Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Enhancement of the properties of fly ash based geopolymer paste by

incorporating ground granulated blast furnace slag
Suman Saha ⇑, C. Rajasekaran
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Mangalore 575025, India

h i g h l i g h t s

 Difficulties to use fly ash based geopolymer practically exist due to its high setting time.
 An attempt to reduce the setting time of fly ash based geopolymer by adding GGBFS.
 Significant improvement of setting time and compressive strength is observed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Research efforts have been made continuously to establish fly ash based geopolymer as an alternative
Received 23 January 2017 binder material for the production of fresh concrete because production of Ordinary Portland Cement
Received in revised form 29 March 2017 degrades the environment by huge emissions of carbon-di-oxide and also by consuming lot of natural
Accepted 15 April 2017
resources. But most of the study reveals, fly ash based geopolymer paste needs more time to get set when
it is cured at ambient temperature. As a result, it is quite impractical to use fly ash based geopolymer
paste as an alternative to Ordinary Portland Cement in faster construction. In this study, an effort has
Keywords:
been made to enhance the properties of fly ash based geopolymer paste by incorporating ground granu-
Geopolymer
Fly ash
lated blast furnace slag at various percentage levels. Microstructure of the geopolymer paste is studied
Ground granulated blast furnace slag using Scanning Electron Microscopy. Result of this investigation shows that significant improvement
Geopolymer paste on setting time and compressive strength can be obtained by adding ground granulated blast furnace slag
in the mixes.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction with desired specifications may be another solution to promote

sustainability in construction field. In the seventeenth century,
The growing demand of infrastructural development in the Prof. Davidovits invented ‘‘geopolymer” as materials characterized
developing countries leads to consume more concrete. To meet by chains or networks of inorganic molecules [1,13–15]. OPC paste
the demand of the production of concrete, large quantity of Ordi- normally gains strength by the development of C-S-H gel whereas
nary Portland Cement (OPC) is used as main binder material. But geopolymer helps to gain strength by the poly-condensation of sil-
production of OPC requires large quantity of natural resources ica and alumina precursors. Materials rich in silica (Si) and alu-
and it is also energy extensive process and also releases huge minium (Al) and alkaline liquids are the main constituents of
amount of carbon-di-oxide in the environment. As a result, envi- geopolymer. Fly ash, silica fume, slag, rice husk ash, etc. are exam-
ronmental degradation and protection of natural resources are ples of silica-alumina rich materials, which are by-product materi-
becoming very important issues to be taken care of to promote sus- als from different industries. Using by-product materials from
tainability in the construction industries. Therefore, usage of sup- other industries help to minimize the environmental problems,
plementary cementitious materials in concrete has got a great which was created due to the dumping problems. The geopolymer-
momentum to protect the environment. Apart from this, using an ization process has been described by the following stages: under
alternative binder material like geopolymer, to produce concrete high alkaline condition, dissolving of oxide minerals from the
alumina-silica rich source materials, transportation/orientation of
dissolved oxide minerals followed by coagulation/gelation, and
⇑ Corresponding author. poly-condensation to develop 3-D stable network of silico-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Saha), [email protected]. aluminates structures [2]. Based on the types of chemical bonding,
in (C. Rajasekaran).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.139
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
616 S. Saha, C. Rajasekaran / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620

mainly three types of structures can be established from the 3-D furnaces. Based on the CaO content, fly ash is classified into two
alumino-silicate stable network: sialate (–Si–O–Al–O–), sialate- types. These are Class C (high CaO content) and Class F type (Low
siloxo (Si–O–Al–O–Si–O) and sialate-disiloxo (Si–O–Al–O–Si–O–S CaO content) of fly ash. For this research work, class F type of fly
i–O) [3]. ash was used. Chemical composition of fly ash used in this work
The schematic formation of geopolymer material is described is shown in Table 1.
below [4].

