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978-1-316-60020-7 — Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook

Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Chapter 1
Coordinates, points and lines
This chapter uses coordinates to describe points and lines in two dimensions. When you have
completed it, you should be able to
■ find the distance between two points
■ find the mid-point of a line segment, given the coordinates of its end points
■ find the gradient of a line segment, given the coordinates of its end points
■ find the equation of a line though a given point with a given gradient
■ find the equation of the line joining two points
■ recognise lines from different forms of their equations
■ find the point of intersection of two lines
■ tell from their gradients whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular.

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978-1-316-60020-7 — Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook
Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1

1.1 The distance between two points

When you choose an origin, draw an x-axis to the right on the page and a y-axis
up the page and choose scales along the axes, you are setting up a coordinate y B
system. The coordinates of this system are called cartesian coordinates after (10, 7)
the French mathematician René Descartes, who lived in the 17th century.
4
In Fig. 1.1, two points A and B have cartesian coordinates (4,3) and (10,7). ( 4, 3)
The part of the line AB which lies between A and B is called a line segment. A 6 C
(10, 3)
The length of the line segment is the distance between the points.
A third point C has been added to Fig. 1.1 to form a right-angled triangle. x
You can see that C has the same x-coordinate as B and the same y-coordinate
as A; that is, C has coordinates (10,3). Fig. 1.1
It is easy to see that AC has length 10 − 4 = 6, and CB has length 7 − 3 = 4. Using
Pythagoras’ theorem in triangle ABC shows that the length of the line segment AB is

( 4))2 (7 )2 62 + 42 36 16 52 .

You can use your calculator to give this as 7.21..., if you need to, but often it is better
to leave the answer as 52 .
The idea of coordinate geometry is to use algebra so that you can do calculations like
this when A and B are any points, and not just the particular points in Fig. 1.1. It often
helps to use a notation which shows at a glance which point a coordinate refers to.
2 One way of doing this is with sufixes, calling the coordinates of the irst point (x 1,y1),
and the coordinates of the second point (x 2,y 2). Thus, for example, x 1 stands for ‘the
x-coordinate of the irst point’.
Fig. 1.2 shows this general triangle. You can see that C now has coordinates (x 2,y1), and
that AC = x 2 − x 1 and CB = y 2 − y1. Pythagoras’ theorem now gives
y B
y2 ( x 2 , y2)
2 2
(y2 − y1 ) .
AB = (x 2 x1 ) + (y
y2 − y1
An advantage of using algebra is that this formula works whatever the shape
( x 1 , y1)
and position of the triangle. In Fig. 1.3, the coordinates of A are negative, y1 ( x 2 , y1)
A x2 − x1 C
and in Fig. 1.4 the line slopes downhill rather than uphill as you move from
left to right. Use Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 to work out for yourself the length of AB in
each case. You can then use the formula to check your answers. x1 x2 x

y y
Fig. 1.2
B ( 3,5)
A ( 1,5) C

B( 6, 2)
x
A( −2, −1) C
x

Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4

In Fig. 1.3,
x 2 x1 = 3 ( 2) = 3 + 2 = 5 and y2 y1 5 − (−1) 5 + 1 6,
so ) 2 +((
AB = ( − (−2)) ( 1))2 = 52 6 2 = 25 + 36 = 61.

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978-1-316-60020-7 — Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook
Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Chapter 1: Coordinates, points and lines

And in Fig. 1.4,

x 2 x1 = 6 1 = 5 and y2 y1 2−5 3,
so AB = ( − )2 +(
+ ( − 5)2 = 52 + (−3)2 25
5 9 34 .

Also, it doesn’t matter which way round you label the points A and B. If you think
of B as ‘the irst point’ (x 1,y1) and A as ‘the second point’ (x 2,y 2), the formula doesn’t
change. For Fig. 1.1, it would give

BA = ( − )2 +(
+ ( − 7))2 = (−
( 6)2 +(
+ (− )2 = 36 + 16 = 52 , as before.

The distance between the points (x 2 ,y1) and (x 2 ,y2) (or the length of the line
segment joining them) is

( 2 1 )2 + ( y2 y1 )2 .

