SQL REFERENCE BOOK

RELATIONAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
RDBMS PROGRAMMING

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 Message

Mr. Santosh Khadtare

(Chief Managing Director)
(ICIT Education Pvt. Ltd.)

Message from Managing Director Desk

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.1 SQL .................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.1 What is SQL? .................................................................................................................................. 12
1.1.2 What Can SQL do?.......................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.3 What is Database? ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.4 RDBMS ........................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2 DML, DDL, DCL and TCL Statements in SQL ...................................................................................... 14
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 SQL Server CONSTRAINTS ................................................................................................................. 19
Assignment No 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 19
DEFAULT Constraint ................................................................................................................................ 19
Assignment No 2 ..................................................................................................................................... 19
2.1.3 UNIQUE Constraint ........................................................................................................................ 19
Assignment No 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1.4 PRIMARY Key.................................................................................................................................. 20
Assignment No 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 20
2.1.5 FOREIGN Key .................................................................................................................................. 21
Assignment No 5 ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Assignment No 7 ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Assignment No 8 ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................... 27
SQL Statements ....................................................................................................................................... 27
Assignment No 9 ..................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Creation for Database ....................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 SQL Insert Statement Table .............................................................................................................. 31
Assignment No. 10 .................................................................................................................................. 31
3.3 SQL Server Update Data .................................................................................................................... 32
Assignment No. 11 .................................................................................................................................. 32
3.4 SQL Server DELETE Data .................................................................................................................... 33
Assignment 12......................................................................................................................................... 34

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 3.5 SQL SELECT Statement ...................................................................................................................... 34
SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name; ................................................................................. 34
Assignment No12 .................................................................................................................................... 34
SELECT * FROM student; ......................................................................................................................... 34
3.6 SQL CLAUSES ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Assignment No 13 ................................................................................................................................... 35
Assignment No 14 ................................................................................................................................... 36
Assignment No 15 ................................................................................................................................... 37
Assignment No 16 ................................................................................................................................... 38
3.7 SQL SELECT IN ................................................................................................................................... 39
Assignment No17 .................................................................................................................................... 39
3.8 BETWEEN .......................................................................................................................................... 40
Assignment No18 .................................................................................................................................... 40
Assignment 19......................................................................................................................................... 41
3.9 SQL indexes ....................................................................................................................................... 45
Assignment No 20 ................................................................................................................................... 45
3.10 DESC ................................................................................................................................................ 46
Assignment No 21 ................................................................................................................................... 47
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................................... 50
4.1 SQL Table........................................................................................................................................... 51
4.1.1 SQL TABLE Variable ........................................................................................................................ 51
4.1.2SQL CREATE TABLE .......................................................................................................................... 51
Assignment No 22 ................................................................................................................................... 52
4.1.3 DROP TABLE ................................................................................................................................... 53
4.1.4 SQL DELETE TABLE.......................................................................................................................... 53
Assignment No 23 ................................................................................................................................... 53
4.1.5 TRUNCATE TABLE employee; ......................................................................................................... 54
4.1.6 SQL RENAME TABLE ....................................................................................................................... 54
4.1.7 SQL TRUNCATE TABLE .................................................................................................................... 54
4.1.8 TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DROP TABLE ................................................................................................. 55
4.1.9 SQL ALTER TABLE ........................................................................................................................... 55

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 Assignment No 24 ................................................................................................................................... 56
Assignment No 25 ................................................................................................................................... 58
Assignment No 24 ................................................................................................................................... 58
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................................................... 61
SQL Statements and Data Types ............................................................................................................. 61
5.1 SQL USE Statement ........................................................................................................................... 62
5.1.1 SQL USE DATABASE Statement: ..................................................................................................... 62
5.1.2 SQL COMMIT and Rollback Statement .......................................................................................... 62
5.1.3 SQL Commit.................................................................................................................................... 62
Assignment No 27 ................................................................................................................................... 62
5.1.4 SQL Delete without Commit .......................................................................................................... 63
5.1.5 SQL Commit Execution ................................................................................................................... 63
5.1.6 SQL Rollback ................................................................................................................................... 64
Assignment No 28 ................................................................................................................................... 64
5.1.7 Updated Command with ROLLBACK .............................................................................................. 65
5.1.8 SQL Delete with Rollback ............................................................................................................... 65
5.1.9 SQL Data Types .............................................................................................................................. 66
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................................................................... 69
Operators in SQL ..................................................................................................................................... 69
What is an Operator in SQL? ................................................................................................................... 70
SQL Arithmetic Operators ....................................................................................................................... 70
SQL Comparison Operators..................................................................................................................... 70
SQL Logical Operators ............................................................................................................................. 71
Assignment No 29 ................................................................................................................................... 72
Assignment No 30 ................................................................................................................................... 74
Assignment No 31 ................................................................................................................................... 74
Assignment No 32 ................................................................................................................................... 75
SQL COUNT Function .............................................................................................................................. 75
Assignment No 33 ................................................................................................................................... 76
Assignment No 34 ................................................................................................................................... 77
Assignment No35 .................................................................................................................................... 77

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Chapter 7 .................................................................................................................................................... 81
Joins in SQL ............................................................................................................................................. 81
7.1 SQL JOIN ............................................................................................................................................ 82
7.1.1 SQL INNER JOIN Keyword............................................................................................................... 82
Assignment No 36 ................................................................................................................................... 82
7.1.2 SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword ................................................................................................................. 83
Assignment No 37 ................................................................................................................................... 84
7.1.3 SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword ............................................................................................................... 84
Assignment No 38 ................................................................................................................................... 85
7.1.4 SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword ..................................................................................................... 85
Assignment No 39 ................................................................................................................................... 86
7.1.5 SQL Self JOIN .................................................................................................................................. 86
Assignment No 40 ................................................................................................................................... 87
7.1.6 SQL Index ....................................................................................................................................... 87
7.1.7 SQL CREATE INDEX Statement ....................................................................................................... 88
Assignment No 41 ................................................................................................................................... 88
Assignment No 42 ................................................................................................................................... 89
7.1.8 Composite SQL Server Index .......................................................................................................... 89
7.1.9 Clustered and Non-Clustered Indexes ........................................................................................... 89
Assignment No 43 ................................................................................................................................... 89
Assignment No 45 ................................................................................................................................... 91
Assignment No 46 ................................................................................................................................... 92
Chapter No 8 ............................................................................................................................................... 95
Date and Time Functions in SQL ............................................................................................................. 95
8.1 Date and Time Functions in SQL ....................................................................................................... 96
Assignment No 47 ................................................................................................................................... 96
Assignment No 48 ................................................................................................................................... 97
Assignment No 50 ................................................................................................................................... 98
Assignment No 51 ................................................................................................................................... 99
1.DATE (expr) .......................................................................................................................................... 99
2. DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2) ..................................................................................................................... 100

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 3.DATE_ADD (date, INTERVAL expr unit), DATE_SUB (date, INTERVAL expr unit) ............................... 100
Assignment No 52 ................................................................................................................................. 101
1. DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit) ............................................................................................... 101
2. DAY(date) .......................................................................................................................................... 101
3. DAYNAME(date) ................................................................................................................................ 101
4. DAYOFMONTH(date)......................................................................................................................... 102
5. DAYOFWEEK(date) ............................................................................................................................ 102
6. DAYOFYEAR(date) ............................................................................................................................. 102
7. EXTRACT(unit FROM date) ................................................................................................................ 102
8. FROM_DAYS(N) ................................................................................................................................. 103
9. (A) FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp)............................................................................................ 103
9. (B) FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp,format)................................................................................ 103
10. HOUR(time) ..................................................................................................................................... 103
11. LAST_DAY(date) .............................................................................................................................. 104
12. MAKEDATE(year,dayofyear) ........................................................................................................... 104
13. MAKETIME(hour,minute,second) ................................................................................................... 104
14. MICROSECOND(expr) ...................................................................................................................... 105
15. MINUTE(time) ................................................................................................................................. 105
16. MONTH(date) .................................................................................................................................. 105
17. MONTHNAME(date) ....................................................................................................................... 105
18. NOW() ............................................................................................................................................. 106
19. PERIOD_ADD(P,N) ........................................................................................................................... 106
20. PERIOD_DIFF(P1,P2)........................................................................................................................ 106
21. QUARTER(date) ............................................................................................................................... 106
22. SECOND(time) ................................................................................................................................. 107
23. SEC_TO_TIME(seconds) .................................................................................................................. 107
24. STR_TO_DATE(str,format)............................................................................................................... 107
25. SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit) and SUBDATE(expr,days) ...................................................... 107
26. SUBTIME(expr1,expr2) .................................................................................................................... 108
27. SYSDATE() ........................................................................................................................................ 108
28. TIME(expr)....................................................................................................................................... 108

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 29. TIMEDIFF(expr1,expr2) ................................................................................................................... 109
30. TIMESTAMP(expr), TIMESTAMP(expr1,expr2) ............................................................................... 109
31. TIMESTAMPADD(unit,interval,datetime_expr) .............................................................................. 109
32. TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit,datetime_expr1,datetime_expr2) ............................................................... 110
33. TIME_FORMAT(time,format) .......................................................................................................... 110
34. TIME_TO_SEC(time) ........................................................................................................................ 110
35. TO_DAYS(date)................................................................................................................................ 110
36. UNIX_TIMESTAMP(), UNIX_TIMESTAMP(date) .............................................................................. 111
37. UTC_DATE, UTC_DATE() .................................................................................................................. 111
38. UTC_TIME, UTC_TIME() .................................................................................................................. 111
39. WEEK(date[,mode]) ........................................................................................................................ 112
40. WEEKDAY (date).............................................................................................................................. 113
41. WEEKOFYEAR(date) ........................................................................................................................ 113
42. YEAR (date) ..................................................................................................................................... 113
43. YEARWEEK(date), YEARWEEK(date,mode) ..................................................................................... 113
Chapter No 9 ............................................................................................................................................. 116
9.1 Rules for subqueries ....................................................................................................................... 117
Assignment No 53 ................................................................................................................................. 117
9.1.1 Subqueries with the INSERT Statement ....................................................................................... 118
Assignment No 54 ................................................................................................................................. 118
9.1.2 Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement ..................................................................................... 118
Assignment No 55 ................................................................................................................................. 119
9.1.3 Subqueries with the DELETE Statement ...................................................................................... 119
Assignment No 56 ................................................................................................................................. 119
9.1.4 Using AUTO_INCREMENT column ............................................................................................... 120
Assignment No 57 ................................................................................................................................. 120

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 Chapter 1
Introduction of SQL
• What is SQL?
• Why SQL?
• History of SQL
• Commands in SQL
• Difference between DBMS and RDBMS
• What are field and Row?
• SQL Language Statements
• Application for SQL
• Advantage and Disadvantage of SQL

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1.1 SQL
SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in databases.

1.1.1 What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language
SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

1.1.2 What Can SQL do?

SQL can execute queries against a database
SQL can retrieve data from a database
SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new databases
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create stored procedures in a database
SQL can create views in a database
SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

1.1.3 What is Database?

A database is an organized collection of data.
Database handlers create database in such a way that only one set of software program provide access
of data to all the users.
The main purpose of database is to operate large amount of information by storing, retrieving and
managing.
There are many dynamic websites on the world wide web now a days which are handled through
databases. For example, a model to checks the availability of rooms in a hotel. It is an example of
dynamic website that uses database.
There are many databases available like MySQL, Sybase, Oracle, Mango DB, Informix, Postgre, SQL
Server etc.

SQL or Structured Query Language is used to perform operation on the data stored in
a database. SQL depends on relational algebra and tuple relational calculus.
A cylindrical structure is used to display the image of a database.

