5).

Wave-particle Duality: De-Broglie Hypothesis: An

electromagnetic wave behaves like particles,
particles like electrons behave like waves called
matter waves, also called de-Broglie matter waves. The wave
length of matter waves is derived on the analogy of radiation.

is given by E = hν = hc λ ….. (1) 𝑐 = Velocity of light, 𝜆 =

Based on Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon

Wavelength of the photon, h= Planck’s constant According to

the photon Equating equations (1) and (2), 𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑐 𝜆 λ =

Einstein’s mass energy relation, E = mc 2…… (2) m= mass of

hc mc 2 = h mc = h p…… (3), P = momentum of photon De-

Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves, according to
which a material particle of mass ’m’, moving with a velocity
’v’ should have an associated wavelength ‘𝜆 ′ called de-
Broglie wavelength. λ = h mv = h p… (4) is called de-Broglie’s
wave equation. Wavelength is associated with moving
particle and independent of charge of the particles. Greater
the mass and velocity of the particle, lesser will be the
wavelength. De-Broglie wavelength associated with an
electron: If a velocity ‘v’ is given to an electron by
accelerating it through a potential difference ‘V’, then the

converted into the kinetic energy of an electron. 𝑒𝑉 = 1 2

work done on the electron is ‘Ve’, and the work done is

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣 = √ 2𝑒𝑉 𝑚 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉…. (5) in (4) Applied

Physics I B. Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET
Page 12 λ = h √2meV…… (6) By substituting the values of h =
6.625× 10−34𝐽𝑠𝑒𝑐, m = 9.1× 10−31𝐾𝑔 and e = charge of
electron=1.6× 10−19C λ = 12.27 √V A 0…… (8), Where V= in
volt and λ = in A
9). Schrodinger time independent wave equation:
Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in
mathematical form and is known as Schrodinger’s wave
equation. Consider a plane wave moving along +ve x-

in the from 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 λ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)…(1) Whereλ =

direction with velocity ‘v’. The equation of the wave is written

wavelength of the wave, a= amplitude of wave

y=displacement of wave in y- direction x= displacement along

w.r.to ‘x’ on both sides of eqn (1) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 2𝜋 λ (𝑥 −

x- axis at any instant of time‘t’. Taking first order derivative

𝑣𝑡) 2𝜋 λ 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 = −𝑎 ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 sin ( 2𝜋 λ ) (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)….

(2) Substitute (1) in (2) 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 + ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 𝑦 = 0…(3) This
is known as differential plane wave equation. In complex

λ’ is replaced by deBroglie’s wavelength λ’ = h mv in eqn (3) 𝑑

wave, the displacement ‘y’ is replaced by ‘ψ’ and wavelength’

2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 ψ = 0 𝑑 2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝜋 2𝑚2𝑣 2 ℎ2 ψ =
0…. (4) Applied Physics I B. Tech

moving particle, the\ total energy is 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 𝑖.𝑒𝑈 = 𝐸 −

CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 16 For a

𝑉….(5) Where E= total energy, V= potential energy, U=

kinetic energy =1 2 𝑚𝑣 2 2𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚2𝑣 2…. (6), substitute (5)
in (6) 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) = 𝑚2𝑣 2…. (7) Substitute (7) in (4) 𝑑 2ψ
𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝜋 22𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ℎ 2 ψ = 0 𝑑 2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 8𝜋
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉) ℎ2 ψ = 0…. (8) This equation is known as

dimension. In three dimensions, it can be written as ∇ 2ψ +

Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in one

8𝜋 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉) ℎ2 ψ = 0… (9) ∇ 2ψ + 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ℎ 2 ψ = 0

For a free particle, the P.E is equal to zero i.e. V=0 in equation
equation for a free particle is ∇ 2ψ + 8𝜋 2𝑚𝐸 ℎ 2 ψ = 0
(9) Therefore the Schrodinger’s time independent wave

