Module 1

(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Automation
Robot:
A robot is…

“An active artificial agent whose environment is the physical world”

--Russell and Norvig

“A programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or

specific devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
tasks”
--Robot Institute of America

“A machine that resembles a human being and does mechanical routine tasks on command”
--Random House Dictionary
In short, a robot is an electro-mechanical device that is:
• Reprogrammable
• Multifunctional
• Sensible for environment

Robot is software based controllable mechanical device that uses sensors to guide its end
effectors though programmed motion in a work in order to manipulate physical objects.
In simple language “A Robot is a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions
automatically”.
Robots can be guided by an external control device or the control may be embedded within.
Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from humanoids such as Honda's
Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility (ASIMO) to industrial robots, medical operating robots,
UAV drones such as General Atomics MQ-1 Predator, and even microscopic nano robots.

Applications of robots:
• Computer Assisted Manufacturing
• Military
• Medical
• Space Exploration
• Miscellaneous

1|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

History of robots:
Time Significance Robot Name Inventor

Descriptions of more than 100 machines and None. Ctesibius, Philo

First automata, including a fire engine, a wind of
century organ, a coin-operated machine, and a Byzantium,
A.D. And steam-powered engine, in Pneumatica and Heron of
earlier Automata by Heron of Alexandria Alexandria, and
others
First programmable humanoid robots Boat with four Al-Jazari
1206
Robotic musicians
Designs for a humanoid robot Mechanical knight Leonardo da
c. 1495
Vinci
Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flap Digesting Duck Jacques de
1738
its wings, and excrete Vaucanson
Japanese mechanical toys that served tea, Karakuri toys Tanaka Hisashige
1800s
fired arrows, and painted
First fictional automatous called “robots” Rossum’s Karel Čapek
1921
appear in the play R. U. R. Universal Robots
Humaniod robot exhibited at the 1939 and Elektro Westinghouse
1930s 1940 Electric
Corporation
Simple robots exhibiting biological Elsie and Elmer William Grey
1948
behaviors Walter
First commercial robot, from the Unimation Unimate George Devol
company founded by George Devol and
1956
Joseph Engelberger, based on Devol’s
patents

1961 First installed industrial robot Unimate George Devol

First palletizing robot Palletizer Fuji Yusoki

1963
Kogyo
First industrial robot with six Famulus KUKA Robot
1973
electromechanically driven axes Group
Programmable universal manipulation arm, PUMA Victor
1975
a Unimation product Scheinman

2|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Major Events in the Development of Industrial Robots:

1804: First Time Mass Production Is Automated
1921: The Term Robot Is First Used
1949: First Machine Navigates on Its Own
1959: First Robotic Arm is Installed on a Factory Floor
1969: First Small, Electric-Powered Six-Axis Robot
1972: First Robot to Use Artificial Intelligence
1978: First “Pick and Place” Robot
2000: First “Sociable” Robot Designed to Provoke and React to Emotions
2005: Self-Driving Cars Pass Their First Big Test
2012: Deep Learning Takes Off
(https://www.aventine.org/robotics/history-of-robotics)

Basic components of robot/ Parts of robot:

A robot is usually an electromechanical system consisting of some components. Major
components are-
• Power supplies
• Feedback devices/ Sensors
• Controllers
• Actuators
• Manipulator
• End Effectors
Power supplies:
Power Supply unit provides electric power to an
electrical load. The main purpose of a power
supply is to convert electric current from a source
to the correct voltage, current, and frequency to
power the load. As a result, power supplies are
sometimes referred to as electric power converters.

3|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Feedback devices/ Sensors:

Sensing unit is a device which provides information about the physical world. These are a class
of devices used to monitor an operation or process and then verify the operation or process has
occurred. A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. Back to a human body analogy, they are
the organs that supply data to the brain (controller).
In a robot, a feedback device could be installed to sense the positions of the various links and
joints and transmit this information to the controller. They may be simple limit switches,
actuated by the robot's arm or position-measuring devices such as encoders, potentiometers,
resolvers, and/or tachometers. Depending on the devices used, the feedback data is either digital
or analog.

Controllers:
The robot controller is a computer, composed of hardware and software, linked to the robot and
essentially functions as its "brain”. Controller is a part of robot that coordinates all motion of the
mechanical system. It also receives an input from immediate environment through various
sensors. The heart of robot's controller is a microprocessor linked with the input/output and
monitoring device. The command issued by the controller activates the motion control
mechanism, consisting of various controller, actuators and amplifier. Controller unit receive the
signal from sensor and drives the actuators. Such as- Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board
based on the ATmega328.

Actuator:
Actuator is important component of robot that is used to drive mechanical unit of robot.
Actuators are the energy conversion device used inside a robot. The major function of actuators
is to convert energy into movement. If sensors are the eyes and ears of the robot, its actuators
function like muscles. Actuators are small motors attached directly to the structure of the
machine that facilitate movement. Some of the most common types include:
Hydraulic: Uses oil to facilitate movement
Pneumatic: Uses air to facilitate movement

4|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Electric: Uses electric current and magnets to facilitate movement

Commonly Dc geared motors are used as actuators. Servo and stepper motor also can be used as
an actuator.

Manipulator:
A sequence of link and joint connections used to manipulate parts without
direct contact from an operator. The robot manipulator can be divided
into the arm and robot body.
A machine or robotic mechanism of which usually consists of a series
of segments (jointed or sliding relative to one another) for the purpose
of grasping and/or moving objects (pieces or tools), usually in several
degrees of freedom. These mechanical linkages are driven by actuators.

End Effectors:
This is a device that is attached to the end of a robotic arm to carry out its tasks. The End
Effector is the component that moves or orients the product or process. It is used for specialized
tasks such as welding, measuring, marking, drilling, cutting, painting, cleaning, and so on.

Robotics:
Robotics is the combination of engineering, science and technology that produces a machine
called robot. Robotics is a domain where people work with the development and use of robots. It
is mostly used as an alternative of human beings in various works.
Robotics mainly deals with the design construction and operation of a robot and the computer
systems for their control, feedback and information processing. It is a machine that is
programmed to perform the given tasks and gather information from its surroundings.
It works from a central microprocessor that helps to control the movements and they have
sensors to sense the environment.

5|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Purpose of robotics:
The main purpose of robotics is to automate operations that humans do and replace them with
machines that can do the work with better accuracy.
As we know robotics is fully automated, it can process the dangerous and mundane jobs from
humans with high productivity.
While a human be able to do a piece of work at some speed, we can definitely design a robot to
do the same piece of work better, faster, economical and environmentally friendly.
Because of its long run it can free humans from dangerous, repetitive and annoying jobs.