1.1.4 RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2,
Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data
entries and it consists of columns and rows.

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How it works
Data is represented in terms of tuples (rows) in RDBMS.
Relational database is most commonly used database. It contains number of tables and each table has
its own primary key.
Due to a collection of organized set of tables, data can be accessed easily in RDBMS.

What is table
The RDBMS database uses tables to store data. A table is a collection of related data entries and
contains rows and columns to store data.
A table is the simplest example of data storage in RDBMS.

Let's see the example of student table.

ID Name AGE COURSE
1 Ajeet 24 B.Tech
2 aryan 20 C.A
3 Mahesh 21 BCA
4 Ratan 22 MCA
5 Vimal 26 BSC

What is field?
Field is a smaller entity of the table which contains specific information about every record in the table.
In the above example, the field in the student table consist of id, name, age, course.

What is row or record?

A row of a table is also called record. It contains the specific information of each individual entry in the
table. It is a horizontal entity in the table. For example: The above table contains 5 records.

Let's see one record/row in the table.

1 Ajeet 24 B.Tech

What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in the table which contains all information associated with a specific field in a
table. For example: "name" is a column in the above table which contains all information about student's
name.

Ajeet
Aryan
Mahesh
Ratan
Vimal

NULL Values
The NULL value of the table specifies that the field has been left blank during record creation. It is totally
different from the value filled with zero or a field that contains space.
Data Integrity
There are the following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS:

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Entity integrity: It specifies that there should be no duplicate rows in a table.

Domain integrity: It enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the type, the format, or the
range of values.

Referential integrity: It specifies that rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.

User-defined integrity: It enforces some specific business rules that are defined by users. These rules
are different from entity, domain or referential integrity.

Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

1.2 DML, DDL, DCL and TCL Statements in SQL

The four main categories of SQL statements are as follows:

1. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
2. DDL (Data Definition Language)
3. DCL (Data Control Language)
4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)

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DML (Data Manipulation Language)
DML statements affect records in a table. These are basic operations we perform on data such as selecting
a few records from a table, inserting new records, deleting unnecessary records, and updating/modifying
existing records.

DML statements include the following:

SELECT – select records from a table
INSERT – insert new records
UPDATE – update/Modify existing records
DELETE – delete existing records

DDL (Data Definition Language)

DDL statements are used to alter/modify a database or table structure and schema. These statements
handle the design and storage of database objects.
CREATE – create a new Table, database, schema
ALTER – alter existing table, column description
DROP – delete existing objects from database

DCL (Data Control Language)

DCL statements control the level of access that users have on database objects.
GRANT – allows users to read/write on certain database objects
REVOKE – keeps users from read/write permission on database objects

TCL (Transaction Control Language)

TCL statements allow you to control and manage transactions to maintain the integrity of data within
SQL statements.
BEGIN Transaction – opens a transaction
COMMIT Transaction – commits a transaction
ROLLBACK Transaction – ROLLBACK a transaction in case of any error
Applications of SQL (Structured Query Language)

Data Integration Scripts

The main application of SQL is to write data integration.

Analytical Queries
The data analysts use structured query language for setting and running analytical queries on a regular
basis.

Retrieve Information
Another popular application of this language is to retrieve the subsets of information within a database
for analytics applications and transaction processing. The most commonly used SQL elements are select,
insert, update, add, delete, create, truncate and alter.

Other Important Applications

The SQL is used for modification of the index structures and database table. Additionally, the users can
add, update and delete the rows of the data by using this language.

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Advantages of SQL Multiple data views
There are numerous advantages of Structured With the help of SQL language, the users can
Query Language and some of them are make different views of database structure and
mentioned below: databases for the different users.

No coding needed Disadvantages of SQL

It is very easy to manage the database systems Along with some benefits, the Structured query
without any need to write the substantial language also has some certain disadvantages:
amount of code by using the standard SQL.
Difficult Interface
Well defined standards SQL has a complex interface that makes it
Long established are used by the SQL databases difficult for some users to access it.
that is being used by ISO and ANSI. There are no
standards adhered by the non-SQL databases. Partial Control
The programmers who use SQL doesn’t have a
Portability full control over the database because of the
SQL can be used in the program in PCs, servers, hidden business rules.
laptops, and even some of the mobile phones.
Implementation
Interactive Language Some of the databases go to the proprietary
This domain language can be used for extensions to standard SQL for ensuring the
communicating with the databases and receive vendor lock-in.
answers to the complex questions in seconds.
Cost
The operating cost of some SQL versions makes
it difficult for some programmers to access it.

Summary

• In this chapter, you have learned about:

• We Studied what is SQL History of SQL
• What is Database why we use Database
• Different type of sql language commands
• Difference between DBMS and RDBMS
• Also, we studied Application, Advantage and Disadvantage for SQL

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 MCQ’s

1. When was the first version of Microsoft SQL 6. _________ is a software application first
Server released? launched with the Microsoft SQL Server 2005.
a) 1983 a) Enterprise Manager
b) 1988 b) Query Analyzer
c) 1990 c) Business Intelligence Development Studio
d) 1991 d) SQL Server Management Studio

2. Which of the following companies originally 7. Local DB was introduced in which of the
worked together to create and market the first following versions of SQL Server?
version of SQL Server? a) 2012
a) Microsoft b) 2008
b) Sybase c) 2014
c) Ashton-Tate d) 2008 R2
d) All of the Mentioned
8. _________ is free database software
3. Which of the SQL Server RTM included running free SQL Server technology.
native support for managing XML data? a) SQL Server Express
a) 7.0 b) SQL Server Workgroup
b) 6.5 c) SQL Server Enterprise
c) 8 d) SQL Server Web
d) 9
9. __________is the first true GUI-based
4. Codename for SQL Server 2012 is database server.
__________ a) SQL Server 7.0
a) Kilimanjaro b) SQL Server 6.5
b) Katmai c) SQL Server 2005
c) Denali d) SQL Server 2008
d) Hekaton
10. Which was the first version of SQL Server
5. SQL Server 2005 has following features to introduce in-memory capability?
a) Dynamic Management Views a) SQL Server 2012
b) FILESTREAM b) SQL Server 2014
c) Powerpivot c) SQL Server 2005
d) In-memory capability d) SQL Server 2008

Fill in the blank

1. SQL stands for----------------.

2. SQL lets you ---------- and --------- databases.
3. RDBMS stands for -----------------------.
4. DDL statements are used to ------------ a database or table structure and schema.
5. A row of a table is also called ----------------.

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 Chapter 2
SQL Constraints
• SQL Server CONSTRAINTS
• NOT NULL constraint
• DEFAULT Constraint
• UNIQUE Constraint
• Creation of primary key
• Foreign key constraint
• Drop primary key constraint
• Creation of Table statements
• DROP and Check Constraint

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2.1 SQL Server CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are the principles enforced on the information columns of a table.

This ensures the accuracy and dependability of the information within the info.
SQL Server Constraints may well be either on a column level or a table level.
The column level constraints are applied solely to 1 column, whereas the table level constraints are
applied to the full table.

2.1.2 NOT NULL constraint

Ensures that a column cannot have NULL worth. NOT NULL constraint makes certain that a column doesn’t
hold a NULL value. Once we don’t give worth for a specific column whereas inserting a record into a table,
it takes NULL worth by default. By specifying a NULL constraint, we are able to take care that a specific
column(s) cannot have NULL values.

Assignment No 1

CREATE TABLE STUDENT (

ROLL_NO INT NOT NULL,
STU_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
STU_AGE INT NOT NULL,
STU_ADDRESS VARCHAR (600),
PRIMARY KEY (ROLL_NO)
);
Output
Command(s) completed successfully.

DEFAULT Constraint

Provides a default worth for a column once none is specified. The DEFAULT constraint provides a default
worth to a column once there’s no worth provided whereas inserting a record into a table.

Assignment No 2

CREATE TABLE STUDENT (

ROLL_NO INT NOT NULL,
STU_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
STU_AGE INT NOT NULL,
EXAM_FEE INT DEFAULT 5000,
STU_ADDRESS VARCHAR (20),
PRIMARY KEY (ROLL_NO)
);

2.1.3 UNIQUE Constraint

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Ensures that each one values in a column are totally different. UNIQUE Constraint enforces a column or
set of columns to possess distinctive values. If a column contains a distinctive constraint, it means specific
column cannot have duplicate values in a very table.

Assignment No 3

CREATE TABLE STUDENT (

ROLL_NO INT NOT NULL,
STU_NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
STU_AGE INT NOT NULL,
STU_ADDRESS VARCHAR (20) UNIQUE,
PRIMARY KEY (ROLL_NO)
);

2.1.4 PRIMARY Key

unambiguously identifies every row/record during an information table. Primary key unambiguously
identifies every record in an exceeding table. It should have distinctive values and can’t contain nulls.
Within the below example the ROLL_NO field is marked as primary key, meaning the ROLL_NO field cannot
have duplicate and null values.

Assignment No 4

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar (255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar (255),
Age int
);
Output
Command(s) completed successfully.

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DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT PK_Person;

2.1.5 FOREIGN Key

A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables together.

A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in another
table.
The table containing the foreign key is called the child table, and the table containing the candidate key
is called the referenced or parent table.
The relationship between 2 tables matches the Primary Key in one of the tables with a Foreign Key in the
second table.

Assignment No 5

CUSTOMERS table
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
ORDERS table
CREATE TABLE ORDERS (
ID INT NOT NULL,
DATE DATETIME,
CUSTOMER_ID INT references CUSTOMERS(ID),
AMOUNT double,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
If the ORDERS table has already been created and the foreign key has not yet been set, the use the
syntax for specifying a foreign key by altering a table.
ALTER TABLE ORDERS
ADD FOREIGN KEY (Customer_ID) REFERENCES CUSTOMERS (ID);

2.2 DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL syntax.
ALTER TABLE ORDERS
DROP FOREIGN KEY;

check constraints
What is a check constraint in SQL Server?
A check constraint in SQL Server (Transact-SQL) allows you to specify a condition on each row in a table.
Note

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A check constraint can NOT be defined on a SQL View.
The check constraint defined on a table must refer to only columns in that table. It cannot refer to
columns in other tables.
A check constraint can NOT include a Subquery.
A check constraint can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement or a ALTER TABLE statement.

Using a CREATE TABLE statement

The syntax for creating a check constraint using a CREATE TABLE statement in SQL Server (Transact-
SQL) is:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype [ NULL | NOT NULL ],
column2 datatype [ NULL | NOT NULL ],

...

CONSTRAINT constraint_name
CHECK [ NOT FOR REPLICATION ] (column_name condition)

);
table_name
The name of the table that you wish to create with a check constraint.

constraint_name
The name to assign to the check constraint.

column_name
The column in the table that the check constraint applies to.

condition
The condition that must be met for the check constraint to succeed.

Assignment No 6
Example
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_id INT NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR(50),
salary MONEY,
CONSTRAINT check_employee_id
CHECK (employee_id BETWEEN 1 and 10000)
);
Let's take a look at another example.
CREATE TABLE employees
( employee_id INT NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
first_name VARCHAR(50),

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 salary MONEY,
CONSTRAINT check_salary
CHECK (salary > 0)
);
Using an ALTER TABLE statement

The syntax for creating a check constraint in an ALTER TABLE statement in SQL Server (Transact-SQL)
is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
CHECK (column_name condition);
table_name
The name of the table that you wish to modify by adding a check constraint.
constraint_name
The name to assign to the check constraint.
column_name
The column in the table that the check constraint applies to.
condition
The condition that must be met for the check constraint to succeed.