10). Particle enclosed in one-dimensional potential box: • The

wave nature of a moving particle leads to some remarkable
consequences when the particle is restricted to a certain region
of space instead of being able to move freely .i.e when a particle
bounces back and forth between the walls of a box. • If one –
dimensional motion of a particle is assumed to take place with
zero potential energy over a fixed distance, and if the potential
energy is assumed to become infinite at the extremities of the
distance, it is described as a particle in a 1-D box, and this is the
simplest example of all motions in a bound state. Applied Physics
I B. Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 17 •
The Schrodinger wave equation will be applied to study the
motion of a particle in 1-D box to show how quantum numbers,
discrete values of energy and zero point energy arise. • From a
wave point of view, a particle trapped in a box is like a standing
wave in a string stretched between the box’s walls. • Consider a
particle of mass ‘m’ moving freely along x- axis and is confined
between x=0 and x= a by infinitely two hard walls, so that the
particle has no chance of penetrating them and bouncing back
and forth between the walls of a 1-D box. • If the particle does
not lose energy when it collides with such walls, then the total
energy remains constant. • This box can be represented by a
potential well of width ‘a’, where V is uniform inside the box
throughout the length ‘a’ i.e. V= 0 inside the box or convenience
and with potential walls of infinite height at x=0 and x=a, so that

box. • The boundary condition are 𝑣(𝑥) = 0 , 𝜓(𝑥) = 1𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 <

the PE ‘V’ of a particle is infinitely high V=∞ on both sides of the

𝑥 < 𝑎…. (1) 𝑣(𝑥) = ∞ , 𝜓(𝑥) = 0𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 ≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎… (2) Where

𝜓(𝑥) is the probability of finding the particle. • The Schrodinger

written as 𝑑 2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 8𝜋 2𝑚 ℎ2 E ψ = 0, as V = 0 for a free

wave equation for the particle in the potential well can be

particle… (3) • In the simplest form eqn (3) can be written as 𝑑

2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑘 2ψ = 0…. (4) Where k= propagation constant and is
given by 𝑘 = √ 8П 2𝑚𝐸 ℎ2 ….(5) • The general solution of
equation (4) is ψ(x) = Asinkx + Bcoskx… (6) • Where A and B are
arbitrary constants, and the value of these constant can be

eqn(1) in (6) 0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(0) + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘(0) → B=0 in eqn (6) ψ(x) =

obtained by applying the boundary conditions. • Substitute

Asinkx… (7) Substituting eqn (2) in (7) 0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(𝑎) Applied

Page 18 → 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎 = 0, But ‘A’ ≠ 0 as already B=0 & if

Physics I B. Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET

0,then general solution is θ=nπ), i.e. Ka=nπ 𝑘 = 𝑛𝜋 𝑎 …….(8),

A= 0, there is no solution at all. • Therefore sinka = 0(if Sinθ =

Where n= 1,2,3,4,…and n≠0,because if n=0,k=0,E=0 everywhere

From (8) 𝑘 2 = ( 𝑛𝜋 𝑎 ) 2 From (5) 8П 2𝑚𝐸 ℎ2 = 𝑛 2𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝐸 =

inside the box and the moving particle cannot have zero energy.

𝑛 2ℎ 2 8𝑚𝑎2 𝐸𝑛= 𝑛 2ℎ 2 8𝑚𝑎2 = the discrete energy level…

eqn (9),𝐸1= ℎ 2 8𝑚𝑎2 = lowest energy, minimum energy,

(9) • The lowest energy of a particle is given by putting n=1 in the

ground state energy or zero point energy of the system. • The

wave functions ψ𝑛 corresponding to E𝑛are called Eigen
functions of the particle, the integer ’n’ corresponding to the

Substituting (8) in (7),𝜓𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎 ..(10) • Normalization

energy E𝑛 is called the quantum number of the energy level E𝑛.

particle are 𝜓𝑛 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 𝜓𝑛 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0

of wave function: The wave functions for the motion of the

≥ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 • According to normalization condition, the total