1.2 The mid-point of a line segment

You can also use coordinates to ind the mid-point of a line segment.
Fig. 1.5 shows the same line segment as in Fig. 1.1, but with the mid-point M added.
3
The line through M parallel to the y-axis meets AC at D. Then the lengths of the sides
of the triangle ADM are half of those of triangle ACB, so that y
B
(10, 7)
1
AD = 2
AC = 21 (10 − 4) = 21 (6) = 3,
M
1
DM = 2
CB = 21 (7 − 3) = 21 (4) = 2.
( 4, 3)
The x-coordinate of M is the same as the x-coordinate of D, which is (10, 3)
A D C
1
4 + AD = 4 2
(10
1 4) = 4 3 = 7.
x
The y-coordinate of M is
3 3 + 21 (7 3) = 3 + 2 = 5. Fig. 1.5

So the mid-point M has coordinates (7,5).

In Fig. 1.6 points M and D have been added in the same way to Fig. 1.2. Exactly as
before,
1 1 1 1 y
AD
A 2
A
AC
C (x
2 2
− x1 ), DM
D 2
CB (y
2 2
− y1 ). B
y2 ( x2 ,y2 )
So the x-coordinate of M is M
x1 + AD = x1 + 21 (x 2 − x1 ) = x1 + 21 x 2 1
x
2 1 ( x1 ,y1 )
= 21 x1 + 21 x 2 = 21 (x1 + x 2 ). y1 ( x2 ,y1 )
A D C

The y-coordinate of M is
x1 x2 x
y DM
DM y1 + 21 (y2 − y1 ) = y1 + 21 y2 − 21 y1
= 21 y1 + 21 y2 = 21 (y1 + y2 ). Fig. 1.6

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Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1

The mid-point of the line segment joining (x1,y1) and (x 2 ,y2) has coordinates

( 12 ( 1 + x 2 ), 12 ( y1 + y2 )) .

Now that you have an algebraic form for the coordinates of the mid-point M you can
use it for any two points. For example, for Fig. 1.3 the mid-point of AB is

( 21 ((−22) 3), 21 (( 1) 5) ) ( 21 (1), 21 (4)) = ( 21 , 2) .

And for Fig. 1.4 it is ( 21 (1 6) + 3), 21 (5 2) ) ( 21 (7), 21 (7)) (3 21 , 3 21 ) .
Again, it doesn’t matter which you call the irst point and which the second. In
Fig. 1.5, if you take (x 1,y1) as (10,7) and (x 2,y 2) as (4,3), you ind that the mid-point is
(
1 1
2 (10 4), 2 (7 + 3) )
( , 5) , as before.

1.3 The gradient of a line segment

The gradient of a line is a measure of its steepness. The steeper the line, the larger
the gradient.
Unlike the distance and the mid-point, the gradient is a property of the whole line, not
just of a particular line segment. If you take any two points on the line and ind the y-step

4 increases in the x- and y-coordinates as you go from one to the other, as in Fig. 1.7, then
the value of the fraction x-step

y -step
Fig. 1.7
x -step

is the same whichever points you choose. This is the gradient of the line.
In Fig. 1.2 the x-step and y-step are x 2 − x 1 and y 2 − y1, so that:

y2 y1
The gradient of the line joining (x1,y1) to (x 2 ,y2) is .
x2 x1

This formula applies whether the coordinates are positive or negative. In Fig. 1.3, for

example, the gradient of AB is 5 ( 1) = 5 1 = 6 .

3 ( 2) 3 2 5
2 5 −3 3
But notice that in Fig. 1.4 the gradient is = = − ; the negative gradient tells
6 1 5 5
you that the line slopes downhill as you move from left to right.
As with the other formulae, it doesn’t matter which point has the sufix 1 and
which has the sufix 2. In Fig. 1.1, you can calculate the gradient as either
7 3 4 2 3 7 −4 2
= = , or = = .
10 − 4 6 3 4 10 −6 3
Two lines are parallel if they have the same gradient.

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978-1-316-60020-7 — Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1 Coursebook
Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Chapter 1: Coordinates, points and lines

EXAMPLE 1.3.1
The ends of a line segment are (p − q, p + q) and (p + q, p − q). Find the length of
the line segment, its gradient and the coordinates of its mid-point.
For the length and gradient you have to calculate
x 2 x1 = ( p q ) − ( p q ) = p q − p q = 2q
and y y1 = ( p q ) − ( p q ) = p q − p q = −2q.

The length is ( 2 1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = ( q )2 ( q )2 = 4

4qq 2 4q 2 = 8q 2 .

y2 y1 −2q
The gradient is = = −1 .
x 2 x1 2q

For the mid-point you have to calculate

x1 + x 2 = ( p q ) − ( p q ) = p q + p q = 2 p
and y1 + y2 = ( p q ) + ( p q ) = p q + p q = 2 p .

