Being and Becoming Teachers of Writing A Meaning Based Approach To Authentic Writing Instruction 1st Edition Andrew. Johnson
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“In a relatable, conversational style, Dr. Johnson presents and discusses the process
of learning to write. He emphasizes the importance of encouraging students to use
their creativity and their own knowledge, and the fact that there is no one strategy or
technique that successfully helps all children learn to write. He outlines, describes, and
explains many ways to work with all writers, struggling or not. The format Dr. Johnson
uses is consistent throughout the book by providing an overview, thorough and infor-
mative discussion, and big ideas to try. The scenarios, examples, and pictures are realis-
tic, interesting, and helpful for understanding the concepts presented. If you work with
children who are developing writing skills, or who are struggling and need to improve,
this is the book for you. You will appreciate Dr. Johnson’s wealth of information and his
engaging style.”
Karen Eastman PhD, Professor, Minnesota State University
“Dr. Johnson brings together theory and practice in an engaging manner that compels
you to continue reading. He intersperses examples to illustrate concepts in memorable
ways. Not only does Dr. Johnson value the expertise and creativity of teachers, but he
also values the expertise and creativity of students by reminding teachers that student
choice is critical for their development as writers at all grade levels. I look forward to
sharing Being and Becoming Teachers of Writing: A Meaning-Based Approach to Writing
Instruction with teachers and coaches.”
Dr. Tracee Farmer, Co-Director Reading
Recovery Center for Literacy
BEING AND BECOMING TEACHERS
OF WRITING
This engaging, inviting textbook from a renowned expert in writing education provides all
the knowledge, pedagogical strategies, and tools needed to enable any teacher to be an
effective teacher of writing.
Using the five-step writing process as a foundation, the text describes how to teach the
necessary skills related to grammar, spelling, punctuation, and other writing mechanics, and
addresses all major genres and stages of writing. Written in an authentic voice that exempli-
fies good writing, Johnson presents a variety of pragmatic, research-based strategies that
support students’ writing development and encourage teachers to apply their own creativity
and intelligence in the classroom.
This is an essential text for courses in writing instruction, literacy methods, and teaching
English Language Arts (ELA).
Andrew P. Johnson
Designed cover image: © Getty Images / Liderina
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
The right of Andrew P. Johnson to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798
Typeset in Interstate
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
I’d like to dedicate this book to my brother Pete Johnson. A great parent and base-
ball coach, and an even better person.
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
So, Where Do I Start? 1
This Book 3
A Note about Nouns, Pronouns, and Such 4
Se c t i on I: Wri t in g 5
Se c t i on II: Th e Wr it in g P ro cess 19
5 Pre-Pre-Writing Strategies 26
Identifying Writing Topics 26
Teacher Writing Prompts 30
One Last Thing 34
x Contents
7 The Draft 40
Don’t Over-Think 40
Being and Becoming Master Teachers 43
Back on Track 44
Final Word 46
8 Revision 47
Strategies and Activities 47
Final Thoughts 50
9 Editing 51
Self-Editing 51
Peer-Editing 52
Final Word 53
Se c t i on III : Wr iters 67
Se c t i on IV: Wr it in g M ec h a n ics 93
23 Expository Writing Part 2: Teaching, Topics, Gathering Data, and Form 166
A True Story 166
Teaching 167
Topics 168
Gathering Data 169
Form 171
Final Word 172
26 Poetry 190
The Corners of Our Soul 190
Helping Poetry Appear 191
Forms 192
Techniques as Forms 202
Song Lyrics 205
References 243
Index 248
Introduction
Mooseburg, Minnesota
Let’s travel to an imaginary classroom in Mooseburg, Minnesota. Here, Mr. Bee is telling his
fifth grade students that they’re going to do some writing. He’s excited because he spent
the weekend planning a great creative writing activity that he knows his students will enjoy.
But to his surprise (dismay), most of his students react with indifference or even a visible
negative reaction. And when they start writing, Mr. Bee sees that most are reluctant to write.
They just slap words on the page. Despite his very creative writing prompt, their writing is
uninspired, unorganized, and just plain bad. It’s clear that his students do not enjoy writing
and do not know how to write. The question is, why? Why is it that (a) so many students hate
to write, and (b) so many students are not very good writers?
Humans have a natural desire to communicate with others, to share ideas, and to hear
ideas. Writing is a form of communication that enables humans to share and hear. How then
is it possible that some students hate the thought of putting their ideas on paper and sharing
them with others?
