amplifier

but any number of inputs can be used.
 Three voltages V1, V2 and V3 are applied to the
inputs and produce currents I1, I2 and I3.
Using the concepts of infinite impedance and virtual
ground, you can see that inverting input of the OP-
amp is at virtual ground (0V) and there is no current
to the input. This means that the three input currents
I1, I2 and I3 combine at the summing point A and form
the total current (If) which goes through Rf as shown
in Fig. 3.11.
When all the three inputs are applied, the output voltage is

Thus the output voltage is proportional to the algebraic sum

of the input voltages (of course neglecting negative sign).
An interesting case results when the gain of the
amplifier is unity. In that case, Rf = R1 = R2 = R3 and
output voltage is

Vout = – ( V1 + V2 + V3)

Thus, when the gain of summing amplifier is unity, the

output voltage is the algebraic sum of the input
voltages.
 Assignment  1
Write some notes (their design and working principles) on the following:

1. Applications of Summing Amplifiers

2. Op-amp as an Integrator
3. OP-amp as a Differentiator
4. Comparator circuit (Op-amp as a comparator) and applications of
Comparators

Submission Date: April 5, 2021.