The mid-point is ( 21 ( 1 2 ) ( 21 (2 p ),) 21 (2

), 21 (y1 + y2 ) (2 p )) = ( p , p ) .
Try drawing your own igure to illustrate the results in this example.

5
EXAMPLE 1.3.2
Prove that the points A(1,1), B(5,3), C(3,0) and D(−1,−2) form a parallelogram.
You can approach this problem in a number of ways, but whichever method you use, it is
worth drawing a sketch. This is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Method 1 (using distances) In this method, ind the lengths of the
opposite sides. If both pairs of opposite sides are equal, then ABCD is a
parallelogram.
y B(5, 3)

AB = (5 − 1)2 + ( − )2 = 20 .
A(1,1)
DC = ( − (−1))2 + ( − (−2))2 = 20 .
CB = (5 − )2 + (3 − 0)2 = 13 . C ( 3, 0) x
2 2
DA = (1 − (−1)) + (1 − (−2)) = 13 .
D(−1, −2)
Therefore AB = DC and CB = DA, so ABCD is Fig. 1.8
a parallelogram.
Method 2 (using mid-points) In this method, begin by inding the
mid-points of the diagonals AC and BD. If these points are the same,
then the diagonals bisect each other, so the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
The mid-point of AC is ( 21 ( ), 21 (1 + 0)), which is (2, 21 ). The mid-point of BD

is ( 21 (5 ( ), 21 (3 +(( 2))), which is also (2, 21 ) . So ABCD is a parallelogram.

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Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 1

Method 3 (using gradients) In this method, ind the gradients of the opposite
sides. If both pairs of opposite sides are parallel, then ABCD is a parallelogram.
3 1 2 1 0 ( 2) 2 1
The gradients of AB and DC are = = and = = respectively,
5 1 4 2 3 ( 1) 4 2
3
so AB is parallel to DC. The gradients of DA and CB are both , so DA is
2
parallel to CB. As the opposite sides are parallel, ABCD is a parallelogram.

Exercise 1A
Do not use a calculator. Where appropriate, leave square roots in your answers.
1 Find the lengths of the line segments joining these pairs of points. In parts e and
h assume that a > 0; in parts j and i assume that p > q > 0.
a (2, 5) and (7, 17) b (−3, 2) and (1, −1)
c (4, −5) and (−1, 0) d (−3, −3) and (−7, 3)
e (2a, a) and (10a, −14a) f (a + 1, 2a + 3) and (a − 1, 2a − 1)
g (2, 9) and (2, −14) h (12a, 5b) and (3a, 5b)
i (p, q) and (q, p) j (p + 4q, p − q) and (p − 3q, p)

2 Show that the points (1, −2), (6, −1), (9, 3) and (4, 2) are vertices of a parallelogram.

3 Show that the triangle formed by the points (−3, −2), (2, −7) and (−2, 5) is
6 isosceles.

4 Show that the points (7, 12), (−3, −12) and (14, −5) lie on a circle with centre (2, 0).

5 Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the line segments joining these pairs of
points.
a (2, 11), (6, 15) b (5, 7), (−3, 9)
c (−2, −3), (1, −6) d (−3, 4), (−8, 5)
e (p + 2, 3p − 1), (3p + 4, p − 5) f (p + 3, q − 7), (p + 5, 3 − q)
g (p + 2q, 2p + 13q), (5p − 2q, −2p − 7q) h (a + 3, b − 5), (a + 3, b + 7)

6 A (−2, 1) and B (6, 5) are the opposite ends of the diameter of a circle.
Find the coordinates of its centre.

7 M(5, 7) is the mid-point of the line segment joining A (3, 4) to B. Find the
coordinates of B.

8 A(1, −2), B(6, −1), C(9, 3) and D(4, 2) are the vertices of a parallelogram.
Verify that the mid-points of the diagonals AC and BD coincide.

9 Which one of the points A(5, 2), B(6, −3) and C(4, 7) is the mid-point of the other
two? Check your answer by calculating two distances.

10 Find the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points.
a (3, 8), (5, 12) b (1, −3), (−2, 6)
c (−4, −3), (0, −1) d (−5, −3), (3, −9)

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Chapter 1: Coordinates, points and lines

e (p + 3, p − 3), (2p + 4, − p − 5) f (p + 3, q − 5), (q − 5, p + 3)

g (p + q − 1, q + p − 3), (p − q + 1, q − p + 3) h (7, p), (11, p)

11 Find the gradients of the lines AB and BC where A is (3, 4), B is (7, 6) and C is
(−3, 1). What can you deduce about the points A, B and C?