Advantages of robotics:
• No human intervention.
• They can work 24*7, so productivity increases.
• They can perform multitasking with higher efficiency.
• They work in dangerous tasks; the risk of human health and safety is reduced.
• There is minimal risk if any failure occurs.
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
• Robots can be much more accurate than human.
Disadvantages of robotics:
• There are replacing human beings in many places which leads to widespread
unemployment.
• There is lack of emotions and conscience.
• They don’t have on the spot decision making capability, they act only as they
programmed. When an unexpected situation arises, it would be difficult for a robot to go
through it.
• Robots, although superior in certain senses, have limited capabilities in Degree of
freedom, Dexterity, Sensors, Vision system, real time response.
• Robots are costly, due to initial cost of equipment, installation costs, need for peripherals,
need for training, need for programming.
• Robots replace human workers creating economic problems

6|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Role of robotics in textile industry:

Robotics and automation are widely being used in textile industry. Substantial robotics
developments are already being made in textile sector. In the recent years, the application of
robotics has increased, coupled with the rapidly rising wages, has seen some manufacturer’s
made interested in the robotics production-based business model. It’s clear that textile
manufacturers are shifting priorities to automation to increase productivity and boost efficiency.
To achieve this, textile industry needs to adopt robotics automation, manipulation systems need
to some artificial intelligence (AI). Automation and robotics are two closely similar technologies.
Basically, robotics is a form of industrial automation. There are several areas of automation in
the production of textile materials. These include:
• Robotics in handling of bales in blow room & carding
• Robotics in the splicing in Auto-Coners and other winders
• Robotics in cleaning of textile industry
• Robotics in fabric handling & airbag manufacturing
• Robotics in laser cutting & folding and packing
• Garment automation in fabric inspection
• Auto CAD and CAM
• Automation in fabric spreading & fabric cutting, Sewing, Pressing
• Material Handling & Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in automation.

(https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKE
wio_-25--
GDAxWtRmwGHSIHAP8QFnoECBsQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttps%2Flink.springer.com%2Fcontent%2Fpdf%2F1
0.1007%2F978-3-7091-9346-4_8.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3HiooUt5O8Vw7A7EYTCaSG&opi=89978449)

Advantages of Robotics in Textile Industry:

• Can work in very critical situation i.e., in hazardous environment.
• Much more accurate than human.
• Work consistently, tirelessly.

7|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

• Speed of operation is fast.

• Increase in productivity.
• Increased inventory turnover.
• Improvement in quality.
• Reduction of variability among products and product batches.
• Performing jobs beyond human capability.
• Robot will not ignore the work
• Replacement of repetitive and monotonous work
• No needs environmental comfort such as lighting, air conditioning etc.
• Reduction of direct human labor costs, etc.

Disadvantages of Robotics in Textile:

• High initial cost of installation.
• Robots are more costly.
• High cost of maintenance
• High cost of research and development.
• Experts required maintaining them.
• Threat to employment
• Security threats and so on.

Future prospects of robotics:

Many industries have started using robotic technology such as automotive, defense,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, atomic energy etc. experts says that a moment may come when robots
become smarter than humans.
At present robots can rotate base of arm, bend elbow, rotate wrist etc. In future it may look, feel
and act like humans.
Realistic looking skins and hair can be fitted which allows the robot to react naturally in the
environment.

8|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS (IR)

An industrial robot is a manipulator designed to move materials, parts and tools, and perform a
variety of programmed tasks in manufacturing and production settings. Industrial robots are
reshaping the manufacturing industry. They are often used to perform duties that are dangerous
or unsuitable for human workers.
A manipulator (or an industrial robot) is composed of a series of links connected to each other
via joints. Each joint usually has an actuator (a motor) connected to it. These actuators are used
to cause relative motion between successive links. One end of the manipulator is usually
connected to a stable base and the other end is used to deploy a tool.
The difference between a robot and a manipulator
• Run by a computer or microprocessor not a human
• Controlled by feedback devices
• Mostly autonomous

Characteristics of IR:
• Can work in hazardous environment.
• Able to perform repetitive work.
• Maintains consistency and accuracy.
• Can deal with difficult handling task.
• Able to perform multi-shift operations.
• It is reprogrammable and flexible.
• Can be interacted to other computer system.
• Low operation and maintenance cost.
• Faster and cost-effective production.

Human robotistic action

• Speech Recognition
• Robot Voice
• Gestures

9|Page Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

• Facial Expression
• Artificial Emotions
• Personality
• Social Intelligence

Laws of robotics:
First Law:
A robot may not injure a human being, or through inaction, allow a human being to come to
harm, unless this would violate higher order law.
Second law:
A robot must obey orders given it by humans, accept where such orders would conflict with a
higher order law.
Third Law:
A robot much protect its own existence as long as such protection doesn’t conflict with a higher
order law.
A 4th Law was later introduced by Fuller (1999):
“A robot may take a human being’s job but it may not leave the person jobless”

Differentiate between robot & robotics:

Robots and robotics are closely related terms, but they refer to different aspects of technology.
A robot is a machine that is capable of performing tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously.
This can include physical tasks, such as manufacturing or assembly, as well as cognitive tasks,
such as decision-making or problem-solving.
Robotics, on the other hand, is the field of study and research that deals with the design,
construction, operation, and use of robots. This includes the development of new technologies
and techniques for building and programming robots, as well as the exploration of how robots
can be used to solve problems in various industries and applications.
In summary, a robot is a specific type of machine, while robotics is the broader field of study and
research that includes the development of robots.

10 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Desirable and useful qualities of robot:

• Compact, efficient robot design. A compact robot design with slim arms and a small
footprint makes integration easier and saves valuable shopfloor space.
• Affordable offline programming software.
• Low energy consumption.
• The robot must meet or exceeds all current safety codes.
• High maximum allowable moment of inertia.
• Continuous-duty cycle time.
• Robot controller features i.e., compact size and light weight; fast processing speed; ease
of integration with a vision system, PLC or other devices; and ease of servicing.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building
smart machines capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence. While AI
is an interdisciplinary science with multiple approaches, advancements in machine learning and
deep learning, in particular, are creating a paradigm shift in virtually every sector of the tech
industry.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the theory and development of computer systems capable of
performing tasks that historically required human intelligence, such as recognizing speech,
making decisions, and identifying patterns.

Machine Learning Vs. Deep Learning

Although the terms “machine learning” and “deep learning” come up frequently in conversations
about AI, they should not be used interchangeably. Deep learning is a form of machine learning,
and machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence.
Machine Learning
A machine learning algorithm is fed data by a computer and uses statistical techniques to help it
“learn” how to get progressively better at a task, without necessarily having been specifically

11 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

programmed for that task. Instead, ML algorithms use historical data as input to predict new
output values.
Deep Learning
Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through a biologically inspired
neural network architecture. The neural networks contain a number of hidden layers through
which the data is processed, allowing the machine to go “deep” in its learning, making
connections and weighting input for the best results.

Reasons for introducing robot into a production process (Self)

Classification of robots:
Class1: Manual-Handling Device
Class2: Fixed Sequence Robot
Class3: Variable Sequence Robot
Class4: Playback Robot
Class5: Numerical Control Robot
Class6: Intelligent Robot

Common terms in robotics:

Payload:
The payload refers to the weight that a particular robot can carry or lift. This will affect the size
and complexity of deployment for a given machine.
Reach:
Reach is the maximum distance a robot can reach within its work envelope.
Precision:
Precision is defined as how accurately a specifies point can be reached.