Study on the mechanical and physical properties of fly ash 2.1.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)
based geopolymer by varying solid to liquid ratio using sodium Ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is also a by-
hydroxide as the only activator was carried out and reported opti- product material of iron and steel production, which is obtained
mum solid/ liquid ratio of 4 for getting highest compressive by quenching molten iron slag from a blast furnace in water or
strength [5]. Investigation on the effect of silica and alumina con- steam. After quenching, granular product used to be dried and
tents on setting, phase development, and physical properties of ground into a fine powder and the process produce a glassy type
high calcium fly ash (Class C) based geopolymers reveals that set- of material. Chemical composition of GGBFS used in this work is
ting of geopolymer was accelerated with the increase of both alu- shown in Table 1. In this study, GGBFS is incorporated at 10%,
mina and silica [6]. Whereas setting time of fly ash based 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% level to the total binders.
geopolymer with use of potassium hydroxide (KOH) for different
fly ash to alkaline solution ratio reported that as the ratio increases,
the setting time decreases [3]. Two different temperatures (65 °C 2.1.3. Alkali solutions
and 85 °C) as curing temperature and three different durations Liquid mixture of sodium silicate solution and sodium hydrox-
(2 h, 5 h and 24 h) of heat curing were used to determine the prop- ide solution was chosen as the alkaline liquid. Commercially avail-
erties of class F type of fly ash based geopolymer varying the con- able sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) solution was used in this study.
centration of sodium hydroxide solution and concluded that the Chemical composition of sodium silicate solution used is Na2O –
optimal concentration of NaOH solution was 6 M and observed 8.5%, SiO2 – 28.0% and Water – 63.5% by mass. For the present
that an increase in the curing temperature increased the compres- study, commercially available NaOH flakes with 98% purity were
sive strength [7]. Different curing conditions on the properties of used for the production of alkaline solution. In this study, the ratio
high calcium fly ash based geopolymer were investigated and of sodium silicate solution to sodium hydroxide solution and the
observed high early compressive strength for temperature curing ratio of alkali solution to binder (fly ash + GGBFS) were kept con-
[8]. This experimental investigation reported that fly ash based stant as 1.0 and 0.4 respectively. Alkali solution i.e. mixture of
geopolymer requires more time to be set and highest compressive sodium silicate solution and sodium hydroxide solution was pre-
strength was found for the mix produced with 14 M sodium pared 24 h prior to use in mix.
hydroxide solution and the ratio of sodium silicate to sodium
hydroxide solution 1.5 [9].
2.1.4. Water
Too high setting time is one of the barriers to use fly ash based
In the present investigation, distilled water was used for the
geopolymer effectively in construction industries presently.
preparation of NaOH solution with different concentrations.
Although most of the researchers concluded that fly ash based
geopolymer paste will show less duration for setting and high
strength with heat curing. But heat curing is also not acceptable 2.2. Methods
since practically it is not possible in many cases. Therefore, in this
paper an experimental investigation has been carried out to impro- In this section, procedures to perform the tests to study the
vise the setting and compressive strength of fly ash based geopoly- influence of GGBFS in fly ash based geopolymer paste have been
mer by introducing ground granulated blast furnace slag in the discussed.
mixes.

2. Experimental programme Table 1

Chemical composition of fly ash and GGBFS (percentage by weight).

In the present investigation, fly ash, ground granulated blast Constituents Fly ash GGBFS
furnace slag(GGBFS), Alkali Solutions (combination of sodium CaO 0.73 34.07
hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution), and distilled Al2O3 32.24 16.98
water were used as materials for the casting of samples. Fe2O3 2.84 1.26
SiO2 58.90 32.57
MgO 0.89 9.69
2.1. Materials Na2O 0.35 0.20
K2O 1.12 0.08
2.1.1. Fly ash SO3 0.50 0.84
Insoluble residue 2.28 4.01
Fly ash is a by-product material of thermal power plants, which
Loss of ignition 0.03 0.02
is being produced by the combustion of pulverized coal in the
 S. Saha, C. Rajasekaran / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620 617

2.2.1. Setting time determine compressive strength of geopolymer paste, cubes hav-
Setting time is one of the important characteristics of binder ing dimension of 50 mm  50 mm  50 mm were cast. After de-
materials. Vicat apparatus was used again to find out the setting moulding, cube samples were kept at room temperature for curing.
time of geopolymer paste produced with fly ash and GGBFS for dif- Cast samples were tested after 7, 28 and 56 days of curing. Tests to
ferent concentration of sodium hydroxide solution. For finding ini- determine compressive strength was conducted according to IS-
tial setting time, vicat apparatus with 1 mm diameter needle and 4031 (part 6) – 1988 [11].
for final setting time, vicat apparatus with a needle having circular
cutting edge 5 mm in diameter and set of 0.5 mm behind the tip of 3. Results and discussion
the needle were used [10]. Determination of initial and final setting
time of geopolymer paste is essential to use geopolymer concrete The results of experimental tests, which have been mentioned
in real practices effectively. in the previous sections, are discussed in the followings. All the
above mentioned tests to find out the properties of geopolymer
2.2.2. Compressive strength paste were conducted according to the specifications given in
Compressive Strength is one of the most important properties Indian Standards, which are followed to find the properties of
and it is determined to check whether the geopolymer mortar will cement. Effects of the incorporation of GGBFS in fly ash based
be able to develop required compressive strength of concrete. To geopolymer paste have been discussed.

500 Concentration of
NaOH Solution
6
8
400 10
Initial Setting Time (minutes)

12
14
16
300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of GGBFS in Mixes

Fig. 1. Initial setting time of geopolymer paste.

1600 Concentration of
NaOH Solution
6
1400 8
10
1200 12
Final Setting Time (minutes)

14
16
1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of GGBFS in Mixes

Fig. 2. Final setting time of geopolymer paste.