probability that the particle is somewhere in the box must be
unity. ∫ 𝑝𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |𝜓𝑛 | 2 𝑎 0 𝑎 0 dx=1 • From eqn(10), ∫ 𝐴 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑎 0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝐴 2 ∫ 1 2 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑛𝑥 𝑎 ] 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑎
0 ( 𝐴 2 ) 2 [𝑥 − 𝑎 2𝜋𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑛𝑥 𝑎 ] = 1 • The second term of
the integrand expression becomes zero at both the limits. 𝐴 2 2
= a, then 𝐴 = √ 2
3). Photoelectric Effect: • The emission of electrons from a
metal plate when illuminated by light radiation of suitable
wave length or frequency is called photoelectric effect. The
emitted electrons are called photo electrons. This effect was
discovered by Hertz, when ultraviolet light falls on zinc plate.
• This phenomenon was experimentally verified by the
scientists, discovered that alkali metals like Li, Na, K etc. eject
electrons when visible light falls on them. • Millikan
investigated this effect with a number of alkali metals over a
wide range of light frequencies and was awarded Noble prize
in 1923. The experimental arrangement to study the
photoelectric effect is shown in figure. Applied Physics I B.
Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 7 • It
consists of two photosensitive surfaces A and B enclosed in
an evacuated quartz bulb. The plate A is connected to
negative terminal of a potential device and plate B is
connected to positive terminal through a galvanometer G or a
micro ammeter. In the absence of light, there is no flow of
current and hence there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
When monochromatic light is allowed to incident on plate A,
a current starts flowing in the circuit shown by galvanometer.
The current is known as photo current. This shows that when
light falls on the metal plate, electrons are ejected. • The
number of electrons emitted and their kinetic energy
depends on 1) the potential difference between two
electrodes i.e. between plate A and B 2) the intensity of
incident radiation 3) the frequency of incident radiation 4)
the photo metal used.

3). Photoelectric Effect: • The emission of electrons from a

metal plate when illuminated by light radiation of suitable
wave length or frequency is called photoelectric effect. The
emitted electrons are called photo electrons. This effect was
discovered by Hertz, when ultraviolet light falls on zinc plate.
• This phenomenon was experimentally verified by the
scientists, discovered that alkali metals like Li, Na, K etc. eject
electrons when visible light falls on them. • Millikan
investigated this effect with a number of alkali metals over a
wide range of light frequencies and was awarded Noble prize
in 1923. The experimental arrangement to study the
photoelectric effect is shown in figure. Applied Physics I B.
Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 7 • It
consists of two photosensitive surfaces A and B enclosed in
an evacuated quartz bulb. The plate A is connected to
negative terminal of a potential device and plate B is
connected to positive terminal through a galvanometer G or a
micro ammeter. In the absence of light, there is no flow of
current and hence there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
When monochromatic light is allowed to incident on plate A,
a current starts flowing in the circuit shown by galvanometer.
The current is known as photo current. This shows that when
light falls on the metal plate, electrons are ejected. • The
number of electrons emitted and their kinetic energy
depends on 1) the potential difference between two
electrodes i.e. between plate A and B 2) the intensity of
incident radiation 3) the frequency of incident radiation 4)
the photo metal used.

9). Schrodinger time independent wave equation:

Schrodinger describes the wave nature of a particle in
mathematical form and is known as Schrodinger’s wave
equation. Consider a plane wave moving along +ve x-

in the from 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 λ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)…(1) Whereλ =

direction with velocity ‘v’. The equation of the wave is written

wavelength of the wave, a= amplitude of wave

y=displacement of wave in y- direction x= displacement along

w.r.to ‘x’ on both sides of eqn (1) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 2𝜋 λ (𝑥 −

x- axis at any instant of time‘t’. Taking first order derivative

𝑣𝑡) 2𝜋 λ 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 = −𝑎 ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 sin ( 2𝜋 λ ) (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)….

(2) Substitute (1) in (2) 𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 + ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 𝑦 = 0…(3) This
is known as differential plane wave equation. In complex

λ’ is replaced by deBroglie’s wavelength λ’ = h mv in eqn (3) 𝑑

wave, the displacement ‘y’ is replaced by ‘ψ’ and wavelength’

2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + ( 2𝜋 λ ) 2 ψ = 0 𝑑 2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝜋 2𝑚2𝑣 2 ℎ2 ψ =
0…. (4) Applied Physics I B. Tech

moving particle, the\ total energy is 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 𝑖.𝑒𝑈 = 𝐸 −

CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 16 For a

𝑉….(5) Where E= total energy, V= potential energy, U=

kinetic energy =1 2 𝑚𝑣 2 2𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚2𝑣 2…. (6), substitute (5)
in (6) 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) = 𝑚2𝑣 2…. (7) Substitute (7) in (4) 𝑑 2ψ
𝑑𝑥 2 + 4𝜋 22𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ℎ 2 ψ = 0 𝑑 2ψ 𝑑𝑥 2 + 8𝜋
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉) ℎ2 ψ = 0…. (8) This equation is known as

dimension. In three dimensions, it can be written as ∇ 2ψ +

Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in one

8𝜋 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉) ℎ2 ψ = 0… (9) ∇ 2ψ + 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉) ℎ 2 ψ = 0