12 The point P(x, y) lies on the straight line joining A(3, 0) and B(5, 6). Find
expressions for the gradients of AP and PB. Hence show that y = 3x − 9.

13 A line joining a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point of the opposite side is called a
median. Find the length of the median AM in the triangle A(−1, 1), B(0, 3), C(4, 7).

14 A triangle has vertices A(−2, 1), B(3, −4) and C(5, 7).
a Find the coordinates of M, the mid-point of AB, and N, the mid-point of AC.
b Show that MN is parallel to BC.

15 The points A(2, 1), B(2, 7) and C(−4, −1) form a triangle. M is the mid-point of AB
and N is the mid-point of AC.
a Find the lengths of MN and BC. b Show that BC = 2MN.

16 The vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD are A(1, 1), B(7, 3), C(9, −7) and D(−3,−3).
The points P, Q , R and S are the mid-points of AB, BC , CD and DA respectively.
a Find the gradient of each side of PQRS.
7
b What type of quadrilateral is PQRS?

17 The origin O and the points P(4, 1), Q(5, 5) and R(1, 4) form a quadrilateral.
a Show that OR is parallel to PQ.
b Show that OP is parallel to RQ.
c Show that OP = OR.
d What shape is OPQR?

18 The origin O and the points L(−2, 3), M(4, 7) and N(6, 4) form a quadrilateral.
a Show that ON = LM. b Show that ON is parallel to LM.
c Show that OM = LN. d What shape is OLMN?

19 The vertices of a quadrilateral PQRS are P(1, 2), Q(7, 0), R(6, −4) and S(−3, −1).
a Find the gradient of each side of the quadrilateral.
b What type of quadrilateral is PQRS?

20 The vertices of a quadrilateral are T(3, 2), U(2, 5), V(8, 7) and W(6, 1). The mid-
points of UV and VW are M and N respectively. Show that the triangle TMN is
isosceles.

21 The vertices of a quadrilateral DEFG are D(3, −2), E(0, −3), F(−2, 3) and G(4, 1).
a Find the length of each side of the quadrilateral.
b What type of quadrilateral is DEFG ?

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22 The points A(2, 1), B(6, 10) and C(10, 1) form an isosceles triangle with AB and
BC of equal length. The point G is (6, 4).
a Write down the coordinates of M, the mid-point of AC.
b Show that BG = 2GM and that BGM is a straight line.
c Write down the coordinates of N, the mid-point of BC.
d Show that AGN is a straight line and that AG = 2GN.

1.4 What is meant by the equation of a straight

line or of a curve?
How can you tell whether or not the points (3, 7) and (1, 5) lie on the curve y = 3x 2 + 2?
The answer is to substitute the coordinates of the points into the equation and see whether
they it; that is, whether the equation is satisied by the coordinates of the point.
For (3, 7): the right side is 3 × 32 + 2 = 29 and the left side is 7, so the equation is not
satisied. The point (3, 7) does not lie on the curve y = 3x 2 + 2.
For (1, 5): the right side is 3 × 12 + 2 = 5 and the left side is 5, so the equation is
satisied. The point (1, 5) lies on the curve y = 3x 2 + 2.

The equation of a line or curve is a rule for determining whether or not the
point with coordinates (x,y) lies on the line or curve.

8
This is an important way of thinking about the equation of a line or curve.

1.5 The equation of a line

EXAMPLE 1.5.1
Find the equation of the line with gradient 2 which y
passes through the point (2, 1). gradient 2
P(x,y)
Fig. 1.9 shows the line of gradient 2 through A(2, 1),
with another point P(x, y) lying on it. P lies on the
line if (and only if) the gradient of AP is 2.
A(2,1)
y −1
The gradient of AP is . Equating this to 2 gives
x −2 x
y −1
= 2, which is y − 1 = 2x − 4, or y = 2x − 3. Fig. 1.9
x −2

In the general case, you need to ind the equation of the line with gradient m
through the point A with coordinates (x 1, y1). Fig. 1.10 shows this line and another y
y y1 gradient m
point P with coordinates (x, y) on it. The gradient of AP is . P(x,y)
x x1
y y1
Equating to m gives = m , or y − y1 = m(x − x 1).
x x1
A ( x1, y1 )
The equation of the line through (x1,y1) with gradient m is y − y1 = m(x − x1).
x

Fig. 1.10
Notice that the coordinates of A(x 1,y1) satisfy this equation.