618 S. Saha, C. Rajasekaran / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620

3.1. Setting time (FST) of the geopolymer paste with different percentage of GGBFS
respectively. Setting of OPC is directly related with the develop-
It has been observed from this experimental investigation that ment of calcium silicate hydrate gel (C–S–H) by the reaction
initial and final setting time of geopolymer paste both reduced sig- between cement and water [12,16]. Similarly, geopolymer paste
nificantly with the increment of the GGBFS in the mixes. In this is typically dependent on the development of sodium aluminate
study, very high initial and final setting time of geopolymer paste silicate hydrate gel (N–A–S–H). As the quantity of CaO is more in
made with fly ash only was found. Incorporation of GGBFS in mixes the GGBFS, geopolymer paste mixes produced with GGBFS may
reduces the range of initial setting time from 420–480 min to 25– form C–S–H gel also along with N–A–S–H gel at the early duration.
130 min and final setting time from 1425–1600 min to 90– As a result, geopolymer paste produced with high quantity of
355 min. So, problems regarding setting time of fly ash based GGBFS shows appreciable less time for initial setting and final
geopolymer can be solved by the incorporation of GGBFS in mixes. setting.
Initial setting time of geopolymer paste was found to be reduced
by 73%–94% and final setting time was reduced by 77%–92% with 3.2. Compressive strength
the addition of GGBFS from 10% to 50% in the mixes when com-
pared to the setting time of geopolymer paste mixes without Compressive strength of geopolymer paste (cube samples cured
GGBFS. The percentage of reduction in setting time is high for at ambient temperature) was found to be increasing trend while
the mixes having higher quantity of GGBFS. Figs. 1 and 2 shows the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution and the percent-
the variation of initial setting time (IST) and the final setting time age of GGBFS in mixes both were increased. Compressive strength

70
Concentration of
NaOH Solution
6
60
8
10
Compressive strength (MPa)

12
50 14
16

40

30

20

10
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of GGBFS in Mixes

Fig. 3. Compressive strength of geopolymer paste at 7 days.

80 Concentration of
NaOH Solution
70 6
8
10
Compressive strength (MPa)

60 12
14
16
50

40

30

20

10
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of GGBFS in Mixes

Fig. 4. Compressive strength of geopolymer paste at 28 days.

 S. Saha, C. Rajasekaran / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620 619

80 Concentration of
NaOH Solution
6
70 8

Compressive strength (MPa)

10
12
60
14
16

50

40

30

20

0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of GGBFS in Mixes

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of geopolymer paste at 56 days.

(a) mix with 0 % GGBFS (b) the mix with 10 % GGBFS

(c) mix with 20 % GGBFS (d) mix with 30 % GGBFS

(e) mix with 40 % GGBFS (f) mix with 50 % GGBFS

Fig. 6. SEM images of samples taken from different mixes.
620 S. Saha, C. Rajasekaran / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 615–620

of geopolymer paste at 7 days, 28 days and 56 days were increased  Higher compressive strength of geopolymer paste was obtained
by 70%–75%, 50%–61% and 50%–61% respectively with the addition with the increase of the percentage level of incorporation of
of GGBFS in the mixes when compared to the setting time of GGBFS. Highest compressive strength of geopolymer paste
geopolymer paste mixes without GGBFS. Increase in compressive was observed as 78.2 MPa for the paste mix with 16 M sodium
strength was observed more when the content of GGBFS was hydroxide solution and 50% GGBFS.
higher.  Higher dosage of GGBFS in geopolymer paste mixes helps to
Compressive strength of geopolymer paste is attributed by gen- form denser structure to gain higher strength.
erating of sodium aluminate silicate hydrate gel (N–A–S–H) and
poly-condensation to form 3-D network of silico-aluminates struc- Using fly ash (a by-product of thermal power station) and
tures. Higher concentration of sodium hydroxide solutions helps to GGBFS (a by-product iron and steel making industries) to produce
form sufficient sodium aluminate silicate hydrate gel (N–A–S–H) geopolymer will help to control the usage of OPC, reduce the
and leads to poly-condensation. As a result, stable 3-D network dumping problems of these by-product materials, and reduce envi-
of silico-aluminates is produced to provide higher strength to the ronmental degradation problems etc.
fly ash based geopolymer. Apart from 3-D network of silico-
alumino, there may be the formation of C–S–H gel as CaO content Acknowledgment
in GGBFS is high. Formation of C–S–H gel along with silico-
aluminates structures in the paste mixes also contribute in order The authors would like to thank Department of Civil Engineer-
to gain high strength significantly. ing of National Institute of Technology, Surathkal, India for the sup-
The enhancement profile of compressive strength of geopoly- port to conduct this research and Department of Metallurgical and
mer paste with different percentage of GGBFS at 7 days, 28 days Materials Engineering also for their kind help to study the
and 56 days are shown in the Figs. 3–5 respectively. Highest com- microstructure.
pressive strength of geopolymer paste at 7 days, 28 days and
56 days were observed as 66.4 MPa, 78 MPa and 78.2 MPa respec- References
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