Two things to think about: First, it could be because it’s not their ideas they’re sharing;
rather, it’s their teacher’s ideas. Students are often not saying what they want to say with
their writing, but what they’re required to say. Few people want to say what other people
assign them to say. Second, it could also be because writing can be very hard for many
students. Often students become overwhelmed by the prospect of writing a paragraph or
page. And nobody likes to feel frustrated, overwhelmed, and inadequate. So, of course they
shut down. Feelings of inadequacy have taught them to hate what they should enjoy. And it’s
much easier to hate something than to fail at something.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-1
2 Introduction
1 Everyone can write. Writing is creating meaning with print and sharing that meaning
with others. Everyone can record or express an idea on paper (or computer). Young
children may use more pictures and squiggly shapes than letters and words, but they
are creating meaning with print and sharing their ideas. Figure 0.1 is a letter written by
Gus, age 4. This is before he entered kindergarten. He seen her first-grade sister engage
in many acts of writing, so she decided to give it a try. This points to the importance of
modeling and social learning.
2 Students need to be taught the writing process. The five-step writing process will be
described in Chapter 1 and referenced throughout this book. Everyone can become bet-
ter writers if they are taught the steps and follow the process. The process may look a
bit different in first grade than it does in 12th grade, but there is a process, and it does
produce better writers.
3 Students need opportunities to practice writing. You become a better tennis player
by practicing. You become a better piano player by practicing. You become a writer by
practicing. Like any skill, you need to do it a lot to get better at it. This means that teach-
ers must provide ample opportunities to practice writing. Students should expect that
they are going to write every day.
4 Students need to have authentic writing experiences. An inauthentic writing experi-
ence is when the teacher asks students to respond to an artificial writing prompt and
the only response given to the student is a grade, some edits, and a comment from
the teacher. In contrast, an authentic writing experience is when students are record-
ing, explaining, or describing their ideas for a real-life audience (often their peers).
This makes their writing come alive. It moves it from an abstract exercise to a real-life
event. And when students are engaged in authentic writing experiences, you seldom
have problems “motivating” them to write. Again, humans have a natural inclination
to communicate; to share their thoughts, experiences, perspectives, and emotions with
others. When you tap into this natural inclination, writing instruction becomes effortless.
5 Students need responses. A response is much different from correction. A response is
a reaction. Students need to see how their writing is playing in the heads of the reader.
They need to know which parts work and which parts are a little fuzzy or could use some
revising. They need responses from the teacher and their peers.
6 Every teacher can be an effective teacher of writing. There’s nothing magical or com-
plicated about being and becoming a good teacher of writing. You simply need to under-
stand the five-step writing process and have a few good strategies that you can adopt
and adapt to fit your needs and teaching style. And that’s where I come in. Hence, this
book.
This Book
What This Book Is Not
This book is not a now-do-this kind of book. That is, it doesn’t describe a specific method that
must be implemented with fidelity. It doesn’t present a recipe to follow or a certain structure
that must be replicated in your classroom. I won’t try to micromanage your writing instruc-
tion. Instead, this book will help you understand the act of writing and the writing process.
It will provide ideas for how you might maximize students’ writing potential. Yes, research-
based strategies will be presented for you to think about. But you will always be encouraged
to use your teacher-creativity and intelligence, along with the knowledge of your students to
decide which ideas and strategies best meet the needs of your students.
state of being knowing that we are naturally evolving. We are becoming something else. We
are becoming better people, better teachers, better teachers of writing, and better writers.
The best parts of ourselves as people, teachers, and writers are continually evolving and
coming forth. Becoming is a part of being. This means we are naturally inclined to grow as
people, teachers, and writers. This is the natural state of things.
You are all currently teachers of writing but we’re all at different places. That’s okay. It’s
not your place on the path that’s important in our journey. It’s the direction you’re moving.
Our destination is the same. We want to realize our full potential as teachers of writing in
order that our students might realize their full potential as writers.
Expert Teachers
Knowledge is important in developing expertise in any field or endeavor, including teaching.
Knowledge is what separates novices from experts (Persky & Robinson, 2017). Experts have
more of it and it’s deep and organized. Novices have less of it and it’s shallow and disjointed.
This is an important concept for understanding the development of teachers. We have pre-
service teachers in our teacher preparation programs for three semesters plus student teach-
ing. It is not possible to develop an adequate depth and breadth of knowledge to be an expert
teacher in three years, much less three semesters, of any teacher preparation program. This
is why continued, legitimate professional development for teachers is so important.