12 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Degree of Freedom
Degrees of freedom (DOF) refer to the number of basic ways a
rigid object can move through 3D space. Degrees of freedom
(DOF) is a term that describes a robot’s freedom of motion in
three-dimensional space. Degree of freedom for a robot is
defined as “the number of independent movements performed
by the robot wrist in three-dimensional space, relative to
robot’s base.’
There are six total degrees of freedom. Three correspond to
rotational movement around the x, y, and z axes, commonly
termed pitch, yaw, and roll. The other three correspond to
translational movement along those axes, which can be
thought of as moving forward or backward, moving left or right, and moving up or down.

Degree of Freedom for a Three-Dimensional Body

Degrees of freedom applies to two types of motion:
• Translational
• Rotational.
Translational motion refers to movement that is
both linear and non-rotational. Rotational motion is
just the opposite.
Diagram illustrating how a mechanism in three-
dimensional space can support up to six degrees of
freedom.

13 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

A mechanism in three-dimensional space can support up to six degrees of freedom: three

translational and three rotational.
Figure shows the block in a three-dimensional space can move linearly along all three axes, and
it can rotate around all three axes.
• The block can move forward or backward along the x-axis, and it can rotate around the x-
axis. In nautical terms, these motions are referred to as surge and roll, respectively.
• The block can move left or right along the y-axis, and it can rotate around the y-axis. In
nautical terms, these motions are referred to as sway and pitch, respectively.

• The block can move up or down the z-axis, and it can rotate around the z-axis. In nautical
terms, these motions are referred to as heave and yaw, respectively.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wLrcT3oSZg)

Roll, pitch, and yaw:

Roll, pitch, and yaw are rotational forces, or moments, about the X, Y, and Z axes.
Roll:
A roll moment is a force that attempts to cause a system to rotate about its X axis, from side-to-
side. A good example of roll is an airplane banking.

Pitch:
A pitch moment attempts to cause a system to rotate about its Y axis, from front to back. To
envision pitch, think of the nose of an airplane pointing downward or upward.

14 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Yaw:
Yaw occurs when a force attempts to cause a system to rotate about its Z axis.

Robot Wrist:
The robot wrist mechanism is a big part of the manipulator and works to orient the end effector
for different applications. This mechanism consists of an arm that rotates around an axis and
features joints that allow it to make different movements in various directions.

15 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

The robot wrist mechanism while in use is subjected to different kinds of working environments.
Some of the wrist configurations are:
A. The first wrist movement configuration is Yaw. Yaw is wrist rotation around a vertical axis.
In other words, a wrist in Yaw position means turning and associated motion to left and right.

B. The second movement configuration of wrist is Roll. Roll is the rotation around arm axis. In
simple words a wrist Roll configuration is also known as Swivel Configuration of the wrist as it
is also referred to as the wrist rotation feature round the arm axis.

C. The third wrist movement mechanism is Pitch. The wrist Pitch configuration is rotation
around horizontal axis.

Importance of wrist configuration of robotic arms:

It is important to ensure that the robotic arm that are using is of great quality and that it is
designed accurately. One of the most important factors to consider here is the wrist
configuration. The wrist should be configured according to the specific needs. The end effector
will only move in the direction that the wrist takes. Having the right wrist configurations will
ensure that the end effector can pick and place with precision.

Additionally, the right wrist configuration will help reduce any risks for injury and also damage
to the robotic arm. Determine which direction the wrist should be moving for a specific task and
have it modified to fit the needs. The robot wrist is an essential part of the robotic arm for a
smoother and more seamless automation process.

16 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Precision Movement
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration in
most applications. In robotics, precision of movement is a complex issue, it consists of four
attributes:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
4. Reliability
Resolution:
The amount of robot joint motion required for the position sensing to change by one count. This
is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedback sensors, or caused by the actuators,
whichever is larger.

Accuracy:
Accuracy is the measurement of the deviation between the command characteristic and the
attained characteristic, or the precision with which a computed or calculated robot position can
be attained. Accuracy is normally worse than the arm's repeatability. Accuracy is not constant
over the workspace, due to the effect of link kinematics.

Repeatability:
A measure of how close an arm can repeatedly obtain a taught position. For instance: once a
manipulator is manually placed in a particular location and this location is resolved by the robot,
the repeatability specifies how accurately the manipulator can return to that exact location.

Reliability:
The probability or percentage of time that a device will function without failure over a specified
time period or amount of usage. Also called: the robot's uptime or the Mean Time Between
Failure (MTBF).

17 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Links, Joints
Links:
A link, is an (assumed) rigid body which possesses at least two nodes which are points for
attachment to other links.
• Binary Link: This link has two
nodes.
• Ternary Link: This link has three
nodes.
• Quaternary Link: This link has
four nodes.

Joints:
A joint is a connection between two or more links,
which allows some motion, or potential motion,
between the connected links. Depending upon the
number of links at the joint, a joint can be binary,
ternary or quaternary.

18 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Mechanical design of the robotic system

In general, the main components of an industrial robot consist of the controller, robot body,
robotic arm, sensors, and the end-effector. All of these components have their own role and are
important to the overall operation of an industrial robot. However, behind the robot exterior are
the mechanical parts which are just as important. The mechanical components of an industrial
robot allow it to move and function to be able to complete various manufacturing applications.

Robot Joints:
The Robot Joints is the important element in a robot which helps the links to travel
in different kind of movements. There are five major types of joints such as:
• Translational motion (Prismatic Joint)-P
- Linear joint (Type L)
- Orthogonal joint (Type O)
• Rotary motion (Rotary Joint)-R
- Rotational/ Revolute joint (Type R)
- Twisting joint (Type T)
• Revolving joint (Type V)

19 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Linear Joint:
Linear joint can be indicated by the letter L Joint. This type of joints can perform both
translational and sliding movements.
Orthogonal Joint:
The O joint is a symbol that is denoted for the orthogonal joint. This joint is somewhat similar to
the linear joint. The only difference is that the output and input links will be moving at the right
angles.

Rotational Joint:
Rotational joint can also be represented as R Joint. This type will allow the joints to move in a
rotary motion along the axis, which is vertical to the arm axes.
Twisting Joint:
Twisting joint will be referred as T Joint. This joint make twisting motion among the output and
input link. During this process, the output link axis will be vertical to the rotational axis. The
output link rotates in relation to the input link.
Revolving Joint:
Revolving joint is generally known as V Joint. Here, the output link axis is perpendicular to the
rotational axis, and the input link is parallel to the rotational axes. As like twisting joint, the
output link spins about the input link.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMcqUjQ2Swo)

20 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Using the notation scheme for defining manipulator configurations (, draw

diagrams of the following robots: (a) TRT, (b) VVR, (c) VROT.