Assignment No 7

Let's look at an example of how to use the ALTER TABLE statement to create a check constraint in SQL
Server.
ALTER TABLE employees
ADD CONSTRAINT check_last_name
CHECK (last_name IN ('Smith', 'Anderson', 'Jones'));
In this example, we've created a check constraint on the existing employees table
called check_last_name. It ensures that the last_name field only contains the following values: Smith,
Anderson, or Jones.

Drop a Check Constraint

The syntax for dropping a check constraint in SQL Server (Transact-SQL) is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
table_name
The name of the table that you wish to drop the check constraint.
constraint_name
The name of the check constraint to remove.

Assignment No 8

Example
Let's look at an example of how to drop a check constraint in SQL Server.
For example:
ALTER TABLE employees
DROP CONSTRAINT check_last_name;

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In this SQL Server example, we are dropping a check constraint on the employees table
called check_last_name.
Enable a Check Constraint
The syntax for enabling a check constraint in SQL Server (Transact-SQL) is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
WITH CHECK CHECK CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
table_name
The name of the table that you wish to enable the check constraint.
constraint_name
The name of the check constraint to enable.
Example
Let's look at an example of how to enable a check constraint in SQL Server.
For example:
ALTER TABLE employees
WITH CHECK CHECK CONSTRAINT check_salary;
In this example, we are enabling a check constraint on the employees table called check_salary.

Disable a Check Constraint

The syntax for disabling a check constraint in SQL Server (Transact-SQL) is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
NOCHECK CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
table_name
The name of the table that you wish to disable the check constraint.
constraint_name
The name of the check constraint to disable.
Example

Let's look at an example of how to disable a check constraint in SQL Server.

For example:
ALTER TABLE employees
NOCHECK CONSTRAINT check_salary;
In this SQL Server example, we are disabling a check constraint on the employees table
called check_salary.

Summary

• We studied what is constraint

• Drop and Unique constraint
• Different types of constraint key
• Also, we studied what is primary key how primary key is used and how to delete primary key
• Drop and check constraint

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 MCQ’s

1. Which of the following is not a class of 6. Purpose of foreign key constraint in SQL
constraint in SQL Server? Server is :
a) NOT NULL a) FOREIGN KEY constraints identify and enforce
b) CHECK the relationships between tables
c) NULL b) A foreign key in one table points to a
d) UNIQUE candidate key in another table
c) You cannot insert a row with a foreign key
2. Point out the correct statement: value, except NULL, if there is no candidate key
a) CHECK constraints enforce domain integrity with that value
b) UNIQUE constraints enforce the uniqueness d) None of the mentioned
of the values in a set of columns
c) In a UNIQUE constraint, no two rows in the 7. Which of the following is not a foreign key
table can have the same value for the columns constraint?
d) All of the mentioned a) NO ACTION
b) CASCADE
3. Which of the following constraint does not c) SET NULL
enforce uniqueness? d) All of the mentioned
a) UNIQUE
b) Primary key 8. Which of the following foreign key
c) Foreign key constraint specifies that the deletion fails with
d) None of the mentioned an error?
4. Constraints can be applied on: a) NO ACTION
a) Column b) CASCADE
b) Table c) SET NULL
c) Field d) All of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
9. How many types of constraints are present
5. Point out the wrong statement : in SQL Server?
a) Table constraints must be used when more a) 4
than one column must be included in a b) 5
constraint c) 6
b) A column constraint is specified as part of a d) 7
column definition and applies only to that
column 10. Which of the constraint can be enforced
c) A table constraint is declared independently one per table?
from a column definition and can apply to more a) Primary key constraint
than one column in a table b) Not Null constraint
d) Primary keys allow for NULL as one of the c) Foreign Key constraint
unique values d) Check constraint

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 Fill in the blank

1.SQL constraints are used to specify ---------------------.

2Constraints can be divided into the following two types, ---------------------.
3. The CHECK Constraint enables a condition to check the --------------.
4. A primary key is a field in a table which uniquely -------------------.
5. The UNIQUE Constraint prevents two records from --------------- in a column.

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 Chapter 3

SQL Statements
• Creation Database
• SQL Server Update Data
• SQL Insert Statement Table
• SQL Server DELETE Data
• SQL SELECT Statement
• SQL CLAUSES
• SQL SELECT IN
• BETWEEN like clause
• SQL indexes
• DROP INDEX Statement
• DESC

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Assignment No 9

3.1 Creation for Database

Step 1: -Create new database and give name like “ICIT”

Step 2: Right click on "Tables" and you will see New Table. Click on New Table and you will see the
following page:

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Step 3: You can add Column Name and Datatype as amay may as you want. Every time you fill one entry,
another entry will be automatically created.

Step 4: Go to the encircled area and right click there, you will see like following image:

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Step 5: Now click on the "Save Table" and save the table by any name. For example: Let's save the table
by "STUDENT" name.

Step 6: Now a table "STUDENT" is created.

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3.2 SQL Insert Statement Table

In SQL Server database, INSERT statement is used to insert a single record or multiple records into a
table.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO [database_name].[dbo].[table_name]

(column1, column2, ... )
VALUES
(expression1, expression2, ... ),
(expression1, expression2, ... ),
...;

Assignment No. 10

INSERT INTO [icit].[dbo].[STUDENT]

([ID]
,[NAME]
,[AGE]
,[SALARY])
VALUES
(1,'Ajeet',27,20000),
(2,'Backon',29,28000),
(3,'Chris',17,25000);

Output

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(3 row(s) affected)

3.3 SQL Server Update Data

In SQL Server database, UPDATE statement is used to update or modify the already inserted records into
a table.

Syntax:

UPDATE [icit].[dbo].[STUDENT]
SET [ID] = <ID, nchar(10),>
,[NAME] = <NAME, nchar(10),>
,[AGE] = <AGE, nchar(10),>
,[SALARY] = <SALARY, nchar(10),>
WHERE <Search Conditions,,>
GO

Assignment No. 11

UPDATE [icit].[dbo].[STUDENT]
SET [ID] = 4,[NAME] = 'Malvika',[AGE] = 18,[SALARY] = 22000
WHERE ID =2;
GO

Output

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3.4 SQL Server DELETE Data

In SQL Server database, DELETE statement is used to delete records from the table

Syntax:

SELECT TOP 1000 [ID]

,[NAME]

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 ,[AGE]
,[SALARY]
FROM [icit].[dbo].[STUDENT]

Assignment 12

DELETE FROM [icit].[dbo].[STUDENT]

WHERE ID =3;

Output

(1 row(s) affected)

3.5 SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT Syntax

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name;
Assignment No12
SELECT * FROM student;
Output

3.6 SQL CLAUSES

SQL clauses site was designed to help programmers and IT professionals, yet unfamiliar with SQL
(Structured Query Language) to learn the language and use it in their everyday work.

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If SQL clauses and commands like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, WHERE, JOIN, DISTINCT, ORDER BY,
GROUP BY, HAVING, and UNION sound like ancient Greek to you, then you have come to the right place.

1. GROUP BY

o SQL GROUP BY statement is used to arrange identical data into groups. The GROUP BY
statement is used with the SQL SELECT statement.
o The GROUP BY statement follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the
ORDER BY clause.
o The GROUP BY statement is used with aggregation function.
Syntax
SELECT column
FROM table_name
WHERE conditions
GROUP BY column
ORDER BY column

Assignment No 13

Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico
Emparedados y Constitución 2222 D.F.
helados
3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos 2312 México 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover Sq. London WA1 1DP UK
5 Berglunds snabbköp Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
Berglund

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SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
Output
Number of Records: 21

Assignment No 14
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
Output

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2. HAVING

o HAVING clause is used to specify a search condition for a group or an aggregate.

o Having is used in a GROUP BY clause. If you are not using GROUP BY clause then you can use
HAVING function like a WHERE clause.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Assignment No 15
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
Output

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Demo Database

Assignment No 16

SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders

FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT (Orders.OrderID) > 10;
Output

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3.7 SQL SELECT IN

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.

The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions
IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);

Assignment No17

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

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3.8 BETWEEN

The SQL BETWEEN condition allows you to easily test if an expression is within a range of values
(inclusive). The values can be text, date, or numbers. It can be used in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement.

The SQL BETWEEN Condition will return the records where expression is within the range of value1 and
value2.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Assignment No18

Consider the following Employee Table,

Queries
• Using BETWEEN with Numeric Values:

List all the Employee Fname, Lname who is having salary between 30000 and 45000.

SELECT Fname, Lname

FROM Employee
WHERE Salary
BETWEEN 30000 AND 45000;
Output:

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3.9 LIKE CLAUSE

Description

The SQL LIKE condition allows you to use wildcards to perform pattern matching in a query. The LIKE
condition is used in the WHERE clause of a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
Syntax

The syntax for the LIKE condition in SQL is:

expression LIKE pattern [ ESCAPE 'escape_character' ]

Parameters or Arguments

expression

A character expression such as a column or field.

pattern

A character expression that contains pattern matching. The wildcards that you can choose from
are:

Wildcard Explanation
% Allows you to match any string of any length (including zero length)
_ Allows you to match on a single character
ESCAPE 'escape_character'
Optional. It allows you to pattern match on literal instances of a wildcard character such
as % or _.

TIP: If you are pattern matching with char datatypes, remember that chars are padded with spaces at the
end to fill the length of the field. This may give you unexpected results when you use the LIKE condition
to pattern match at the end of a string.

Example - Using % Wildcard in the LIKE Condition

Assignment 19

Let's explain how the % wildcard works in the SQL LIKE condition. Remember that the % wildcard
matches any string of any length (including zero length).
In this first example, we want to find all of the records in the customers table where the
customer's last_name begins with 'J'.
In this example, we have a table called customers with the following data:

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com

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 6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com
8000 Anderson Paige NULL
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
Query

SELECT *
FROM customers
WHERE last_name LIKE 'J%'
ORDER BY last_name;
Result

customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website

4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
This example returns the records in the customers table where the last_name starts with 'J'. As you can
see, the records for the last names Jackson and Johnson have been returned.
Because the LIKE condition is not case-sensitive, the following SQL statement would return the same
results:
SELECT *
FROM customers
WHERE last_name LIKE 'j%'
ORDER BY last_name;

Using Multiple % Wildcards in the LIKE Condition

You can also using the % wildcard multiple times with the LIKE condition.
Using the same customers table with the following data:
customer_id last_name first_name favorite_website
4000 Jackson Joe techonthenet.com
5000 Smith Jane digminecraft.com
6000 Ferguson Samantha bigactivities.com
7000 Reynolds Allen checkyourmath.com
8000 Anderson Paige NULL
9000 Johnson Derek techonthenet.com
Let's try to find all last_name values from the customers table where the last_name contains the letter
'e'. Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECT last_name
FROM customers last_name
WHERE last_name LIKE '%e%' Anderson
ORDER BY last_name; Ferguson
There will be 3 records selected. These are the results that you should see: Reynolds

In this example, the last names Anderson, Ferguson and Reynolds contain the letter 'e'.