Expert teachers have four kinds of knowledge (Bruer, 1999; Darling-Hammond, 1999;
Eggen & Kauchak, 2007): Pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowl-
edge of content, and knowledge of learners and learning.
• Pedagogical knowledge: Expert teachers know a variety of general strategies used for
teaching in all curriculum areas. These include things such as cooperative learning, dis-
covering learning, inquiry learning, problem-based learning, discussion, and critical and
creative thinking skills. Expert teachers of writing have toolboxes filled with these kinds
of strategies and are able to use them in the teaching of writing.
• Pedagogical content knowledge: Expert teachers know a variety of pedagogical strate-
gies for teaching in specific content areas. Expert teachers of writing have toolboxes
filled with specific strategies for teaching writing.
• Knowledge of content: Expert teachers have a body of knowledge related to the con-
tent or subject matter that is to be taught. For example, math teachers know a lot about
math, social studies teachers know a lot about social studies, and so on. This body of
knowledge guides the expert teacher in deciding what is taught and in what order.
Expert teachers of writing know a lot about writing and the writing process.
• Knowledge of learners and learning: Expert teachers understand learners, the learning
process, and human development. They know how students best learn and recognize
the link between what they do and students’ learning. Expert teachers of writing know
and understand how students learn and the types of activities that are appropriate for
learning at various developmental stages.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-3
8 Writing
To move from novice to expert is a rather simple thing. Simply increase knowledge in all four
areas. It’s not all that complicated. This current book is designed to enhance your pedagogi-
cal content knowledge related to teaching writing. I will be describing a variety of research-
based strategies and evidence-based practices.
Raspberry Jelly
There once was a man named Mr. Bee who wanted to learn how to make raspberry jelly. So,
he signed up for a raspberry-jelly-making class through his local Community Education. At
the first class the instructor passed around jars of raspberry jelly for students to examine.
He said, “Make this” and left.
Mr. Bee was a bit surprised and frustrated, so he politely mentioned this to administration
on the way out.
The second week, the instructor came to class and listed the ingredients for making rasp-
berry jelly on the board. “There you go,” the instructor said. Then left.
Again, Mr. Bee was frustrated so he once again complained to administration on the way
out. This time, he used a decidedly pointed tone.
The third week, the instructor passed around small samples of raspberry jelly and had
students sample them and describe to each other why they were good.
But Mr. Bee still did not know the first thing about the jelly-making process, so he again
complained to administration on his way out, but this time he did so using a very stern
demeanor.
The fourth week, the instructor announced that he was cancelling classes. Students would
instead take other cooking classes; however, these other classes would all be jelly-intensive
cooking classes. That is, students would be expected to make lots of raspberry jelly in the
context of learning other cooking skills. As well, a rubric would be used to evaluate their
finished jelly product. “There you go,” the instructor announced. “That should get you up to
speed with your raspberry jelly-making.”
Finally, Mr. Bee could stand it no longer. He stood up and shouted, “What are you doing?”
“I’m teaching you how to make raspberry jelly,” the instructor replied.
“You’re doing nothing of the sort,” exclaimed Mr. Bee.
“I most certainly am,” said the instructor.
“No,” said Mr. Bee. You’re not.” Then Mr. Bee asked pointedly, “What sort of credentials do
you have for making jelly?”
“Credentials?” asked the instructor with rapidly blinking eyes.
“Yes. Credentials. Qualifications. Experience. Perhaps you could show me some of the
raspberry jelly you’ve made,” said Mr. Bee.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-4
12 Writing
“Raspberry jelly that I’ve made?” asked the instructor not quite understanding the nature
of the question.
“Yes!”
“Oh, why, I’ve never actually made raspberry jelly,” the instructor said.
“Wha … what?” stammered Mr. Bee a bit incredulously.
“I’ve never, in fact, made raspberry jelly. I’ve eaten a lot of raspberry jelly. I’ve critiqued a
lot of raspberry jelly at the state fair, but I have not myself made raspberry jelly.”
“But … but … How is that possible? This is a raspberry jelly-making class.”
“Indeed it is, and have you not been receiving top-notch instruction?” asked the instructor.
End scene.
Teaching Writing
You could substitute “writing” for “raspberry jelly” and get a good sense of why many stu-
dents are struggling to write. Two reasons: First, they are not taught the writing process.
They are shown what a finished written product should look like. They are given a list of
ingredients. That is, students are told what must be in their finished written product. They
are asked to sample the writing of others. Here students look at and analyze the writing of
accomplished writers. But they are never taught the process used to create a finished writ-
ten product. They are not shown the steps. This lack of instruction related to process is just
as detrimental to jelly-making as it is to writing.