Using the notation scheme for defining manipulator, draw diagrams of the
following robots: (a) TRL (b) OLO, (c) LVL.

21 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Using the notation scheme for defining manipulator configurations, draw

diagrams of the following robots: (a) TRT:R (b) TVR:TR, (c) RR: T.

Different Types of Industrial Robot/ Robot Configuration/ Robot Arm:

Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are capable of various arm
manipulations and they possess different motion systems.
Based on Physical configurations, five basic configurations are identified with most of the
commercially available industrial robots. However, there are several additional types of robot
configurations.
There are various types of industrial robots as below:
• Cartesian/ Rectangular/ Gantry Configuration
• Cylindrical Configuration
• Spherical/ Polar Configuration
• Articulated/ Jointed-arm/ Revolute/ Anthropomorphic Configuration
• SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) Configuration
1) Cartesian/ Rectangular/ Gantry
Configuration (PPP):
This uses three perpendicular slides to construct
the x, y, z axes. By moving three slides relative to
one another, the robot is capable of operating
within a rectangular work envelope. These are
also called as Cartesian/Rectangular
configuration robots.

22 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

2) Cylindrical Configuration (RPP):

These uses a vertical column and a slide that can be
moved up and down along the column. The robot arm is
attached to the slide so that it can be moved radially with
respect to the column. By rotting the column, the robot is
capable of retrieving a cylindrical work envelope.

3) Spherical/ Polar Configuration (RRP):

It uses telescopic arm that can be raised or lowered about
a horizontal pivot point. The pivot point is mounted on a
rotating base and gives the robot its vertical movement.
These various joints provide the robot with the ability to
move its arm within a spherical envelope.

4) Articulated/ Revolute/ Jointed arm/ Anthropomorphic Configuration (RRR):

It consists of two straight components whose shoulders and elbow joints rotate about horizontal
axes corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm. Its work envelope is of irregular shape.

5) SCARA Configuration (RRP):

It is a special version of the jointed arm robot whose
shoulder and elbow joints rotate about the vertical axes
instead of horizontal. Its work envelope is cylindrical and
much larger than all other configurations, which provides a
substantial rigidity in the vertical direction for many
essential tasks.

23 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R0eJXe6R8vY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-m1oKuFkSTE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9J3rvK-AI8)

Different types of industrial robots, and what are their applications with
advantages and disadvantages:
https://www.wevolver.com/article/7-types-of-industrial-robots-advantages-disadvantages-
applications-and-more

Work Envelop/ Work Space:

Work envelope (also known as the robot reach or work volume) is the space of all points in the
surrounding space that can be reached by the robot arm.
Work envelop is one of the most important characteristics to be considered in selecting a suitable
robot because the application space should not fall out of the selected robot's reach.

The workspace of robot manipulator is defined as the set of points that can be reached by its
end‐effector. Put in other words, the workspace of a robot is the space in which the mechanism is
working.

24 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_canCYWZPsc)

Cartesian Work Envelope:

This is an envelope of the Cartesian configuration, and it comes in the form of a rectangular
prism. It doesn’t have any dead zones in and around the work envelope, and the robot using this
envelope has the freedom to manipulate the maximum payload it can handle without feeling any
strain. This is the kind of work envelope that you will find in Cartesian or Gantry robots.

Cylindrical Work Envelope:

As the name suggests, this is a cylindrically shaped configuration that has a hollow center that
severely limits the robotic arm that can stretch and retract. This structure creates a significant
dead zone within and around the robot structure. The kinds of robots that use this type of
envelope are suited for quick small tasks that don’t require a lot of movement.

Spherical/ Polar Work Envelope:

This is a configuration that sweeps up the volume located between two partial spheres. This
design limits the maximum angular movements that the robotic arm can make across the vertical
and horizontal planes. These physical restrictions have the unfortunate effect of creating huge
significant dead zones below and above the robot in question.

25 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Articulated/ Revolute Work Envelope:

This is a unique configuration that usually has an envelope that is bigger than the floor space
available. In a nutshell, the robotic arm stands on a very huge and wide work envelope that can
either be a complete sphere or a partially opened one. It is one of the most complicated
configurations as far as work envelopes go.

SCARA Work Envelope:

This is a configuration unique to SCARA robots and is usually shaped like a heart or a kidney. It
has a prominent hollow circle that passes right through the middle, and this allows a very large
horizontal plane of operation, making lateral movements easier. However, there’s very little
space left going up, and this limits vertical movements.

Dead Zone
There are often areas within the working envelope which cannot be reached by the end of the
Robot arm. Such areas are termed dead zones.

Which type of robot configuration has no dead zone within work envelope:
Cylindrical Configuration (RPP) + Cartesian Work Envelope

Kinematic Pair:
A kinematic pair is a connection between two physical entities that impose constraints on their
relative movement. A kinematic pair is a joint or connection of links possessing relative motion.
“A kinematic pair is a connection between two adjacent links that permits a definite relative
motion between them.”
Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact:
a) Lower Pair: If the joint by which two members are connected has surface contact, the pair is
known as lower pair. A pair of links having surface or area contact between the members is
known as a lower pair. The contact surfaces of the two links are similar.

26 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank
mechanism, universal joint.
b) Higher Pair: If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point or along a line,
such as in a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a higher pair. When
a pair has a point or line contact between the links, it is known as a higher pair. The contact
surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.

Cam and Follower

Gears
1 DOF (linear) (Variables – d)
1 DOF

Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and roller
bearings, etc.
Cases of lower joints:
• A revolute R joint, or hinged joint, requires a line in the moving body to remain co-linear
with a line in the fixed body, and a plane perpendicular to this line in the moving body
maintain contact with a similar perpendicular plane in the fixed body. This imposes five
constraints on the relative movement of the links, which therefore has one degree of

27 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

freedom.

• A prismatic P joint, or slider, requires that a line in the moving body remain co-linear
with a line in the fixed body, and a plane parallel to this line in the moving body maintain
contact with a similar parallel plane in the fixed body. This imposes five constraints on
the relative movement of the links, which therefore has one degree of freedom.
• A screw joint or helical H joint requires cut threads in two links, so that there is a turning
as well as sliding motion between them. This joint has one degree of freedom.
• A cylindrical C joint requires that a line in the moving body remain co-linear with a line
in the fixed body. It is a combination of a revolute joint and a sliding joint. This joint has
two degrees of freedom.
• A spherical S joint or ball and socket joint requires that a point in the moving body
remain stationary in the fixed body. This joint has three degrees of freedom,
corresponding to rotations around orthogonal axes.