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Example - Using _ Wildcard in the LIKE Condition
Next, let's explain how the _ wildcard (underscore wildcard) works in the LIKE condition. Remember
that _ wildcard is looking for exactly one character, unlike the % wildcard.
Using the categories table with the following data:

category_id category_name
25 Deli
50 Produce
75 Bakery
100 General Merchandise
125 Technology
Let's try to find all records from the categories table where the category_id is 2-digits long and ends with
'5'. Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECT *
FROM categories
WHERE category_id LIKE '_5';
There will be 2 records selected. These are the results that you should see:

category_id category_name
25 Deli
75 Bakery
In this example, there are 2 records that will pattern match - the category_id values 25 and 75. Notice
that the category_id of 125 was not selected because, the _ wilcard matches only on a single character.
Using Multiple _ Wildcards in the LIKE Condition

If you wanted to match on a 3-digit value that ended with '5', you would need to use the _ wildcard two
times. You could modify your query as follows:
SELECT *
FROM categories
WHERE category_id LIKE '__5';
Now you will return the category_id value of 125:

category_id category_name
125 Technology
Example - Using the NOT Operator with the LIKE Condition

Next, let's look at an example of how to use the NOT Operator with the LIKE condition.
In this example, we have a table called suppliers with the following data:

supplier_id supplier_name city state

100 Microsoft Redmond Washington
200 Google Mountain View California
300 Oracle Redwood City California
400 Kimberly-Clark Irving Texas
500 Tyson Foods Springdale Arkansas
600 SC Johnson Racine Wisconsin

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 700 Dole Food Company Westlake Village California
800 Flowers Foods Thomasville Georgia
900 Electronic Arts Redwood City California
Let's look for all records in the suppliers table where the supplier_name does not contain the letter 'o'.
Enter the following SQL statement:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_name NOT LIKE '%o%';
There will be 1 record selected. These are the results that you should see:
supplier_id supplier_name city state
400 Kimberly-Clark Irving Texas
In this example, there is only one record in the suppliers table where the supplier_name does not
contain the letter 'o'.
Example - Using Escape Characters with the LIKE Condition

It is important to understand how to "Escape Characters" when pattern matching. You can
escape % or _ and search for the literal versions instead.
Let's say you wanted to search for % as a literal in the LIKE condition. You can do this using an Escape
character. In our example, we will use ! as the escape character in the LIKE condition.
NOTE: You can only define an escape character as a single character. It is best to choose a character that
will not appear in your data very often such as ! or #.

In this example, we a table called test with the following data:

test_id test_value
1 10%
2 25%
3 100
4 99
We could return all records from the test table where the test_value contains the % literal. Enter the
following SQL statement:
SELECT *
FROM test
WHERE test_value LIKE '%!%%' escape '!';
These are the results that you should see:

test_id test_value
1 10%
2 25%
This example identifies the ! character as an escape character. The first and last % values in the LIKE
condition are treated as regular wildcards. The !% is an escaped % so it is treated as a literal % value.
You could further modify the above example and only return test_values that start with 1 and contain
the % literal. Enter the following SQL statement:

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SELECT *
FROM test
WHERE test_value LIKE '1%!%%' escape '!';
These are the results that you should see:

test_id test_value
1 10%
This example will only return one record this time. Because there is only one test_value that starts with
1 and contains the % literal.

3.9 SQL indexes

An index is a schema object. It is used by the server to speed up the retrieval of rows by using a pointer.

It can reduce disk I/O(input/output) by using a rapid path access method to locate data quickly. An index
helps to speed up select queries and where clauses, but it slows down data input, with the update and
the insert statements.

Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot see the indexes, they
are just used to speed up searches/queries.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched
against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies among different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax for
creating indexes in your database.

Example

Assignment No 20

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 CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

1 Alfreds Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

Futterkiste
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico
Emparedados y Constitución D.F.
helados 2222
3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico
Taquería Moreno 2312 D.F.

4 Around the Horn Thomas 120 Hanover London WA1 1DP UK

Hardy Sq.
5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
snabbköp Berglund 8

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the "LastName" column in the
"Persons" table:

CREATE INDEX idx_lastname

ON Persons (LastName);

DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

DROP INDEX table_name. index_name;

DROP TABLE

The DROP TABLE command deletes a table in the database.

The following SQL deletes the table "Shippers":

DROP TABLE Shippers;

Note: Be careful before deleting a table. Deleting a table results in loss of all information stored in the
table!

3.10 DESC

The DESC command is used to sort the data returned in descending order.

The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers" table, sorted descending by
the "CustomerName" column:

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Assignment No 21

SELECT * FROM Customers

ORDER BY CustomerName DESC;

Output

Summary

• In this chapter, you have learned about:

• We studied, how to create table in SQL
• Different types of statements
• Also, we studied syntax for all statements and Examples
• We studied clauses in SQL
• Also, we studied like and between clauses
• Also, we studied Index statement DESC statement

MCQ’s

1. What is the meaning of “SELECT” clause in 2. Which of the following clause is evaluated in
MySQL? the last by database server?
a) Show me all Columns and rows a) SELECT
b) Show me all columns b) WHERE
c) Show me all rows c) FROM
d) None of the mentioned d) None of the mentioned

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3. What will be the output of a query given 7. What will be the output of a query given
below? below?
SELECT * SELECT * FROM person
FROM person; WHERE person_id=1;
a) Show all rows and columns of table “person” a) Show all columns but only those rows which
b) Show all rows of table “person” belongs to person_id=1
c) Show all columns of table “person” b) Show all columns and rows
d) None of the mentioned c) Shows only columns person_id
d) None of the mentioned
4. What will be the output of a query given
8. What will be the output of a query given
below?
below?
SELECT person_id, Fname, lname
FROM person; SELECT person_id, fname, lname
FROM person
a) Show only columns (person_id, Fname, WHERE person_id=1;
lname) and rows related to these columns
a) Show only columns (person_id, fname,
b) Show only columns (person_id, Fname,
lname) but only those rows which belongs to
lname) person_id=1
c) Show all rows b) Show all columns and rows
d) Show all columns except (person_id, Fname, c) Shows only columns person_id
lname) d) None of the mentioned

5. Can “SELECT” clause be used without the 9. Which clause is mandatory with clause
clause “FROM”? “SELECT” in Mysql?
a) YES a) FROM
b) NO b) WHERE
c) DEPENDS c) Both FROM and WHERE
d) None of the mentioned d) None of the mentioned

10.What is the need of “column Aliases” in

6. Find the error?
“SELECT” clause?
SELECT *; a) To assign a new label to the column in result
a) No Error set
b) No table mentioned b) To overwrite the existing column name in
c) Depends result set
d) None of the mentioned c) To modify the column name while using
literals, Expression, built_in functions with
“SELECT clause
d) All of the mentioned

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 Fill in the blank

1.The HAVING clause is an additional filter that is applied to the ------

2. The ----------- command deletes a table in the database
3. An index is a --------------
4. The CASE statement goes through conditions and returns a value when the ------------ (like an IF-THEN-
ELSE statement).
5. In particular it is used in the SELECT column list, --------------------clauses.

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 Chapter 4
SQL Table
• What is SQL Table?
• SQL Table Variable
• SQL Create Table
• Delete Truncate Statements
• Difference between DROP and TRUNCATE
Statements
• SQL Alter Table
• Insert into SELECT Syntax
• SQL Update Statement
• SQL Delete Statement

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4.1 SQL Table

Table is a collection of data, organized in terms of rows and columns. In DBMS term, table is
known as relation and row as tuple.

Note: A table has a specified number of columns, but can have any number of rows.

Table is the simple form of data storage. A table is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations.

Let's see an example of an employee table:

EMP_NAME ADDRESS SALARY
Ankit Lucknow 15000
Raman Allahabad 18000
Mike New York 20000

In the above table, "Employee" is the table name, "EMP_NAME", "ADDRESS" and "SALARY" are
the column names. The combination of data of multiple columns forms a row e.g. "Ankit",
"Lucknow" and 15000 are the data of one row.

4.1.1 SQL TABLE Variable

The SQL Table variable is used to create, modify, rename, copy and delete tables. Table variable
was introduced by Microsoft.
It was introduced with SQL server 2000 to be an alternative of temporary tables.
It is a variable where we temporary store records and results. This is same like temp table but in
the case of temp table we need to explicitly drop it.
Table variables are used to store a set of records. So declaration syntax generally looks like
CREATE TABLE syntax.
create table "tablename"
("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
...
"columnN" "data type");
When a transaction rolled back the data associated with table variable is not rolled back.
A table variable generally uses lesser resources than a temporary variable.
Table variable cannot be used as an input or an output parameter.

4.1.2SQL CREATE TABLE

SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table in a database.

If you want to create a table, you should name the table and define its column and each column's data
type.

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Let's see the simple syntax to create the table.
create table "tablename"
("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
"column3" "data type",
...
"columnN" "data type");
The data type of the columns may vary from one database to another. For example, NUMBER is
supported in Oracle database for integer value whereas INT is supported in MySQL.

Let us take an example to create a STUDENTS table with ID as primary key and NOT NULL are
the constraint showing that these fields cannot be NULL while creating records in the table.

Assignment No 22

CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (

ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

SQL CREATE TABLE Example in Microsoft SQLServer

Let's see the command to create a table in SQLServer database. It is same as MySQL and
Oracle.

CREATE TABLE Employee

(
EmployeeID int,
FirstName varchar(255),
LastName varchar(255),
Email varchar (255),
AddressLine varchar (255),
City varchar(255)
);
SQL Primary Key with CREATE TABLE Statement

CREATE TABLE Employee(

EmployeeID NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

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4.1.3 DROP TABLE
A SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table definition and all data from a table.
This is very important to know that once a table is deleted all the information available in the table is
lost forever, so we have to be very careful when using this command.

Let's see the syntax to drop the table from the database.
DROP TABLE "table_name";

4.1.4 SQL DELETE TABLE

The DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. If you want to remove a specific row
from a table you should use WHERE condition.

DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

But if you do not specify the WHERE condition it will remove all the rows from the table.

DELETE FROM table_name;

There are some more terms similar to DELETE statement like as DROP statement and
TRUNCATE statement but they are not exactly same there are some differences between them.

Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements

There is a slight difference b/w delete and truncate statement. The DELETE statement only
deletes the rows from the table based on the condition defined by WHERE clause or delete all
the rows from the table when condition is not specified.

But it does not free the space containing by the table.

The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the
containing space.

Assignment No 23
Let's see an "employee" table.

Emp_id Name Address Salary

1 Aryan Allahabad 22000
2 Shurabhi Varanasi 13000
3 Pappu Delhi 24000
Execute the following query to truncate the table:

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4.1.5 TRUNCATE TABLE employee;
Difference b/w DROP and TRUNCATE statements

When you use the drop statement it deletes the table's row together with the table's definition so all
the relationships of that table with other tables will no longer be valid.
When you drop a table:
Table structure will be dropped
Relationship will be dropped
Integrity constraints will be dropped
Access privileges will also be dropped
On the other hand when we TRUNCATE a table, the table structure remains the same, so you will not
face any of the above problems.

4.1.6 SQL RENAME TABLE

SQL RENAME TABLE syntax is used to change the name of a table. Sometimes, we choose non-
meaningful name for the table. So it is required to be changed.

Let's see the syntax to rename a table from the database.

ALTER TABLE table_name

RENAME TO new_table_name;
Optionally, you can write following command to rename the table.
RENAME old_table _name To new_table_name;
Let us take an example of a table named "STUDENTS", now due to some reason we want to
change it into table name "ARTISTS".

Table1: students

Name Age City

Amrita gill 25 Amritsar
Amrender sirohi 22 Ghaziabad
Divya khosla 20 Delhi
You should use any one of the following syntax to RENAME the table name:

ALTER TABLE STUDENTS

RENAME TO ARTISTS;
Or
RENAME STUDENTS TO ARTISTS;
After that the table "students" will be changed into table name "artists"

4.1.7 SQL TRUNCATE TABLE

A truncate SQL statement is used to remove all rows (complete data) from a table. It is similar
to the DELETE statement with no WHERE clause.

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TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DELETE TABLE

Truncate table is faster and uses lesser resources than DELETE TABLE command.

4.1.8 TRUNCATE TABLE Vs DROP TABLE

Drop table command can also be used to delete complete table but it deletes table structure
too. TRUNCATE TABLE doesn't delete the structure of the table.

Let's see the syntax to truncate the table from the database.