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Hugh Neill , Douglas Quadling , Julian Gilbey
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Chapter 1: Coordinates, points and lines

EXAMPLE 1.5.2
Find the equation of the line through the point (−2, 3) with gradient −1.
Using the equation y − y1 = m(x − x 1) gives the equation y − 3 = −1(x − (−2)),
which is y − 3 = −x − 2 or y = − x + 1. As a check, substitute the coordinates
(−2, 3) into both sides of the equation, to make sure that the given point
does actually lie on the line.

EXAMPLE 1.5.3
Find the equation of the line joining the points (3, 4) and (−1, 2).
To ind this equation, irst ind the gradient of the line joining (3,4) to (−1,2).
Then you can use the equation y − y1 = m(x − x 1).
The gradient of the line joining (3, 4) to (−1, 2) is 2 4 −2 1 .
= =
(−1
1) 3 −4 2
The equation of the line through (3,4) with gradient 21 is y 4 21 (x − 3).
After multiplying out and simplifying you get 2y − 8 = x − 3, or 2y = x + 5.
Check this equation mentally by substituting the coordinates of the other point.

1.6 Recognising the equation of a line

The answers to Examples 1.5.1−1.5.3 can all be written in the form y = mx + c, where m
and c are numbers.
It is easy to show that any equation of this form is the equation of a straight line. If
y = mx + c, then y − c = m(x − 0), or

y c y
=m ( p x = 0).
x −0
The straight line
This equation tells you that, for all points (x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the y=2
equation, the line joining (0, c) to (x, y) has gradient m. That is, (x, y) lies on the ( −1, 2) (1, 2 ) ( 5, 2 )
line through (0, c) with gradient m.
The point (0, c) lies on the y-axis. The number c is called the y-intercept of the line. x
c
To ind the x-intercept, put y = 0 in the equation, which gives x = − . Fig. 1.11
m
But notice that you can’t do this division if m = 0. In that case the line is
parallel to the x-axis, so there is no x-intercept. y The straight line
x=3
When m = 0, all the points on the line have coordinates of the form ( 3, 4)
(something, c). Thus the points (1, 2), (−1, 2), (5, 2), ... all lie on the straight line
y = 2, shown in Fig. 1.11. As a special case, the x-axis has equation y = 0. ( 3, 2)
Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis has an equation of the form x = k.
All points on it have coordinates (k, something). Thus the points (3, 0), (3, 2), ( 3, 0) x
(3, 4), ... all lie on the line x = 3, shown in Fig. 1.12. The y-axis itself has
equation x = 0. Fig. 1.12

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The line x = k does not have a gradient; its gradient is undeined. Its equation cannot
be written in the form y = mx + c.

1.7 The equation ax + by + c = 0

Suppose you have the equation y = 23 x + 43 . It is natural to multiply by 3 to get
3y = 2x + 4, which can be rearranged to get 2x − 3y + 4 = 0. This equation is in the
form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants.
Notice that the straight lines y = mx + c and ax + by + c = 0 both contain the letter c, but it
doesn’t have the same meaning. For y = mx + c, c is the y -intercept, but there is no similar
meaning for the c in ax + by + c = 0.
A simple way to ind the gradient of ax + by + c = 0 is to rearrange it into the form
y = …. Here are some examples.

EXAMPLE 1.7.1
Find the gradient of the line 2x + 3y − 4 = 0.
Write this equation in the form y = ..., and then use the fact that the straight line y = mx + c
has gradient m.
From 2x + 3y − 4 = 0 you ind that 3y = −2x + 4 and y = − 23 x + 43 . Therefore,
comparing this equation with y = mx + c, the gradient is − 23 .
10

EXAMPLE 1.7.2
One side of a parallelogram lies along the straight line with equation 3x − 4y − 7 = 0.
The point (2,3) is a vertex of the parallelogram. Find the equation of one other side.
The line 3x − 4y − 7 = 0 is the same as y 43 x − 74 , so its gradient is 43 . The line
through (2, 3) with gradient 43 is y 3 43 (x − 2), or 3x − 4y + 6 = 0.

1.8 The point of intersection of two lines

Suppose that you have two lines with equations 2x − y = 4 and 3x + 2y = −1. How do
you ind the coordinates of the point of intersection of these lines?
You want the point (x, y) which lies on both lines, so the coordinates (x, y) satisfy both
equations. Therefore you need to solve the equations simultaneously.
From these two equations, you ind x = 1, y = −2, so the point of intersection
is (1, −2).
This argument applies to straight lines with any equations provided they are not
parallel. To ind points of intersection, solve the equations simultaneously. The
method can also be used to ind the points of intersection of two curves.

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