28 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

• A planar joint requires that a plane in the moving body maintain contact with a plane in
fixed body. This joint has three degrees of freedom. The moving plane can slide in two
dimensions along the fixed plane, and it can rotate on an axis normal to the fixed plane.
Mobility of Links/ DOF (GRÜBLER’S FORMULA)
GRÜBLER’S equation states that,
F= 3(n-1)-2l-h
Here,
F= Degrees of Freedom (DOF)/Mobility
n= Number of links
l= Number of lower pairs
h= Number of Higher pairs

GRÜBLER’S FORMULA (example)

F = 3 (2-1)-2.1-0 F = 3 (2-1)-2×1-0 F = 3 (n-1)-2l-h

So, DOF = (3-2) = 1 So, DOF = (3-2) = 1 F = 3(4-1)-2×4-0
So, DOF = (9-8) = 1

Kinematics/ Acceleration Analysis:

Kinematics is the relationship between the motion of the end-point of a robot and the motion of
the joints.
It is the study of the relationship between a robot's joint coordinates and its spatial layout, and is
a fundamental and classical topic in robotics. Kinematics can yield very accurate calculations in

29 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

many problems, such as positioning a gripper at a place in space, designing a mechanism that can
move a tool from point A to point B, or predicting whether a robot's motion would collide with
obstacles.
Robot kinematics deals with traits of redundancy, joint limitation, collision avoidance and
singularity manifolds. Hence, kinematic analysis plays a vital role in the positioning task of a
robot manipulator.
(WHY ACCELERATION ANALYSIS/ KINEMATICS IS IMPORTANT IN ROBOTICS)
The kinematics of an arm is normally split into forward and inverse solutions.
Forward kinematics: Given a sequence of commands, what is the final position of the robotic
arm?
Inverse kinematics: Given a desired position of the robotic arm, what sequence of commands
will bring it to that position
Forward Kinematics:
Computational procedures which determine
where the end-effector of a robot is located in
space. The procedures use mathematical
algorithms along with joint sensors to
determine its location.
A manipulator is composed of serial links
which are affixed to each other revolute or
prismatic joints from the base frame through
the end effector. Calculating the position and
orientation of the end effector in terms of the
joint variables is called as forward kinematics.
Forward Kinematics (angles to position)
What you are given: The length of each link
The angle of each joint
What you can find: The position of any point
(i.e., it’s (x, y, z) coordinates
Inverse kinematics:
Inverse kinematics is the use of kinematic equations to determine the motion of a robot to reach a
desired position. For example, to perform automated bin picking, a robotic arm used in a

30 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

manufacturing line needs precise motion from an initial position to a desired position between
bins and manufacturing machines. The grasping end of a robot arm is designated as the end-
effector. The robot configuration is a list of joint positions that are within the position limits of
the robot model and do not violate any constraints the robot has.
Inverse Kinematics (position to angles)
What you are given: The length of each link
The position of some point on the robot

What you can find: The angles of each joint needed to obtain
that position

Derive forward kinematics equations of manipulator for a particular position:

The kinematics of a two-dimensional robotic arm with two links, two joints and an end effector
such as a gripper, a welder or a paint sprayer are shown in figure. The first joint can rotate but it
is mounted on a base that is fixed to a table or the floor. Link Ɩ1 connects this joint to a second
joint that can move and rotate; a second link Ɩ2 connects this joint to the fixed end effector.
A two-dimensional coordinate system is
assigned with the first joint at (0, 0). The
lengths of the two links are Ɩ1 and Ɩ2. Rotate
the first joint by α to move the end of the first
link with the second joint to (x´, y´). Now
rotate the second joint by β. What are the
coordinates (x, y) of the end of the arm, in
terms of the two constants Ɩ1, Ɩ2 and the two
parameters α, β?

31 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

(https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-62533-1_16)
(https://modernrobotics.northwestern.edu/nu-gm-book-resource/chapter-6-
autoplay/#department)

32 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Derive inverse kinematics equations of manipulator:

33 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

34 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Robotic Gripper/Arm-tooling:
A robotic gripper is the device attached to the end of a
robot manipulator arm that enables an industrial robot
to be able to pick up, handle, or move parts. Grippers
are one type out of many different types of end-
effectors. Grippers are the most common type of end-
effector for robots because of their versatility and
adaptability.

End of Arm Tolling (EOAT):

End of arm tooling (EOAT) is a crucial aspect of robotic technology. It refers to the equipment
that interacts with parts and components, typically at the end of a robotic arm. End-of-arm
tooling (EOAT), sometimes referred to as end effectors, are devices that can be installed on a
robotic arm or wrist, and they're what expands your industrial robot's capabilities.

Type of Grippers:
The End-of-arm has to be in contact with the objects and interact with them. Adapting these ones
to the different objects and industrial activities ended with different kinds of grippers.
There are four main types of robot grippers:
• Vacuum grippers,
• Hydraulic grippers,
• Pneumatic grippers and
• Servo-electric grippers
1. Vacuum Grippers
The vacuum gripper has been the standard End of Arm Tooling (EOAT) in manufacturing
because of its high level of flexibility. This type of robot grip-per uses a rubber or polyurethane
suction cup to pick up items. Some vacuum grip-pers use a closed cell foam rubber layer, rather
than suction cups, to complete the application.
2. Pneumatic Grippers
The pneumatic gripper is popular due to its compact size and light weight. It can easily be
incorporated into tight spaces, which can be helpful in the manufacturing industry.
3. Hydraulic Grippers
The hydraulic gripper provides the most strength and is often used for applications that require
significant amounts of force. These robotic grippers generate their strength from pumps that can

35 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

provide up to 2000 psi. Although they are strong, hydraulic grippers are messier than other
grippers due to the oil used in the pumps. They also may need more maintenance due the gripper
being damaged because of the force used dur-ing the application.

4. Servo-Electric Grippers
The servo-electric gripper appears more and more in industrial settings, due to the fact that it is
easy to con-trol. Electronic motors control the movement of the gripper jaws. These grippers are
highly flexible and allow for different material tolerances when handling parts.

(Vacuum grippers)

(Servo-electric Grippers)
Factors considered while designing a gripper:
• The gripper must have the ability to reach the surface of a work part.
• The change in work part size must be accounted for providing accurate positioning.
• The gripper must not create any sort of distort and scratch in the fragile work parts.
• The gripper must hold the larger area of a work part if it has various dimensions, which
will certainly increase stability and control in positioning.
• The gripper can be designed with resilient pads to provide more grasping contacts in the
work part.
• The replaceable fingers can also be employed for holding different work part sizes by its
interchangeability facility.
• Grip force must be adequate to safely transport the part.

36 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Trajectory of a robot:
A robot configuration as a function of time is called a trajectory. We can write a trajectory as
theta of t, where the time t goes from zero to capital T.
Four types of robot trajectory/ movement control:
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot
3. Controlled-path robot
4. Stop-to-Stop
Point to Point Control Robot (PTP):
Point-to-point movement (PTP movement) is time
optimal movement between two given points in 3D
space. Robot axes are moving synchronically from
the current point (M1) to the target point (M2), which
results in curved trajectory of the end-effector. PTP
movements are used for quick positioning followed
by some specific operation or by controlled path
motion which begin in target point (M2) The PTP
robot is capable of moving from one point to another
point. The locations are recorded in the control
memory.
PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next point. Common applications
include:
• Component insertion
• Spot welding
• hole drilling
• Machine loading and unloading
• Assembly operations

Continuous-Path Control Robot (CP):

The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the controlled path. With CP from one
control, the robot can stop at any specified point along the controlled path.
All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot's control memory.
Applications Straight-line motion is the simplest example for this type of robot.