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

For example, you can write following command to truncate the data of employee table

TRUNCATE TABLE Employee;

Note: The rollback process is not possible after truncate table statement. Once you truncate a
table you cannot use a flashback table statement to retrieve the content of the table.

4.1.9 SQL ALTER TABLE

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, modify or delete columns in an existing table. It is
also used to rename a table.

You can also use SQL ALTER TABLE command to add and drop various constraints on an existing
table.

SQL ALTER TABLE Add Column

If you want to add columns in SQL table, the SQL alter table syntax is given below:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name column-definition;
If you want to add multiple columns in table, the SQL table will be
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD (column_1 column-definition,
column_2 column-definition,
.....
column_n column-definition);
SQL ALTER TABLE Modify Column
If you want to modify an existing column in SQL table, syntax is given below:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name column_type;

If you want to modify multiple columns in table, the SQL table will be

ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY (column_1 column_type,
column_2 column_type,
.....

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 column_n column_type);

SQL ALTER TABLE DROP Column

The syntax of alter table drop column is given below:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

SQL ALTER TABLE RENAME Column

The syntax of alter table rename column is given below:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN old_name to new_name;

SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement

The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it into another table.
INSERT INTO SELECT requires that data types in source and target tables match
The existing records in the target table are unaffected
INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax
Copy all columns from one table to another table:
INSERT INTO table2
SELECT * FROM table1
WHERE condition;
Copy only some columns from one table into another table:
INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)
SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1
WHERE condition;

Assignment No 24

Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

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SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City Postal Country
Code
1 Exotic Liquid Charlotte 49 Gilbert St. Londona EC1 4SD UK
Cooper
2 New Orleans Cajun Shelley Burke P.O. Box New 70117 USA
Delights 78934 Orleans
3 Grandma Kelly's Regina Murphy 707 Oxford Ann Arbor 48104 USA
Homestead Rd.

SQL Statement:

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)

SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;
SQL Statement:
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country FROM Suppliers;
The following SQL statement copies "Suppliers" into "Customers" (fill all columns):
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country)
SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode, Country FROM Suppliers;

SQL Statement:

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)

SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany';
The SQL UPDATE Statement
The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.
UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE
statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!

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Assignment No 25

UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt', City='Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID=1;

UPDATE Multiple Records

It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records that will be updated.
The following SQL statement will update the contactname to "Juan" for all records where
country is "Mexico":
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'
WHERE Country='Mexico';
The SQL DELETE Statement
The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.
DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in the DELETE statement.
The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all
records in the table will be deleted!

Assignment No 24

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SQL DELETE Example

The following SQL statement deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the "Customers"
table:
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
Delete All Records
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the table
structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
The following SQL statement deletes all rows in the "Customers" table, without deleting the
table:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers;

Summary

• In this chapter, you have learned about:

• In this chapter We studied Sql Table, Sql Table variable.
• Also, we studied all the syntax for Table creation, Updation and Deletion, as well as
Example for all Table creation, Updation and Deletion.

MCQ’s

1. Which SQL function is used to count the

number of rows in a SQL query? 2. Which SQL keyword is used to retrieve a
a) COUNT() maximum value?
b) NUMBER() a) MOST
c) SUM() b) TOP
d) COUNT (*)

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c) MAX b) SCL
d) UPPER c) DCL
d) DDL
3. Which of the following SQL clauses is used
to DELETE tuples from a database table? 8. If you don’t specify ASC or DESC after a SQL
a) DELETE ORDER BY clause, the following is used by
b) REMOVE default
c) DROP a) ASC
d) CLEAR b) DESC
4. ___________removes all rows from a table c) There is no default value
without logging the individual row deletions. d) None of the mentioned
a) DELETE
b) REMOVE 9. Which of the following statement is true?
c) DROP a) DELETE does not free the space containing
d) TRUNCATE the table and TRUNCATE free the space
containing the table
5. Which of the following is not a DDL b) Both DELETE and TRUNCATE free the space
command? containing the table
a) UPDATE c) Both DELETE and TRUNCATE does not free
b) TRUNCATE the space containing the table
c) ALTER d) DELETE free the space containing the table
d) None of the Mentioned and TRUNCATE does not free the space
containing the table
6. Which of the following are TCL commands?
a) UPDATE and TRUNCATE 10. What is the purpose of the SQL AS clause?
b) SELECT and INSERT a) The AS SQL clause is used change the name
c) GRANT and REVOKE of a column in the result set or to assign a name
d) ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT to a derived column
b) The AS clause is used with the JOIN clause
7. ________________ is not a category of SQL only
command. c) The AS clause defines a search condition
a) TCL d) All of the mentioned

Fill in the blank

1. Table is a collection of data, organized in terms of ------------------.

2. SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table ---------------.
3. A SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to ------------.
4. The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all the -----------.
5. SQL RENAME TABLE syntax is -------------.

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 Chapter 5
SQL Statements and Data Types
• SQL Use statement
• SQL COMMIT and ROLLBACK Statement
• SQL Commit Example
• SQL Rollback
• Updated command with Rollback
• Delete with Rollback

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5.1 SQL USE Statement

The USE Statement is used to select a database and perform SQL operations into that database.
The database remains default until end of session or execution of another USE statement with
some other database.

5.1.1 SQL USE DATABASE Statement:

The Syntax for the USE Statement is:

USE database_name;

database_name - is the name of the database to be selected

USE DATABASE Example:

If you want to use database MyDatabase, the statement would be like
USE MyDatabase ;

5.1.2 SQL COMMIT and Rollback Statement

COMMIT and ROLLBACK are performed on transactions.

A transaction is the smallest unit of work that is performed against a database.
It’s a sequence of instructions in a logical order.
A transaction can be performed manually by a programmer or it can be triggered using an
automated program.

5.1.3 SQL Commit

COMMIT is the SQL command that is used for storing changes performed by a transaction.
When a COMMIT command is issued it saves all the changes since last COMMIT or ROLLBACK.

Syntax for SQL Commit

COMMIT
SQL Commit Example

Assignment No 27

Let us consider the following table for understanding Commit in a better way.;
Customer: -
CUSTOMER ID CUSTOMER NAME STATE COUNTRY
1 Akash Delhi India

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 2 Amit Hyderabad India
3 Jason California USA
4 John Texas USA

Now let us delete one row from the above table where State is “Texas”.

5.1.4 SQL Delete without Commit

Post the DELETE command if we will not publish COMMIT, and if the session is closed then the
change that is made due to the DELETE command will be lost.
Updated Command with COMMIT

5.1.5 SQL Commit Execution

Using the above-mentioned command sequence will ensure that the change post DELETE
command will be saved successfully.

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Output After Commit
CUSTOMER ID CUSTOMER NAME STATE COUNTRY
1 Akash Delhi India
2 Amit Hyderabad India
3 Jason California USA

5.1.6 SQL Rollback

ROLLBACK is the SQL command that is used for reverting changes performed by a transaction.
When a ROLLBACK command is issued it reverts all the changes since last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK.
Syntax for SQL Rollback
ROLLBACK;
The syntax for rollback includes just one keyword ROLLBACK.

Assignment No 28

Customer: -
CUSTOMER ID CUSTOMER NAME STATE COUNTRY
1 Akash Delhi India
2 Amit Hyderabad India
3 Jason California USA
4 John Texas USA

Now let us delete one row from the above table where State is “Texas”.
DELETE from Customer where State=’Texas’;

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Post the DELETE command if we publish ROLLBACK it will revert the change that is performed
due to the delete command.

5.1.7 Updated Command with ROLLBACK

5.1.8 SQL Delete with Rollback

Using the above-mentioned command sequence will ensure that the change post DELETE
command will be reverted successfully.

Output After Rollback

CUSTOMER ID CUSTOMER NAME STATE COUNTRY
1 Akash Delhi India
2 Amit Hyderabad India
3 Jason California USA
4 John Texas USA

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5.1.9 SQL Data Types

Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type.
An SQL developer must decide what type of data that will be stored inside each column when
creating a table. The data type is a guideline for SQL to understand what type of data is
expected inside of each column, and it also identifies how SQL will interact with the stored
data.

Note: Data types might have different names in different database. And even if the name is the
same, the size and other details may be different! Always check the documentation!

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WWW.ICIT.IN 67
 Summary

• In this chapter, you have learned about:

• We studied How to use “use statement” in SQL
• Also, we studied commit and Rollback statement with update and delete
• Also, we studied Different Data types in SQL

Fill in the blank

1.The ----------------statement backs out, or cancels, the database changes that are made by the
current transaction and restores changed data to the state before the transaction began.
2. A -------------- can be performed manually by a programmer or it can be triggered using an
automated program
3. It’s a ----------- of instructions in a logical order.
4. The --------------- is used to select a database and perform SQL operations into that database.
5. --------- is the SQL command that is used for storing changes performed by a transaction

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 Chapter 6
Operators in SQL
• What is operator in SQL?
• SQL Arithmetic Operators
• SQL Comparison Operators
• SQL Logical Operators
• Boolean Expressions
• Numeric Expressions
• Date Expressions
• Built-in Functions in SQL

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What is an Operator in SQL?

An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's WHERE

clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic operations. These
Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as conjunctions for
multiple conditions in a statement.
Arithmetic operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators
Operators used to negate conditions

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Assume 'variable a' holds 10 and 'variable b' holds 20, then −
Operator Description Example

Adds values on either side of the operator. a+b

+ (Addition) will give
30

Subtracts right hand operand from left hand a - b will

- (Subtraction) operand. give -10

Multiplies values on either side of the operator. a*b

*
will give
(Multiplication)
200

Divides left hand operand by right hand operand. b/a

/ (Division) will give
2

Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and b%a

% (Modulus) returns remainder. will give
0

SQL Comparison Operators

Assume 'variable a' holds 10 and 'variable b' holds 20, then
Operator Description Example

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 Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (a = b) is
= condition becomes true. not
true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are (a != b)
!=
not equal then condition becomes true. is true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are (a <> b)
<>
not equal then condition becomes true. is true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of (a > b) is
> right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (a < b) is
<
operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (a >= b)
>= value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is not
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the (a <= b)
<=
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is true.

Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of (a !< b)
!<
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is false.

Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of (a !> b)
!>
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. is true.

SQL Logical Operators

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.

Show Examples
Sr.No. Operator & Description

ALL
1
The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.

AND
2 The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL
statement's WHERE clause.

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 ANY
3 The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list as
per the condition.

BETWEEN
4 The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of
values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.

EXISTS
5 The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified
table that meets a certain criterion.

IN
6 The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have
been specified.

LIKE
7 The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.

NOT
8 The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is
used. Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.

OR
9 The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.

IS NULL
10
The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

UNIQUE
11 The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no
duplicates).