For a free particle, the P.E is equal to zero i.e. V=0 in equation

equation for a free particle is ∇ 2ψ + 8𝜋 2𝑚𝐸 ℎ 2 ψ = 0

(9) Therefore the Schrodinger’s time independent wave

8). Structure and working principle of Avalanche photodiode:

Avalanche photodiode works on internal gain mechanism so
that the photoelectric current is amplified within the
detector. It is very useful when low levels of light are to be
detected. The structure of Avalanche photodiode is shown in
the figure below and is known as p+ π p n+ reachthrough
structure. The π region is the intrinsic region. The device is a
reverse biased p-n junction. The p+ and n+ are heavily doped
semiconductors and have a very low resistance. The π region
is very lightly doped and is nearly intrinsic in nature. Under
reverse biased condition a depletion region is present
between p and n+ region and it covers most of the π region.
Under sufficient reverse bias, the junction approaches
breakdown condition. A electric field is present in the
junction region due to immobile charge carriers. A photon
that enters through the p+ region is absorbed in the intrinsic
region and the resulting electron-hole pair that is generated
is separated by the electric field in the π region. The hole
drifts towards the p+ region and do not take part in
multiplication process. The electrons drift Applied Physics I B.
Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 44
through the π region to the p n+ junction. The electric field
present in the p n+ region accelerates the electrons which in
turn ionize neutral atoms in its path. The effect is cumulative
and builds up into an avalanche. Thus there is carrier
multiplication and internal amplification. This amplification
process enhances the responsivity of the detecto

9). Structure, working principle and characteristics of

solar cell: A solar cell is a p-n junction that can generate
electrical power when illuminated with sunlight. They
operate under photovoltaic mode i.e. if the diode is left
on open-circuit; an externally measurable voltage
appears between p and n regions. The structure of a
solar cell is shown in the figure below. It consists of a p
– type chip on which a thin layer of n – type material is
grown. The n region is heavily doped and thin so that
the light can penetrate through it easily. The p region is
lightly doped so that most of the depletion region lies
in the p side. It also consists of a glass cover and
antireflection coating. The front and back contacts are
metallic contacts for the flow of electrons. Electron
hole pairs are mainly created in the depletion region
and due to the built-in potential and electric field,
electrons move to the n region and the holes to the p
region. The movement of electrons and holes results in
accumulation of charge on the two sides of the
junction and produces a potential difference called
photo emf. If a load (bulb in the above circuit) is
connected across the cell a current flows through it