37 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability to follow a smooth curve path
that has been defined by the programmer.
In such cases the programmer manually moves the robot arm through the desired path and the
controller unit stores a large number of individual point locations along the path in memory
(teach-in).
Typical applications include:
• spray painting
• finishing
• gluing
• Arc welding operations

Controlled-Path Robot:
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry such as
straight lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy.
Good accuracy can be obtained at any point along the specified path.
Only the start and finish points and the path definition function must be stored in the robot's
control memory.
It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo capability to correct their
path.

Stop-to-Stop:
• It is open loop system
• Position and velocity unknown to controller
• On/off commands stored as valve states
• End travel set by mechanical

Force Control in Robotics

A fundamental requirement for the success of a manipulation task is
the capability to handle the physical contact between a robot and the
environment. Pure motion control turns out to be inadequate because
the unavoidable modeling errors and uncertainties may cause a rise
of the contact force, ultimately leading to an unstable behavior
during the interaction, especially in the presence of rigid
environments. Force feedback and force control becomes mandatory

38 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

to achieve a robust and versatile behavior of a robotic system in poorly structured environments
as well as safe and dependable operation in the presence of humans. Force control is used to
handle the physical interaction between a robot and the environment and also to ensure safe and
dependable operation in the presence of humans. The control goal may be that to keep the
interaction forces limited or that to guarantee a desired force along the directions where
interaction occurs while a desired motion is ensured in the other directions.
Force control is the control of the force with which a machine or the manipulator of a robot acts
on an object or its environment. By controlling the contact force, damage to the machine as well
as to the objects to be processed and injuries when handling people can be prevented. In
manufacturing tasks, it can compensate for errors and reduce wear by maintaining a uniform
contact force.

Cartesian Control
Cartesian Control is the ability to move a robotic
manipulator arm, along linear cartesian axes. Or in
simple terms, to move the robot arm forward, back,
left, right, up, down in a straight line. Some robotic
systems, namely ‘Cartesian coordinate robots’, are
constrained to linear motion along defined axes. A
good example of this is a CNC machine, or the
claw game at your local arcade.

Transmission of energy from motor to the end effector of robot:

Transmission systems are used to transfer movement of the motor to a mobile articulation. This
definition applies to robots whose structures are made up of articulated segments (rotational or
translational), making up open chains from the base to the end effector.

39 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

In most robotic systems, the point where the motor (actuator) is connected is not the point where
the work is done.
Transfer of energy is accomplished by three basic means: the gear, the belt and the chain.
In this figure, the drive motor for the robot is connected at the left end of the arm. Through the
use of gears, the motor’s energy is transferred to the drive shaft and then to the other end of the
arm, where the work is to be done by the end effector.
• In many industrial robots, mechanical energy transfer system is used. Mechanical transfer
of energy is controlled through the use of levers, chains, pulleys, belts, cams and gears.
• Electrical transfer of energy is accomplished through electric wires to the point where the
work will be done.
• Pneumatic transfer of energy is accomplished through the use of compressed air, which is
transferred through piping to a pneumatic actuator that will accomplish the work.
• Hydraulic transfer of energy is accomplished through the use of pressurized fluids piped
to an actuator. The actuator will then cause work to be done.
The main part of the transfer of energy for a robotic system is actuator. The actuator converts the
electric, pneumatic or hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy required to perform the work.

Programming method used in robot:

Programming is a key aspect to any robotic system. It relays vital information to an industrial
robot making it capable of functioning and carrying out specific tasks. There are different ways
in which robots can be programmed to perform their tasks.
• Online-programming Method:
- Teach-in
- Play-back/ Lead Through/ Hand Guiding
• Offline-programming Method

1. Teach Method
This method involves using a teach pendant to guide the robot through a series of points and
having it store them in memory. The process of guiding and recording these points or coordinates
in space is called teaching in robotics.
A majority of modern industrial robots in the market today come with a teach pendant that
allows even non-engineers to guide the robot and program it to perform a set of functions as

40 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

desired. Modern teach pendants are just custom applications loaded into a special tablet or
touchscreen device. It is the most intuitive and preferred way to program and reprogram
industrial robots today.
Some of the reasons why this method is preferred to others include:
Precision: The operator can input very precise points or coordinates into the teaching pendant
thus making it easier to ensure that the robot arm works as expected.
Safety: As a result of the precision, it’s easier to ensure that the robot arm and other moving parts
will stay within a predefined space for safety purposes. This is especially important for robots
that have safety stop or collision detection as a feature.
Intuitiveness: Modern tablet-operated teaching systems are quite intuitive that robotics engineers
may not be required to program or reprogram the industrial robots. A teach pendant with controls
to drive the robot in a number of different coordinate systems is used to manually drive the robot
to the desired locations.
The only downside to using the teaching method is the number of instructions can be issued is
limited. The method restricts teaching the robot a predefined set of movements and does not
allow for additional instructions to improve efficiency or react to changing situations.

2. Play-Back/ Hand Guiding/ Lead-Through Programming

Hand hiding or lead-through programming involves physically moving the robot arm over a
series of points and axis to “teach” it how to perform a desired function. For instance, an
operator can guide a robot on how to reach for a tool on a workstation and use it to do some
operation. After the instructions have been recorded by the robot’s memory, it will continue
following the same path on its own.
Hand guiding is especially preferred for smaller modern robots that are designed to work
alongside human operators. These robots can be taught to do very complex tasks such as
painting, sorting items, precision welding, engraving, etc.
Some of the advantages of lead-through or hand guiding include:
• Intuitiveness
• Safety
• Collaboration
• Great for complex tasks or movements
However, hand guiding fails as a programming method when precision is required. It is also not
practical to use this method for large industrial robots that are not designed to work alongside
humans. The method is the most preferred for modern collaborative robots used in smaller
industrial setups.

41 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

3. Off-line/ Simulation Programming

Offline programming allows robots or programmers to create program and path data directly
from CAD models of the parts being processes. This robot programming method involves
writing instructions on a separate system and using virtual models of an industrial robot for
testing. After the instructions have been written and tested, they are uploaded to the robot’s
memory. This method is preferred where a lot of instructions need to be written and tested before
being deployed in real life. Typically, Off-line Programming methods are most beneficial in
complex applications that would require extended periods of time for manual programming.
Some of the advantages of offline programming include:
• Allows for more complexity
• Can lead to more efficient robot operation
• Supports precision
• Guarantees safety
Offline programming can be technical and therefore not suitable for non-engineers who do not
understand low-level robotics programming or coding. All programming methods are very much
in use today in most industries. The method you choose may come down to the type of robot you
are programming and what you want to do with it.