Assignment No 29

Example 1
SQL> select 10+ 20;
Output
+--------+
| 10+ 20 |
+--------+

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| 30 |
+--------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 2
SQL> select 10 * 20;
Output
+---------+
| 10 * 20 |
+---------+
| 200 |
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Example 3
SQL> select 10 / 5;
Output
+--------+
| 10 / 5 |
+--------+
| 2.0000 |
+--------+
1 row in set (0.03 sec)
Example 4
SQL> select 12 % 5;
Output
+---------+
| 12 % 5 |
+---------+
| 2|
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators and SQL functions that
evaluate to a value. These SQL EXPRESSIONs are like formulae and they are written in query
language. You can also use them to query the database for a specific set of data.
Syntax
Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows −
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [CONDITION|EXPRESSION];
There are different types of SQL expressions, which are mentioned below −
Boolean
Numeric
Date
Boolean Expressions

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SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data based on matching a single value. Following is the
syntax −
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHING EXPRESSION;
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records

Assignment No 30

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 10000;

Output

Numeric Expression
These expressions are used to perform any mathematical operation in any query. Following is
the syntax −
SELECT numerical_expression as OPERATION_NAME
[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION] ;
Here, the numerical_expression is used for a mathematical expression or any formula.
Following is a simple example showing the usage of SQL Numeric Expressions −

Assignment No 31

SQL> SELECT (15 + 6) AS ADDITION

Output
ADDITION |
+----------+

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Aggregate Function Description

Min () This will return Minimum value

Max() This will return Maximum value

Avg () This will return Average value

Count () This will return number of counts

Sum () This will return total sum of numeric value

| 21 |
+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Date Expressions
Date Expressions return current system date and time values −

Assignment No 32

SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;

Output
Current_Timestamp |
+---------------------+
| 2009-11-12 06:40:23 |
+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Built-In functions in Sql

SQL COUNT Function

The SQL COUNT aggregate function is used to count the number of rows in a database table.
SQL COUNT function is the simplest function and very useful in counting the number of records,
which are expected to be returned by a SELECT statement.

To understand COUNT function, consider an employee_tbl table, which is having the following
records –
Aggregate Functions:
Aggregates the values and return a single value, below is the list of some aggregate values in sql
server.

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Assignment No 33

Example 1

Now suppose based on the above table you want to count total number of rows in this table,
then you can do it as follows –
SQL>SELECT COUNT (*) FROM employee_tbl;

Output
7
1 row in set (0.01 sec)

Example 2
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employee_tbl
-> WHERE name="Zara";

Output
2
1 row in set (0.04 sec)
The SQL MIN () and MAX () Functions
The MIN () function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
The MAX () function returns the largest value of the selected column.
MIN () Syntax
SELECT MIN (column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
MAX () Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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Assignment No 34

MIN () Example

SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice

FROM Products;

MAX() Example
The following SQL statement finds the price of the most expensive product:
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice
FROM Products;

Assignment No35

The AVG () function returns the average value of a numeric column.

AVG () Syntax

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SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;

SUM () function
The SUM () function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SUM () Syntax
SELECT SUM (column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Example
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
Output

Summary
• In this chapter, you have learned about:
• We studied What is operator in SQL?
• Also, Studied SQL Arithmetic Operators
• We Also Studied Different SQL Comparison Operators
• We Also Studied Different SQL Logical Operators
• We Also Studied Different Boolean Expressions
• We Also Studied Different Numeric Expressions
• We Also Studied Different Date Expressions
• We Also Studied Different Built-in Functions in SQL

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 MCQ’s

1. Which operator is used to return value

from JSON columns after evaluating the 6. DecryptByKeyAutoCert is
path and unquoting the result? ________________ type function.
a) -> a) Symmetric Encryption and decryption
b) ->> b) Encryption Hashing
c) << c) Asymmetric Encryption and decryption
d) >> d) Symmetric decryption with Automatic
key handling
2. The right shift operator is
_____________ 7. Which of the the following is not
a) >> conversion function?
b) << a) CAST and CONVERT
c) < b) PARSE
d) > c) TRY_CAST
d) TRY_CASE
3. Which operator compares sounds? 8. Built in Functions in SQL Server is
a) MATCH SOUNDS categorized in to how many category?
b) CHECK SOUNDS a) 4
c) SOUNDS LIKE b) 5
d) SOUNDS SIMILAR c) 6
d) 7
4. MySQL automatically converts a date or
time value to a number if the value is used 9. What is the purpose of MIN function in
in a numeric context. SQL Server?
a) True a) It returns the minimum value in the
b) False expression
b) It is use for decrementing the integer
5. @@NESTLEVEL function falls under value
which of the following category? c) MIN is not a SQL server function
a) Configuration functions d) None of the above
b) Cursor functions
c) Mathematical functions 10. Which function in SQL server is used in
d) Date and Time Data Functions query to find the count of the items in the
concerned object (i.e. table, view, etc.)?
a) COUNTER
b) COUNT
c) DETECT
d) None of the above

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 Fill in the blank
1.The -------------- function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
2.The ---------------- is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators
3.The SUM () function returns the ------------- column.
4.The ------------ is used to compare a value with a NULL value.
5. The ------------- operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values, given the
minimum value and the maximum value

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 Chapter 7
Joins in SQL
• SQL Join
• Different Types of joins
• SQL Self join
• SQL Index
• Cluster-NonCluster indexes

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7.1 SQL JOIN

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between
them.

Different types of JOINs

(INNER) JOIN: Select records that have matching values in both tables.
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Select records from the first (left-most) table with matching right table records.
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Select records from the second (right-most) table with matching left table records.
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Selects all records that match either left or right table records.

7.1.1 SQL INNER JOIN Keyword

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.
INNER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Assignment No 36

Example on Inner Join

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SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

Output

7.1.2 SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matched records from
the right table (table2). The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.

LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Note: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

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Assignment No 37

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Output

7.1.3 SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matched records from
the left table (table1). The result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match.
RIGHT JOIN Syntax

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SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

Assignment No 38

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName, Employees.FirstName

FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;

Output

7.1.4 SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in either left (table1) or right
(table2) table records.

Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!
Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

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FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

Assignment No 39

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Output

Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all matching records from both tables whether the other
table matches or not. So, if there are rows in "Customers" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if
there are rows in "Orders" that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as well.

7.1.5 SQL Self JOIN

A self-JOIN is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.

Self-JOIN Syntax

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SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 T1, table1 T2
WHERE condition;
T1 and T2 are different table aliases for the same table.

Assignment No 40

SELECT A. CustomerName AS CustomerName1, B. CustomerName AS CustomerName2, A. City

FROM Customers A, Customers B
WHERE A. CustomerID <> B. CustomerID
AND A. City = B. City
ORDER BY A. City;

Output

7.1.6 SQL Index

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7.1.7 SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot see the indexes, they
are just used to speed up searches/queries.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched
against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Assignment No 41

CREATE TABLE Persons (

PersonID int,
LastName varchar (255),
FirstName varchar (255),
Address varchar (255),
City varchar (255)
);

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the "LastName" column in the
"Persons" table:

CREATE INDEX idx_lastname

ON Persons (LastName);

If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within the
parentheses, separated by commas:

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CREATE INDEX idx_pname
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);

DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

Assignment No 42

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name;

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX
The CREATE UNIQUE INDEX command creates a unique index on a table (no duplicate values allowed)
Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot see the indexes, they
are just used to speed up searches/queries.

The following SQL creates an index named "uidx_pid" on the "PersonID" column in the "Persons" table:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX uidx_pid

ON Persons (PersonID);

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies among different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax for
creating indexes in your database.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the indexes
also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched against.

7.1.8 Composite SQL Server Index

A composite Index is an Index on two or more columns of a table.

Its basic syntax is as follows.

CREATE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column1, column2);

7.1.9 Clustered and Non-Clustered Indexes

1.Clustered
Clustered index is the type of indexing that established a physical shorting order of rows.
Suppose you have a table Student_info which contains ROLL_NO as a primary key than Clustered
index which is self-created on that primary key will short the Student_info table as per ROLL_NO.
Clustered index is like Dictionary, in the dictionary shorting order is alphabetical there is no separate
index page.

Assignment No 43

CREATE TABLE Student_info

(

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ROLL_NO int(10) primary key,
NAME varchar(20),
DEPARTMENT varchar(20),
);
insert into Student_info values(1410110405, 'H Agarwal', 'CSE')
insert into Student_info values (1410110404, 'S Samadder', 'CSE')
insert into Student_info values (1410110403, 'MD Irfan', 'CSE')

SELECT * FROM Student_info

Output:

ROLL_NO NAME DEPARTMENT

1410110403 MD Irfan CSE
1410110404 S Samadder CSE
1410110405 H Agarwal CSE

2. Non-clustered:

The Non-Clustered index is an index structure separate from the data stored in a table that reorders
one or more selected columns.

The non-clustered index is created to improve the performance of frequently used queries not
covered by clustered index.

It’s like a textbook, the index page is created separately at the beginning of that book.
Syntax:

//Create Non-Clustered index

create NonClustered index IX_table_name_column_name
on table_name (column_name ASC)
Assignment No 44
CREATE TABLE Student_info
(
ROLL_NO int(10),
NAME varchar(20),
DEPARTMENT varchar(20),
);
insert into Student_info values(1410110405, 'H Agarwal', 'CSE')
insert into Student_info values(1410110404, 'S Samadder', 'CSE')
insert into Student_info values(1410110403, 'MD Irfan', 'CSE')

SELECT * FROM Student_info

Output:

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 ROLL_NO NAME DEPARTMENT
1410110405 H Agarwal CSE
1410110404 S Samadder CSE
1410110403 MD Irfan CSE

Note: We can create one or more Non_Clustered index in a table.

Clustered vs Non-Clustered index:

In a table there can be only one clustered index or one or more tha one non_clustered index.
In Clustered index there is no separate index storage but in Non_Clustered index there is separate index
storage for the index.
Clustered index is slower than Non_Clustered index.

SQL Aliases

SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.
An alias only exists for the duration of the query.

Alias Column Syntax

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;

Alias Table Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Assignment No 45

SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person]

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FROM Customers;
Output

Assignment No 46

The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer with CustomerID=4 (Around the
Horn). We use the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and "o"
respectively (Here we use aliases to make the SQL shorter):

SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName

FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c. CustomerName="Around the Horn" AND c. CustomerID=o.CustomerID;

Output

Summary

• In this chapter, you have learned about:

• We have studied, SQL Joins.
• We have studied all join types syntax and example
• Also studied SQL index
• Cluster and NonCluster index

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 MCQ’s

1. What type of join is needed when you wish and does not include the same number of
to include rows that do not have matching columns
values?
a) Equi-join 6. Which of the following statements is true
b) Natural join concerning subqueries?
c) Outer join a) Involves the use of an inner and outer query
d) All of the Mentioned b) Cannot return the same result as a query that
is not a subquery
2. What type of join is needed when you wish c) Does not start with the word SELECT
to return rows that do have matching values? d) All of the mentioned
a) Equi-join
b) Natural join 7. Which of the following is a correlated
c) Outer join subquery?
d) All of the Mentioned a) Uses the result of an inner query to
determine the processing of an outer query
3. Which of the following is one of the basic b) Uses the result of an outer query to
approaches for joining tables? determine the processing of an inner query
a) Subqueries c) Uses the result of an inner query to
b) Union Join determine the processing of an inner query
c) Natural join d) Uses the result of an outer query to
d) All of the Mentioned determine the processing of an outer query

4. The following SQL is which type of join: 8. How many tables may be included with a
SELECT CUSTOMER_T. CUSTOMER_ID, join?
ORDER_T. CUSTOMER_ID, NAME, ORDER_ID a) One
FROM CUSTOMER_T,ORDER_T WHERE b) Two
CUSTOMER_T. CUSTOMER_ID = ORDER_T. c) Three
CUSTOMER_ID? d) All of the Mentioned
a) Equi-join
b) Natural join 9. The following SQL is which type of join:
c) Outer join SELECT CUSTOMER_T. CUSTOMER_ID,
d) Cartesian join ORDER_T. CUSTOMER_ID, NAME, ORDER_ID
FROM CUSTOMER_T,ORDER_T?
5. A UNION query is which of the following? a) Equi-join
a) Combines the output from no more than two b) Natural join
queries and must include the same number of c) Outer join
columns d) Cartesian join
b) Combines the output from no more than two
queries and does not include the same number 10. Which is not a type of join in T-SQL?
of columns a) Equi-join
c) Combines the output from multiple queries b) Natural join
and must include the same number of columns c) Outer join
d) Combines the output from multiple queries d) Cartesian join

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Fill in the blank

1. A NATURAL JOIN is ------------ where the RDBMS automatically selects the join columns based on
common columns names
2. The ------------ statement is used to delete rows in a table.
3. An ----------------- is a specific type of comparator-based join, that uses only equality comparisons
in the join-predicate.
4. A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a
plane by a pair of ------------------.
5. A JOIN is a means for -------------- by using values common to each.