Characteristics of LED: One of the major characteristics of an

LED is its colour. • Gallium Arsenide, GaAs emits light in
infrared region. • Gallium Arsenide-Phosphide, GaAsP emits
red or yellow colour. • Gallium Phosphide, GaP emits red or
green colour. The diagram below shows some typical
approximate curves for the voltages that may be expected for
different LED colours. Typically the LED voltage drop is
between around 2 and 4 volts. The actual LED voltage that
appears across the two terminals is dependent mainly upon
the type of LED in question - the materials used. Applied
Physics I B. Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET
Page 40 Applications of LED: • As indicators and light source
in fiber optics communication. • A number of LED'S may be
grouped together to form a display 4) Internal photoelectric
effect, photoconductive effect and photo detectors: Internal
photoelectric effect: When light is incident on an intrinsic
semiconductor, electrons are excited from valence band to
conduction band and this leads to generation of electron and
hole. Thus an increase of charge carrier concentration occurs
within the semiconductor and the effect is called internal
photoelectric effect. Photoconductive effect: An increase in
free charge carriers leads to an increase in the conductivity of
the semiconductor. The light induced increase in the
electrical conductivity is called photoconductive effect or
photoconductivity. Photo detectors: These are devices that
absorb optical energy and convert it to electrical energy. The
operation of photoelectric detectors is based on internal
photoelectric effect. There are three main types of photo
detectors: Photodiodes, pin diodes and avalanche
photodiodes. 5). Photo detectors: photoconductive mode and
photovoltaic mode: A photo detector is a device which
absorbs light and converts the optical energy to measurable
electric current. It is essentially a p-n junction diode which is
reverse biased. The depletion region Applied Physics I B. Tech
CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 41 contains
immobile ions which generate an electric field. When a
photon is incident on the junction, a electron - hole pair may
be generated in the depletion region. The electric field due to
the immobile ions will separate the electron and holes
generated as shown in the figure below. This charge
separation can be used in two ways: 1. Photoconductive
mode and 2. Photovoltaic mode. 1. Photoconductive mode:
The device which is reversed biased is left on short circuit
externally. The reverse voltage application will increase the
depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response
time & the junction capacitance. This mode is too fast and
displays electronic noise
Radiative recombination: • Radiative recombination occurs
when an electron in conduction band recombines with a hole
in the valence band and the excess energy is given out as
photon. • Optical process associated with radiative
recombination is: Absorption, Spontaneous emission and
Stimulated emission. • Absorption: When at atom absorbs an
amount of energy ‘hv’ in the form of photon from the
external agency and excited into the higher energy levels
from ground state, then this process is known as absorption.
Atom + hv atom* • Spontaneous Emission: When an atom in
the excited state emits a photon of energy ‘hv’ coming down
to ground state by itself without any external agency, such an
emission is called spontaneous emission. Atom*  atom + hv
• Photons released in spontaneous emission are not
coherent. Hence spontaneous emission is not useful for
producing lasers. Applied Physics I B. Tech
CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 36 •
Stimulated Emission: When an atom in the excited state,
emits two photons of same energy ‘hv’ while coming to down
to ground state with the influence of an external agency, such
an emission is called stimulated emission. Atom*  atom +
2hv • In the two photons one photon induces the stimulated
emission and the second one is released by the transition of
atom from higher energy level to lower energy level. • Both
the photons are coherent. Non - radiative recombination: •
Non - Radiative recombination occurs when an electron in
conduction band recombines with a hole in the valence band
and the excess energy is given out as heat. • Non-Radiative
recombination process involves: Augur recombination,
2). What is Absorption, spontaneous emission & stimulated
emission of radiation & Explain Principle of laser/lasing
action: Absorption: When at atom absorbs an amount of
energy ‘hv’ in the form of photon from the external agency
and excited into the higher energy levels from ground state,
then this process is known as absorption. Atom + hv atom*
Spontaneous Emission: When an atom in the excited state
emits a photon of energy ‘hv’ coming down to ground state
by itself without any external agency after life time, such an
emission is called spontaneous emission. Atom*  atom + hv
Photons released in spontaneous emission are not coherent.
Hence spontaneous emission is not useful for producing
lasers. Stimulated Emission: When an atom in the excited
state emits two photons of same energy ‘hv’ while coming to
down to ground state with the influence of an external
agency before life time, such an emission is called stimulated
emission. Atom*  atom + 2hv Applied Physics I B. Tech
CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 49 In the
two photons one photon induces the stimulated emission
and the second one is released by the transition of atom from
higher energy level to lower energy level. Both the photons
are strictly coherent. Hence stimulated emission is
responsible for laser production. • Laser Production Principle:
• Two coherent photons produced in the stimulated
emission, interacts with other two excited atoms, resulting in
four coherent photons. • Thus, coherent photons are
multiplied in a lasing medium. The continuous successive
emission of photons results for the production of laser beam.

1). Characteristics/Striking features/Properties of Laser:

Characteristics of Laser Beam: Some of the special properties
which distinguish lasers from ordinary light sources are
characterized by: 1. Directionality 2. High Intensity 3. Mono-
Chroma city 4. Coherence 1. Directionality: Laser emits radiation
only in one direction due to the presence of coherent photons.
The directionality of laser beam is expressed in terms of angle of
divergence (ᶲ) Divergence or Angular Spread is given by ᶲ = r2-
r1/d2-d1 Where d1, d2 are any two distances from the laser
source emitted and r1, r2 are the radii of beam spots at a
distance d1 and d2 respectively as shown in above figure. Laser
light having less divergence, it means that laser light having more
directionality. 2. High Intensity: Generally, light from conventional
source spread uniformly in all directions. For example, take 100
watt bulb and look at a distance of 30 cm, the power enter into
the eye is less than thousand of a watt. This is due to uniform
distribution of light in all directions. But in case of lasers, light is a
narrow beam and its energy is concentrated within the small
region. The concentration of energy accounts for greater
intensity of lasers. 3. Monochromacity: The light emitted by laser
is highly monochromatic than any of the other conventional
monochromatic light. A comparison b/w normal light and laser
beam, ordinary Monochromacity of laser is 10 million times
better than normal light. The degree of Monochromacity of the
light is estimated by line of width (spreading frequency of line).
4. Coherence: If any wave appears as pure sine wave for longtime
and infinite space, then it is said to be perfectly coherent.
Practically, no wave is perfectly coherent including lasers. But
compared to other light sources, lasers have high degree of
coherence because all the energy is concentrated within the
small region. There are two independent concepts of coherence.
9). Principle, structure and working of an optical fiber:
Optical Fiber: Optical fibers are the wave guides through
which electromagnetic radiation of optical frequency
range can be guided over a long distance in a short span
of time and with minimum number of losses. These are
used in the communication networks. Principle: An optical
fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection
(TIR). Total Internal Reflection: when a ray of light travels
from a denser medium into a rarer medium and if the
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle then
the light gets totally reflected into the denser medium
Structure & Working: • An optical fiber consists of three
(3) co-axial regions. • The inner most region is the light-
guiding region known as “Core”. It is surrounded by a
middle co-axial regional known as “cladding”. The outer
most regions which completely covers the core & cladding
regions is called “sheath or buffer jacket”. • Sheath
protects the core & cladding regions from external
contaminations, in addition to providing mechanical
strength to the fiber. • The refractive index of core (n1) is
always greater than the refractive index of cladding (n2)
i.e., n1> n2 to observe the light propagation structure of
optical fiber. • When light enters through one end of
optical fiber it undergoes successive total internal
reflections and travel along the fiber in a “zig-zag” path.

14). Distinguish Step index & Graded index fibers

and Single mode & Multi mode fibers: \
Step Index Graded Index 1. RI of core is uniform
throughout except at one stage. 2. Single &
multimode propagations exist. 3. Used for short
distance applications. 4. Attenuation losses are of
the order 100 dB/km. 5. Mer4dinol rays
propagation takes place. 6. Easy to manufacture.
1. Refractive index varies gradually with radial
distance. 2. It is a multi mode fiber. 3. Used for
long distance applications. 4. 4. Attenuation losses
are of the order 10 dB/km. 5. Skew rays
propagation takes place. 6. Difficult to
manufacture.
Single Mode Multi Mode 1. Core diameter is
small. 2. Signal entry is difficult. 3. Exists in step
index fiber. 4. Light must be coherent. 1. Core
diameter is large. 2. Signal entry is easy. 3. Exists
in both step & graded index fibers. 4. Light source
may be coherent or incoherent source.

13). Types(classification) of Optical Fibers: Applied Physics I B.

Tech CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 65
Optical fibers are classified in to three major categories based
on i) Material ii) Number of Modes iii) Refractive index profile
• Based on materials in which the fibers are made it is
classified into two types as follows. 1.Glass fibers 2.Plastic
fibers • Based on mode of propagation, fibers are further
classified in to 1. Single mode fibers 2. Multi mode fibers •
Based on variation in the refractive index (n1) profile of core,
optical fibers are classified in to two types 1. Step index fiber
2. Graded index fiber Classification based on materials:
1.Glass fibers: If the fibers are made up of mixture of metal
oxides and silica glasses is called glass fibers. Advantages: •
Glass fiber cables can be used in high-temperature
applications like furnaces, ovens, and condensers in large
engines, as well as in extremely low-temperature areas such
as cold storage warehouses. • Since glass cores are efficient
at transmitting light and allow for significantly higher transfer
speeds, glass optical fibers can be used over long sensing
distances. • Glass optical fiber enables you to use a
photoelectric sensor in areas where you wouldn’t normally
be able to use them. With this advantage, you can choose
sensors with a wide range of housings, mounting styles, and
features for your specific application. • Since glass fiber optic
cables are thin and light, they are optimized for small spaces
and small targets. Disadvantages: • The installation of glass
optical fibers requires highly trained technicians, and the
tools and equipment for fiber termination are usually
expensive. Applied Physics I B. Tech
CSE(AIML)/CSE(DS)/CSE/ECE/EEE & IT GRIET Page 66 • The
core diameter of glass fiber is very small, hence it has higher
technology requirements to couple light into the core region,
such as light sources. • Glass optical fibers are fragile and
more possible to break if not handled properly. 2. Plastic
fibers: It is an optical fiber in which the core and cladding are
both made out of plastic or polymeric materials rather than
glass. Advantages: • The materials which POF is made up of
are low-cost and the installation with associated assemblies is
not expensive. • It is flexible and solid, able to bend farther
without breakage. • The network using plastic optical fiber
can be installed by untrained personnel. Even home users can
handle and install these fibers. • Plastic optical fibers use
harmless green or red light that is easily visible towards the
eye. They are safe when installed in a house without risk to
inquisitive children. Disadvantages: • The signal attenuation
and dispersion of POF are typically very high, hence it is
limited to short distances. • POF cannot withstand the
extreme temperature as glass optical fiber does. • Based on
variation in the core refractive index (n1), optical fibers are
divided in to two types 1. Step index fiber 2. Graded index
fiber • Based on mode of propagation, fibers are further
classified in to 1. Single mode propagation 2. Multi mode
propagation • Step index fibers have both single & multimode
propagations. • Graded index fibers have multimode
propagation only • All together in total three (3) types of
fibers 1. Single mode step index fiber 2. Multi mode step
index fiber 3. Multi mode graded index fibe