Robotics drives & actuators:

The action of the individual joints must be controlled in order for the manipulator to perform a
desired move its body, arm, motion and wrist. The is provided by the drive system used to power
the robot. The joints are moved by actuators powered by a particular form of drive system.
Actuators are devices used to produce action or motion. It is operated by a source of energy
(mainly electrical signal, air, fluids) and converts that energy into motion. Actuator is a
mechanism by which a control system acts upon environment. Actuator’s output is usually
Mechanical i.e., linear displacement or velocity. Actuation can be from few microns to few
meters.

42 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Actuator functional diagrams:

• Amplifier converts the (low power) control signal into a high-power signal.
• Transducer converts the energy of the amplified control signal into work.

Main characteristics of actuators:

• The size of operating forces and torques.
• The operating environment.
• Linear or rotational movement.
• The energy sources.
• Speed of response and motion.
• The amount of movement needed.
• The degree of precision needed.
• The method of control and monitoring.
Classification of robotic drives:
The drive system is an essential element of a robot. Without it, robot can’t do any task.
The drive system determines the speed of the arm movement, the strength of the robot, dynamic
performance, and, to some extent, the kinds of application.
The drive system supplies the power, which enable the robot to move.
The dynamic performance of a robot mainly depends on the type of power source.
Robot drive systems are of 3 types based on the sources: Hydraulic, Pneumatic and Electric.

43 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Selection criteria of robotic drives:

• Speed of Operation.
• Reliability & efficiency
• Service Life.
• Sensitivity to Environment.
• Ease of Maintenance.
• Availability
• Transportability
• Explosion proof nature
• Cleanliness
• Overload safety
•

Hydraulic drives:
Hydraulic systems are power transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid
for transmitting energy from an energy generating source to an energy using point to
accomplish useful work. Figure shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic
components.

44 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Function of the Components:

• The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power
to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or
rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
• The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
• Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
• External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
• Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
• Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
• Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
• Pressure regulator maintains the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.

Basic Components:
The structure shown in the figure is a closed-loop type having fluid transferred from the reservoir
to one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the reservoir. Fluid
is drawn from the reservoir by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure.

45 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir
and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level. Cylinder movement is
controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.
When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port 2 and thus the load is raised.
When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port 3 and thus the load is lowered.
When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it in
position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via the
pressure relief.

Advantages:
• Provide fast movements
• High efficiency and high power-to-size ratio
• Complete & accurate control over speed, position and direction of actuators
• Preferred for moving heavy parts
• Self-lubricating and non-corrosive
• Can meet sudden demands in power
• Preferred to be used in non-explosive environments

Disadvantages:
• Occupy large space area
• There is a danger of oil leak to the shop floor
• The power pack can be noisy (about 70 dB)
• Changes in temperature alter the viscosity of the hydraulic fluid.
• For smaller robots, it is not economically feasible
• Servo-control of hydraulic systems is complex

Applications:
• Spray-painting, Welding, cutting
• Handling heavy forging and die casting operations
Note-1: 4 essential components: a reservoir (to hold the liquid), pumps (to move it), Valves (to
control flow), Actuator (to carry the dictates of the fluid on some load)
Note 2: Fluid two properties: viscosity and bulk modulus.

46 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Pneumatic drives:
A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Pneumatic Drives utilize pneumatic energy provided by a compressor and transform
it into mechanical energy by means of pistons/turbines.
• It converts the high-pressure energy of compressed air into either linear or rotary motion.
• Quickly respond in operation.
• The pneumatic drive systems are especially used for the small type robots, which have
less than five degrees of freedom.
• It has the ability to offer fine accuracy and speed. This drive system can produce rotary
movements by actuating the rotary actuators.

The functions of various components are as follows:

• The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful
work.
• The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
• The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
• The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
• External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
• The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

47 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Figure shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided to
cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized air
then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is
fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required level,
respectively.
The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way similar
to its hydraulic circuit.

Advantages:
• Preferred for smaller robots as they are compact.
• Compressed air can be stored & conveyed easily.
• Compresses air is clean, explosion-proof & insensitive to temperature fluctuation.
• They have a very quick action & response time.
• Inherently reliable and reducing maintenance cost.
• Less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots.
• Safe to use in explosive areas.
• Control is simple.
Disadvantages:
• Suitable for relatively less degrees of freedom design
• Suitable for simple pick and place application
• Since air is compressible, precise control of speed and position is not easily obtainable.

48 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

• These are not suitable for moving heavy loads under precise control due to
compressibility of air.
• If moisture penetrates the units and ferrous metals have been used, then damage to
components can result

Applications: Pick & Place operations

Comparison Between Pneumatic Systems and Hydraulic Systems

Electric Drives:
Electric motor drives the robot link through some mechanical transmission e.g., gears, chains,
belts etc. The most used type of drive-in robot
• Solenoid
• Electric motors
• DC servomotors
• DC motors: Permanent magnet and Brushless permanent magnet
• AC motors: Main two groups are: single-phase and Poly-phase. Each group being further
divided into induction and synchronous motor.
• Stepper motors: variable reluctance, permanent magnet and hybrid type

49 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Electric actuator is actuated by motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque.
Electric actuator consists of electric motor, speed reducer, position limit mechanism and over
torque protection mechanism and position feedback device.

Advantages:
• High power conversion efficiency
• Good for small and medium size robots
• Better positioning accuracy and repeatability
• They are easily maintained and repaired
• Cleaner environment (No pollution)
• The drive system is well suited to electronic control
• The basic drive elements are usually lighter than that for fluid power

Disadvantages/Drawbacks:
• Slower movement compare to the fluid powered robots
• They require some sort of mechanical transmission system which requires additional
power for the involvement of mass and unwanted movement.
• Additional cost is incurred for their maintenance
• Electric motors are not intrinsically safe for explosive environment

Piezoelectric Actuator:
A piezoelectric actuator is an electrically controlled positioning element that functions based on
the piezoelectric effect. The direct piezo effect, employed for instance in piezoelectric force
sensors, represents generating an electric charge as an effect of mechanical strain.

50 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

The piezoelectric actuator is a device that makes use of the inverse piezoelectric effect.
For example, when a voltage of about 1,000V is applied to a piezoelectric ceramic plate with a
thickness of 1mm (1,000V/mm electrical field), a displacement of about 1μm is obtained due to
the inverse piezoelectric effect.
(https://www.smashingrobotics.com/introduction-to-piezoelectric-actuators/)

Effect of Piezoelectric Actuator in Robot:

Piezoelectric motors have the benefit of being very precise at very fast frequencies. They can
also operate on a very small-scale allowing robots to become smaller. Piezoelectric motors have
the benefit of being able to exert a large displacement with a low driving voltage. Another
benefit is the minimal amount of EMI/RFI noise created.
Piezoelectric Actuator can be wired in such a way to be sensors as well. They can be used to
determine the number of rotations, or if there is a force being exerted against a surface.