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 Chapter 8
Date and Time Functions in SQL
• SQL Date Functions
• ADDDATE (expr, days)
• ADDDATE (date, INTERVAL expr unit)
• Convert _TZ (dt, from_tz, to_tz)
• CURDATE ()
• CUURENT_DATE ()
• CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ()
• DAYOFMONTH(date)

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8.1 Date and Time Functions in SQL

In SQL, dates are complicated for newbies, since while working with database, the format of the date in
table must be matched with the input date in order to insert. In various scenarios instead of date,
datetime (time is also involved with date) is used.

1)CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the current timestamp of the operating system of the
server on which the SQL Server Database runs. The returned timestamp is a DATETIME value without
the time zone offset.
The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is the ANSI SQL equivalent to GETDATE ().
You can use the CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function anywhere a DATETIME expression is accepted.
SQL Server CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function example.

Let’s take some example of using the CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function.

Assignment No 47

A) SELECT
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP AS current_date_time;
Output
current_date_time
-----------------------
2019-02-23 20:02:21.550

(1 row affected)
B) Using CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function as a default value for table columns example
First, create a new table named current_timestamp_demos whose created_at column accepts a default
value as the timestamp at which a row is inserted:

Second, insert two rows into the table

INSERT INTO current_timestamp_demos(msg)
VALUES('This is the first message.');

INSERT INTO current_timestamp_demos(msg)

VALUES('current_timestamp demo');
Third, query data from the current_timestamp_demos table:

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Output

2)ADDDATE (date, INTERVAL expr unit), ADDDATE (expr, days)

When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, ADDDATE () is a synonym for
DATE_ADD (). The related function SUBDATE () is a synonym for DATE_SUB (). For information on the
INTERVAL unit argument, see the discussion for DATE_ADD ().

Assignment No 48

mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
When invoked with the days form of the second argument, MySQL treats it as an integer number of days
to be added to expr.
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', 31);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |

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+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

3) ADDTIME (expr1, expr2)

ADDTIME () adds expr2 to expr1 and returns the result. The expr1 is a time or datetime expression,
while the expr2 is a time expression.
Assignment No 49
mysql> SELECT ADDTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-02 01:01:01.000001 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CONVERT_TZ(dt,from_tz,to_tz)
This converts a datetime value dt from the time zone given by from_tz to the time zone given by to_tz
and returns the resulting value. This function returns NULL if the arguments are invalid.
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 13:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 22:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

4) CURDATE()

Returns the current date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether the
function is used in a string or in a numeric context.

Assignment No 50

mysql> SELECT CURDATE();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 |

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+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CURDATE() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 19971215 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

5) CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE ()

CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE () are synonyms for CURDATE ()

CURTIME ()
Returns the current time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the
function is used in a string or in a numeric context. The value is expressed in the current time zone.

Assignment No 51

mysql> SELECT CURTIME();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 23:50:26 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CURTIME() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 235026 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME ()

CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME () are synonyms for CURTIME ().

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP ()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP () are synonyms for NOW ().

1.DATE (expr)

Extracts the date part of the date or datetime expression expr.

mysql> SELECT DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+

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| DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

2. DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2)

DATEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in days from one date to the other. Both expr1
and expr2 are date or date-and-time expressions. Only the date parts of the values are used in the
calculation.
mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

3.DATE_ADD (date, INTERVAL expr unit), DATE_SUB (date, INTERVAL expr unit)

These functions perform date arithmetic. The date is a DATETIME or DATE value specifying the starting
date. The expr is an expression specifying the interval value to be added or subtracted from the starting
date. The expr is a string; it may start with a '-' for negative intervals.

A unit is a keyword indicating the units in which the expression should be interpreted.
The INTERVAL keyword and the unit specifier are not case sensitive.
The following table shows the expected form of the expr argument for each unit value.

unit Value Expected exprFormat

MICROSECOND MICROSECONDS
SECOND SECONDS
MINUTE MINUTES
HOUR HOURS
DAY DAYS
WEEK WEEKS
MONTH MONTHS
QUARTER QUARTERS
YEAR YEARS
SECOND_MICROSECOND 'SECONDS.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_MICROSECOND 'MINUTES.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_SECOND 'MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MICROSECOND 'HOURS.MICROSECONDS'
HOUR_SECOND 'HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MINUTE 'HOURS:MINUTES'

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 DAY_MICROSECOND 'DAYS.MICROSECONDS'
DAY_SECOND 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
DAY_MINUTE 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES'
DAY_HOUR 'DAYS HOURS'
YEAR_MONTH 'YEARS-MONTHS'

Assignment No 52

The values QUARTER and WEEK are available from the MySQL 5.0.0. version.
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59',
-> INTERVAL '1:1' MINUTE_SECOND);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59', INTERVAL... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-01 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999-01-01 01:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

1. DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)

This is similar to the DATE_ADD() function.

2. DAY(date)

The DAY() is a synonym for the DAYOFMONTH() function.

3. DAYNAME(date)

Returns the name of the weekday for date.

mysql> SELECT DAYNAME('1998-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Thursday |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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4. DAYOFMONTH(date)

Returns the day of the month for date, in the range 0 to 31.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

5. DAYOFWEEK(date)

Returns the weekday index for date (1 = Sunday, 2 = Monday, ., 7 = Saturday). These index values
correspond to the ODBC standard.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

6. DAYOFYEAR(date)

Returns the day of the year for date, in the range 1 to 366.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 34 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

7. EXTRACT(unit FROM date)

The EXTRACT() function uses the same kinds of unit specifiers as DATE_ADD() or DATE_SUB(), but
extracts parts from the date rather than performing date arithmetic.
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199907 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

8. FROM_DAYS(N)

Given a day number N, returns a DATE value.

mysql> SELECT FROM_DAYS(729669);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_DAYS(729669) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-07 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Note − Use FROM_DAYS() with caution on old dates. It is not intended for use with values that precede
the advent of the Gregorian calendar (1582)

9. (A) FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp)

9. (B) FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp,format)

Returns a representation of the unix_timestamp argument as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS or

YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or in a numeric
context. The value is expressed in the current time zone. The unix_timestamp argument is an internal
timestamp values, which are produced by the UNIX_TIMESTAMP()function.
If the format is given, the result is formatted according to the format string, which is used in the same
way as is listed in the entry for the DATE_FORMAT() function.
mysql> SELECT FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-04 22:23:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

10. HOUR(time)

Returns the hour for time. The range of the return value is 0 to 23 for time-of-day values. However, the
range of TIME values actually is much larger, so HOUR can return values greater than 23.
mysql> SELECT HOUR('10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+

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| HOUR('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 10 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

11. LAST_DAY(date)

Takes a date or datetime value and returns the corresponding value for the last day of the month.
Returns NULL if the argument is invalid.
mysql> SELECT LAST_DAY('2003-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| LAST_DAY('2003-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-02-28 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME()

LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME() are synonyms for NOW().
LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP()
LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().

12. MAKEDATE(year,dayofyear)

Returns a date, given year and day-of-year values. The dayofyear value must be greater than 0 or the
result will be NULL.
mysql> SELECT MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '2001-01-31', '2001-02-01' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

13. MAKETIME(hour,minute,second)

Returns a time value calculated from the hour, minute and second arguments.
mysql> SELECT MAKETIME(12,15,30);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKETIME(12,15,30) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '12:15:30' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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14. MICROSECOND(expr)

Returns the microseconds from the time or datetime expression (expr) as a number in the range from 0
to 999999.
mysql> SELECT MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 123456 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

15. MINUTE(time)

Returns the minute for time, in the range 0 to 59.

mysql> SELECT MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|5 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

16. MONTH(date)

Returns the month for date, in the range 0 to 12.

mysql> SELECT MONTH('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

17. MONTHNAME(date)

Returns the full name of the month for a date.

mysql> SELECT MONTHNAME('1998-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTHNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| February |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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18. NOW()

Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context. This value is
expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT NOW();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| NOW() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 23:50:26 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

19. PERIOD_ADD(P,N)

Adds N months to a period P (in the format YYMM or YYYYMM). Returns a value in the format YYYYMM.
Note that the period argument P is not a date value.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_ADD(9801,2);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_ADD(9801,2) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199803 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

20. PERIOD_DIFF(P1,P2)

Returns the number of months between periods P1 and P2. These periods P1 and P2 should be in the
format YYMM or YYYYMM. Note that the period arguments P1 and P2 are not date values.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 11 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

21. QUARTER(date)

Returns the quarter of the year for date, in the range 1 to 4.

mysql> SELECT QUARTER('98-04-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| QUARTER('98-04-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+

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1 row in set (0.00 sec)

22. SECOND(time)

Returns the second for time, in the range 0 to 59.

mysql> SELECT SECOND('10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SECOND('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

23. SEC_TO_TIME(seconds)

Returns the seconds argument, converted to hours, minutes and seconds, as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or
HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SEC_TO_TIME(2378);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SEC_TO_TIME(2378) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 00:39:38 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

24. STR_TO_DATE(str,format)

This is the inverse of the DATE_FORMAT() function. It takes a string str and a format string format. The
STR_TO_DATE() function returns a DATETIME value if the format string contains both date and time
parts. Else, it returns a DATE or TIME value if the string contains only date or time parts.
mysql> SELECT STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-04-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

25. SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit) and SUBDATE(expr,days)

When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, SUBDATE() is a synonym for
DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see the discussion for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+

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| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

26. SUBTIME(expr1,expr2)

The SUBTIME() function returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in the same format as expr1. The
expr1 value is a time or a datetime expression, while the expr2 value is a time expression.
mysql> SELECT SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999',
-> '1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999'... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-30 22:58:58.999997 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

27. SYSDATE()

Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or in a numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SYSDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SYSDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2006-04-12 13:47:44 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

28. TIME(expr)

Extracts the time part of the time or datetime expression expr and returns it as a string.
mysql> SELECT TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 01:02:03 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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29. TIMEDIFF(expr1,expr2)

The TIMEDIFF() function returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a time value. These expr1 and expr2 values
are time or date-and-time expressions, but both must be of the same type.
mysql> SELECT TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001',
-> '1997-12-30 01:01:01.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001'..... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 46:58:57.999999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

30. TIMESTAMP(expr), TIMESTAMP(expr1,expr2)

With a single argument, this function returns the date or datetime expression expr as a datetime value.
With two arguments, it adds the time expression expr2 to the date or datetime expression expr1 and
returns the result as a datetime value.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 00:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

31. TIMESTAMPADD(unit,interval,datetime_expr)

This function adds the integer expression interval to the date or datetime expression datetime_expr.
The unit for interval is given by the unit argument, which should be one of the following values −
FRAC_SECOND
SECOND, MINUTE
HOUR, DAY
WEEK
MONTH
QUARTER or
YEAR
The unit value may be specified using one of the keywords as shown or with a prefix of SQL_TSI_.
For example, DAY and SQL_TSI_DAY both are legal.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-01-02 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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32. TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit,datetime_expr1,datetime_expr2)

Returns the integer difference between the date or datetime expressions datetime_expr1 and
datetime_expr2. The unit for the result is given by the unit argument. The legal values for the unit are
the same as those listed in the description of the TIMESTAMPADD() function.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