1). Polarization and types of polarization in dielectrics:

Polarization: The process of producing electric dipoles which are
oriented along the field direction is called polarization in
dielectrics. Types of Polarizations: Polarization occurs due to
several atomic mechanisms. When the specimen is placed inside
electric field, mainly three types of polarizations are possible.
Those are • Electronic polarization • Ionic polarization •
Orientational or Dipolar polarization Applied Physics Electronic
polarization: • Electronic polarization occurs due to the
displacement of negatively charged electron in opposite
direction. • When an external field is applied and there by

dipole moment µ=𝛼ⅇE. • Where 𝛼ⅇ is the electronic

creates a dipole moment in the dielectric. • Therefore induced

polarizability. • Electronic polarizability is proportional to the

volume of atoms. • This Polarization is independent of
temperature. Ionic polarization: • This is due to the displacement
of cations and anions in opposite directions and occurs in an
ionic solid. This type of polarization occurs in ionic dielectrics like
Nacl. • When such a dielectric material is subjected to an
external electric field, adjacent ions of opposite sign undergoes
displacement and this displacement results either increase or
decrease in the distance of separation between ions. • If x1 and
x2 are the displacements of positive and negative ions in an ionic

moment𝜇 = 𝑞 × (𝑥1 + 𝑥2). Orientational or Dipolar polarization:

crystal due to the application of electric field E, then dipole

• This type of polarization occurs in materials with polar

molecules. • Without the external field the molecules are
oriented at random. So the net dipole moment is zero. • When

dependent on temperature. 𝛼𝑜= 𝑃𝑜 𝑁𝐸 = 𝜇 2 3𝐾 is applied

external field • Hence the Orientational polarizability is strongly

the polar molecules

Hysteresis: Lagging of magnetization behind the magnetizing
field (H). ➢ When a Ferro magnetic material is subjected to
external field, there is an increase in the value of the
resultant magnetic moment due to two processes. ➢ The
movement of domain walls ➢ Rotation of domain walls ➢
When a weak magnetic field is applied, the domains are
aligned parallel to the field and magnetization grows at the
expense of the less favorably oriented domains. ➢ This
results in the Bloch wall (or) domain wall movement and the
weak field is removed the domains reverse back to their
original state. This reversible wall displacement is indicated
by OA the magnetization curve. ➢ When the field becomes
stronger than the domain wall movement, it is mostly
reversible movement. This is indicated by path AB of the
graph. The phenomenon of hysteresis is due to the
irreversibility. ➢ At the point B all domains have got
magnetized, application of higher field rotates the domains
into the field direction indicated by BC. Once the domains
rotation is complete the specimen is saturated denoted by C.
➢ Thus the specimen is said to be attain the maximum
magnetization. At this position if the external field is removed
(H=0), the magnetic induction B will not fall rapidly to
zero ,but falls D rather than O. This shows that even when the
applied field is zero the material still have some magnetic
induction (OD) which is called residual magnetism or
retentivity. ➢ Actually after the removal of the external field
the specimen will try to attain the original configuration by
the movement of domain walls. But this movement is