Stepper Motor:
A motor whose rotation is produced by
switching signals to suitably connected
windings in some predetermined sequence to
produce uniform angular steps of rotation is
called stepper motor.
These motors are also called stepping motors or
step motors. The name is used because this
motor rotates through a fixed angular step in
response to each input current pulse received by
its controller. The stepping motor therefore
allows control of the load’s velocity, distance
and direction.
A significant advantage of the stepping motor
is its compatibility with digital electronic
systems.
This fact makes the motor well-suited for
open-loop position control because no
feedback need be taken from the output shaft.

51 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Advantages:
• The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
• The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
• Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an
accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
• Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.
• Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore, the life of the
motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
• The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor
simpler and less costly to control.
• It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly
coupled to the shaft.
• A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the
frequency of the input pulses.

Disadvantages:
• Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
• Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.

Difference between Servo and Non-servo Robots:

A servo-controlled robot is driven by servo mechanisms. Servo motors are driven by signals
rather than by straight power-line voltage and current.
Non-servo-controlled robots are usually controlled by limit switches or by banging into stops at
each side of its swing. They operate on very simple switching or limiting of their arms.

Servo robots
The servo robots are more complex, with hand and arm appendages, the increased task
performance ability due to their manipulators and effectors. They operate with greater movement
and flexibility. Closed loop control is used to monitor velocity, position of each point.

Non-servo robots
Non-servo robots are simple, good for repetitive tasks–Simple to understand, operate, and
maintain. This basic type of robot performs only movement tasks, such as picking up one object
and relocating it to another area. These are used in manufacturing and replace the need for
human labor, as the robots can move large and heavy equipment over a certain distance, and
return to the original spot to move another piece. Open loop control is used to monitor velocity,
position of each point.

52 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Difference between Brushed and Brushless Dc Motor:

Difference between Brushed and Brushless Dc Motor:

• Brushless motors have absence of brushes in assembly, and they are more compact.
Instead, they need to be equipped with additional commutating devices (controllers,
rotary encoders, drives).
• Brushed motors are cheaper and simpler. They can be wired directly to DC source and
have simple elementary control (like a switch).
• In brushless variations, their rotor rotates electronically on the other hand; brushed
armature rotates mechanically (current transmitted through brushes).
• Brushless ones have three wires for connection and the brushed have two.
• Brushless motors have a bigger efficiency (85-90%) then brushed (75%-80%). This
means that with the same power the first ones convert a large rotational force, because
they do not create friction and do not lose much heat during their operation.

53 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Sensor:
• A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.
• Sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment.
• Input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, force, pressure, displacement, etc.
• It produces a proportional output signal (electrical, mechanical, magnetic, etc.).

Transducer and Sensor:

Transducer: Converts one type of physical variable (e.g. force, pressure, temperature, velocity,
flow rate, etc.) into another form usually to electrical voltage.
Sensor: It is a transducer that is used to make a measurement of a physical variable of interest
e.g., strain gauge, thermocouples, speedometers and Pitot tubes, etc.
Transducer and sensors can be classified into two basic types depending on the form of the
converted signal:
• Analogue transducers
• Digital transducers

Desirable features of sensors:

• Accuracy
• Precision
• Resolution
• Range
• Speed of response
• Calibration
• Reliability
• Cost and ease of operation
Sensors in Robot:
The sensors used in robotics can be divided into the following general categories:
• Tactile sensor
• Proximity and range sensors
• Miscellaneous sensors and sensor-based systems
• Machine vision system

54 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Tactile sensors:
A tactile sensor (fingertip force sensor) is a device that measures the forces in response to the
physical interaction with the environment.
Two classes of Tactile sensors are: Touch sensor and Force sensor
• Touch sensors: Provide a binary output signal which indicates whether or not contact has
been made with the object
• Force sensors: These indicate not only contact has been made with the object but also the
magnitude of the contact force.
Proximity and Range Sensors:
Proximity sensors: "Proximity Sensor" includes all sensors that perform non-contact
detection in comparison to sensors, such as limit switches, that detect objects by physically
contacting them.
Range sensors: These are used to measure the distance between the object and the sensor.
Proximity and range sensors are typically be located on the wrist of end-effector to detect
work-part or human in work cell.
Piezoelectric Sensors:
These sensors are used for measurement of force, pressure and
acceleration.
When piezoelectric materials are compressed or stressed, it generates
electric charges becoming one side positive and other side negatively
charged.
The general relation is:

Machine Vision:
Machine vision is concerned with the sensing of vision data and its interpretation by a computer.
A typical vision system consists of: i) camera and digitizing hardware ii) a digital computer and
iii) hardware and software necessary to interface them
The operations of vision system consist of 3 functions:
i) Sensing & digitizing image data

55 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

ii) Image processing & analysis and

iii) Application

Light Sensor:
A light sensor is a photoelectric device that converts light energy into electrical energy. These
sensors are designed to be sensitive to visible, infrared, or ultraviolet light, which means they’re
sensitive to a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Light sensors are built from selective materials that generate electricity on exposure to a specific
part of the spectrum. The amount of electricity is proportional to the intensity of the incident
light.
Types of Light Sensors:
Light sensors are mostly passive devices. They’re categorized into two classes:
1. Generates electricity on exposure to light (i.e., photo-emissive and photovoltaic devices)
2. Conducts electricity on exposure to light (i.e., photoconductive/photo-resistive and
photojunction devices)
Photovoltaic Light Sensor:
In photovoltaic devices, the voltage difference between
two semiconductor materials is generated in response to
incident light energy. Due to these potential differences,
the current flows between the two semiconductor layers.

56 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

Working principle:
The operating principle of the photovoltaic cell is illustrated in Figure. The cell is a large
exposed diode that is constructed using a p-n junction between appropriately doped
semiconductors. Photons hitting the cell pass through the thin p-doped upper and are absorbed by
electrons in the n-doped layer. This causes conduction electrons and holes to be created.
The upper terminal is positive and the lower negative. In general, the open-circuit voltage V that
is developed on a photovoltaic cell varies logarithmically with the incident radiation intensity
according to the following equation:

Photo Resistor Light Sensor:

PHOTO related to light and photons.
RESISTOR device which resists the flow of current.
PHOTORESISTOR The devices which use input light and change its resistances.
• Photoresistors are the passive components that use
luminous light to change the resistance and generate
electric signals accordingly.
• The value of resistance depends on the amount of light
falling on it and is inversely proportional to the amount
of light i.e, the more the intensity of light less is the less
resistance developed.
• Photoresistors are also known as LIGHT DEPENDENT
RESISTORS(LDR).

57 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.
 Module 1
(Automation & Control Engineering; IPE 301)

A photoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance decreases when the intensity of light
increases. In other words, the flow of electric current through the photoresistor increases when
the intensity of light increases.
Photoconductive devices are built of semiconductor materials that are conductivity changes
based on exposure to light. Due to the energy absorbed from the incident light, more free
electrons are generated and the conductivity of such materials increases. The most common
photoconductive material used in LDR cells is cadmium sulfide.

58 | P a g e Md. Tarek Ur Rahman Erin

Assistant Professor (Mechanical)
CTEC.