33. TIME_FORMAT(time,format)

This function is used like the DATE_FORMAT() function, but the format string may contain format
specifiers only for hours, minutes and seconds.
If the time value contains an hour part that is greater than 23, the %H and %k hour format specifiers
produce a value larger than the usual range of 0 to 23. The other hour format specifiers produce the
hour value modulo 12.
mysql> SELECT TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 100 100 04 04 4 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

34. TIME_TO_SEC(time)

Returns the time argument converted to seconds.

mysql> SELECT TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 80580 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

35. TO_DAYS(date)

Given a date, returns a day number (the number of days since year 0).
mysql> SELECT TO_DAYS(950501);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TO_DAYS(950501) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+

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| 728779 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

36. UNIX_TIMESTAMP(), UNIX_TIMESTAMP(date)

If called with no argument, this function returns a Unix timestamp (seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00'
UTC) as an unsigned integer. If UNIX_TIMESTAMP() is called with a date argument, it returns the value of
the argument as seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC. date may be a DATE string, a DATETIME
string, a TIMESTAMP, or a number in the format YYMMDD or YYYYMMDD.
mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 882226357 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 875996580 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

37. UTC_DATE, UTC_DATE()

Returns the current UTC date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether
the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14, 20030814 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

38. UTC_TIME, UTC_TIME()

Returns the current UTC time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the
function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 18:07:53, 180753 |

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+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
UTC_TIMESTAMP, UTC_TIMESTAMP()
Returns the current UTC date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or in a
YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or in a numeric
context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14 18:08:04, 20030814180804 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

39. WEEK(date[,mode])

This function returns the week number for date. The two-argument form of WEEK() allows you to
specify whether the week starts on a Sunday or a Monday and whether the return value should be in the
range from 0 to 53 or from 1 to 53. If the mode argument is omitted, the value of the
default_week_format system variable is used
Mode First Day of week Range Week 1 is the first week.

0 Sunday 0-53 with a Sunday in this year

1 Monday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year

2 Sunday 1-53 with a Sunday in this year

3 Monday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year

4 Sunday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year

5 Monday 0-53 with a Monday in this year

6 Sunday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year

7 Monday 1-53 with a Monday in this year

mysql> SELECT WEEK('1998-02-20');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEK('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|7 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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40. WEEKDAY (date)

Returns the weekday index for date (0 = Monday, 1 = Tuesday, . 6 = Sunday).

mysql> SELECT WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

41. WEEKOFYEAR(date)

Returns the calendar week of the date as a number in the range from 1 to 53. WEEKOFYEAR() is a
compatibility function that is equivalent to WEEK(date,3).
mysql> SELECT WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|8 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

42. YEAR (date)

Returns the year for date, in the range 1000 to 9999, or 0 for the .zero. date.
mysql> SELECT YEAR('98-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

43. YEARWEEK(date), YEARWEEK(date,mode)

Returns the year and the week for a date. The mode argument works exactly like the mode argument to
the WEEK() function. The year in the result may be different from the year in the date argument for the
first and the last week of the year.
mysql> SELECT YEARWEEK('1987-01-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03')YEARWEEK('1987-01-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 198653 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

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Note − The week number is different from what the WEEK() function would return (0) for optional
arguments 0 or 1, as WEEK() then returns the week in the context of the given year.

Summary

In this chapter, you have learned about:

We studied, Different types of SQL Date functions
Also, we studied, Timestamp functions
Also studied all the examples for Date and Time Functions

MCQ’s

1. ______________ function returns 5. __________ are used for supporting

current date and time. encryption, decryption, digital signing and
a) SET DATEFIRST their validation.
b) SYSDATETIME a) Cryptographic functions
c) Cert_ID b) Cursor functions
d) GETDATE c) Configuration functions
d) None of the mentioned
2. Which of the following function checks
whether the expression is a valid date or 6. DecryptByKeyAutoCert is
not ? ________________ type function.
a) ISDATE a) Symmetric Encryption and decryption
b) ISDAY b) Encryption Hashing
c) ISVALID c) Asymmetric Encryption and decryption
d) ISYEAR d) Symmetric decryption with Automatic
key handling
3. Which of the following is not a
mathematical function? 7. Text and Image Functions are
a) ATN2 ___________
b) POWER a) nondeterministic
c) PI b) deterministic
d) CEIL c) table valued
d) All of the mentioned
4. @@NESTLEVEL function falls under
which of the following category? 8. Which of the the following is not
a) Configuration functions conversion function?
b) Cursor functions a) CAST and CONVERT
c) Mathematical functions b) PARSE
d) Date and Time Data Functions c) TRY_CAST
d) TRY_CASE

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9. ______________ returns the rank of 10. Built in Functions in SQL Server is
rows within the partition of a result set, categorized in to how many categories?
without any gaps in the ranking. a) 4
a) RANK b) 5
b) NTILE c) 6
c) DENSE_RANK d) 7
d) ROW_NUMBER

Fill in the blank

1. The week number is different from what the -------------function would return (0) for optional
arguments 0 or 1.
2. -----------Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
3. %a-------------------- (Sun-Sat)
4. ---------- is use to find the difference between dates
5. ------------returns the name of the day and month of a given date expression.

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 Chapter 9
Subqueries in SQL

• What is subquery
• Subqueries with the select statement
• Subqueries with the insert statement
• Subqueries with the Update statement
• Subqueries with the Delete Statement
• Using Auto_increment column

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 • A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.

• A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further
restrict the data to be retrieved.

• Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along with
the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.

9.1 Rules for subqueries

Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.

• A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple columns are in the main
query for the subquery to compare its selected columns.

• An ORDER BY command cannot be used in a subquery, although the main query can use an ORDER
BY. The GROUP BY command can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER BY in a
subquery.

• Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value operators such as
the IN operator.

• The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or
NCLOB.
• A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.

• The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery. However, the BETWEEN operator can be
used within the subquery.

Assignment No 53

Subqueries with the SELECT Statement

Syntax
SELECT column_name [, column_name ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
WHERE column_name OPERATOR
(SELECT column_name [, column_name ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE])
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

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| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, let us check the following subquery with a SELECT statement.
SQL> SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 4500) ;
This would produce the following result.
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+

9.1.1 Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

Subqueries also can be used with INSERT statements. The INSERT statement uses the data returned
from the subquery to insert into another table. The selected data in the subquery can be modified with
any of the character, date or number functions.
The basic syntax is as follows.
INSERT INTO table_name [ (column1 [, column2 ]) ]
SELECT [ *|column1 [, column2 ]
FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[ WHERE VALUE OPERATOR ]

Assignment No 54

Example
Consider a table CUSTOMERS_BKP with similar structure as CUSTOMERS table. Now to copy the
complete CUSTOMERS table into the CUSTOMERS_BKP table, you can use the following syntax.
SQL> INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS_BKP
SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS) ;

9.1.2 Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either single or multiple columns
in a table can be updated when using a subquery with the UPDATE statement.
The basic syntax is as follows.
UPDATE table
SET column_name = new_value
[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]

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 (SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Assignment No 55

Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS table. The
following example updates SALARY by 0.25 times in the CUSTOMERS table for all the customers
whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27.
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );
This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the following records.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 125.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 2125.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

9.1.3 Subqueries with the DELETE Statement

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any other statements
mentioned above.
The basic syntax is as follows.
DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME
[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]

Assignment No 56

Example
Assuming, we have a CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is a backup of the CUSTOMERS table. The
following example deletes the records from the CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE is
greater than or equal to 27.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );
This would impact two rows and finally the CUSTOMERS table would have the following records.
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

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| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+

9.1.4 Using AUTO_INCREMENT column

The simplest way in MySQL to use sequences is to define a column as AUTO_INCREMENT and leave the
rest to MySQL to take care.
Example
Try out the following example. This will create a table and after that it will insert a few rows in this table
where it is not required to give a record ID because its auto-incremented by MySQL.

Assignment No 57

mysql> CREATE TABLE INSECT

-> (
-> id INT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
-> PRIMARY KEY (id),
-> name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, # type of insect
-> date DATE NOT NULL, # date collected
-> origin VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL # where collected
);
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.02 sec)
mysql> INSERT INTO INSECT (id,name,date,origin) VALUES
-> (NULL,'housefly','2001-09-10','kitchen'),
-> (NULL,'millipede','2001-09-10','driveway'),
-> (NULL,'grasshopper','2001-09-10','front yard');
Query OK, 3 rows affected (0.02 sec)
Records: 3 Duplicates: 0 Warnings: 0
mysql> SELECT * FROM INSECT ORDER BY id;
+----+-------------+------------+------------+
| id | name | date | origin |
+----+-------------+------------+------------+
| 1 | housefly | 2001-09-10 | kitchen |
| 2 | millipede | 2001-09-10 | driveway |
| 3 | grasshopper | 2001-09-10 | front yard |
+----+-------------+------------+------------+
3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Summary

In this chapter, you have learned about:

We studied what is Subquery
Also, we studied Subquery with select, insert, update and Delete statement
Also, we studied how values increment Automatically.

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 MCQ’s

1. Select __________ from instructor FROM tot credits;

where dept name=’Comp. Sci.’; c) SELECT YEAR, MIN(num credits)
Which of the following should be used to OVER (ORDER BY YEAR ROWS 3 unbounded
find the mean of the salary ? preceding) AS avg total credits
FROM tot credits;
a) Mean(salary)
d) SELECT YEAR, SUM(num credits)
b) Avg(salary)
OVER (ORDER BY YEAR ROWS 3 unbounded
c) Sum(salary) preceding) AS avg total credits
d) Count(salary) FROM tot credits;

2. The ________ connective tests for set 5. Which of the following is not the
membership, where the set is a collection function of client?
of values produced by a select clause. The a) Compile queries
_________ connective tests for the b) Query optimization
absence of set membership. c) Receive queries
a) Or, in d) Result formatting and presentation
b) Not in, in
c) In, not in 6. Which server can join the indexes when
d) In, or only multiple indexes combined can cover
the query?
3. Select ID, GPA from student grades a) SQL
order by GPA ____________ b) DBMS
Inorder to give only 10 rank on the whole c) RDBMS
we should use : d) All of the mentioned
a) Limit 10
b) Upto 10 7. Select ________ dept_name from
c) Only 10 instructor;
d) Max 10 Here which of the following displays the
unique values of the column?
4. Suppose we are given a view tot credits a) All
(year, num credits) giving the total number b) From
of credits taken by students in each year. c) Distinct
The query that computes averages over d) Name
the 3 preceding tuples in the preceding
tuples in the specified sort order is: 8. Select ID, name, dept name, salary * 1.1
a) SELECT YEAR, avg (num credits) where instructor;
OVER (ORDER BY YEAR ROWS 3 preceding) AS
The query given below will not give an
avg total credits
error. Which one of the following has to be
FROM tot credits;
b) SELECT YEAR, avg(num credits) replaced to get the desired output?
OVER (ORDER BY YEAR ROWS 3 unbounded a) Salary*1.1
preceding) AS avg total credits b) ID

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c) Where in queries
d) Instructor d) A subquery is a condition that excludes
all the invalid tuples from the database
9. What is a subquery?
a) A subquery is a select-from-where 10. If a set is a collection of values given by
expression that is nested within another the select clause, the ______ connective
query tests for set membership
b) A subquery is any query that is nested a) within
within another query b) include
c) A subquery is a relation that is externally c) under
specified which can be used to handle data d) in

Fill in the blank

1.A ------------- is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query.

2. If a set is a collection of values given by the select clause, The ______ connective tests for set
membership.
3. A sub-query that uses the correlation name of an --------.
4. The _________ construct returns true if the argument in the sub-query is void of duplicates.
5. It returns the -------- of the results of the results of any two different queries.

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