The second reason why so many students struggle with writing is that it is often taught
by teachers who do not write or who have not written for a very long time. Would you take
piano lessons from somebody who never played piano? Or who rarely played the piano? Or
who only played the piano back in college for a couple of major assignments? I think not. Yet,
all over America this is exactly what’s happening. Writing is being taught by teachers who
do not write.
This does not mean that you need to be a published author to be an effective writing
teacher. As a matter of fact, you do not necessarily have to be a particularly good writer. But
you do have to write. This applies to teachers of writing in kindergarten through graduate
school. You need to know what it’s like to go through the process of getting ideas and plan-
ning, drafting, revising, editing, and sharing your work.
The things you write need not be long. But you do need to experience all phases of the
writing process and share these with your students as you are teaching them the writing
process. This could be opinion pieces, memories and observation, bits of poetry, instruction
manuals, or even song lyrics. But a teacher of writing must write. In this way, you understand
the process. You can describe the steps. You can show examples. You can use cognitive mod-
eling to describe your processes related to generating ideas, drafting, revising, and editing
using your own work as examples. You know what it feels like to share your work with an
audience and get feedback. And students can read your work. You will find that your stu-
dents are often very interested in hearing your authentic thoughts, your memories, or your
point of view on things.
At the college level, too often students are “taught” how to write simply by requiring writ-
ing intensive courses. They are assigned writing topics. The professor describes what should
Making Raspberry Jelly and Teaching Writing 13
go into the paper and uses a rubric to give feedback. And if a single writing intensive course
doesn’t work (which is usually the case), the college or university then requires more writing
intensive courses with more writing assignments and rubrics, so it doesn’t work to an even
greater degree. How in the world can we expect anybody to learn how to write if we do not
teach them the process?
1 Pre-drafting. As the name implies, this is what is done before writing the first draft. This
involves things such as planning, creating outlines, talking with others, generating ideas,
doing research, or finding structure.
2 Drafting. This is the first attempt to get ideas on the page. If done correctly, the first
draft should be really bad. You cannot write well if you are not first willing to write gar-
bage. Sometimes, you have to just let it rip.
3 Revising. This is the heart of the writing process. Here the writer rereads, reshapes,
gets feedback, and revises many times.
4 Editing. Editing should occur only after a piece has been revised several times. Here the
writer looks for spelling, punctuation, and grammatical errors.
5 Share. This is the very last step. This is where the paper is sent out into the world.
This is the general order of things. However, you will find that some of the steps may need
to be repeated for some projects. As well, depending on the writing project, some steps get
more emphasis. For example, when writing about a topic unfamiliar to me, I tend to spend a
great deal of time doing research and taking notes (pre-draft). With some projects, the first
draft seems almost painful. I have to keep reminding myself to just let it rip, to write badly so
that good writing can eventually appear.
Big Ideas
What can you take from this chapter?
1 If we want to help students become better writers, we must teach the process.
2 The five-step writing process provides a general structure for writing and teaching
writing.
3 Simply requiring students to write more without teaching the writing process does little
to improve their ability to write.
4 Teachers of writing need to write.
3 The Language Arts and
Learning to Write
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-5
The Language Arts and Learning to Write 15
First, the arts of any kind are part of what makes us human. They provide a venue for our
natural inclination to create and express. And they are a record of who we are. A thou-
sand years from now when people are digging through the remnants of this age, they
will look at our movies, our books, and our music – not our spread sheets – to get a
sense of who we were. The arts promote, preserve, and express our humanity on both
an individual and collective level.
Second, from a neurocognitive perspective, the arts enhance learning and the ability to
learn. When embedded across the curriculum, the arts promote different, more expan-
sive, ways of thinking. For example, creating poems as part of a science or social stud-
ies class would invite students to think about curriculum topics differently, to see
concepts from different perspectives, and to engage with content more deeply. And
from a neurological perspective, the arts help to establish new neural pathways and
expand our neural networks. The more expansive your neural network, the better able
you are to learn new things.
Third, the best way to learn to write is to write, share your writing, and get responses from
other human beings. When language becomes an art, students are more motivated to
create it, consume it, and respond to it. For example, if I gave students a choice between
writing a report about grain exportation in Bolivia or working on a script for a YouTube
video, most would choose the latter. And if students were given a choice as to which of
these they might like to read, the choice would be the same. Finally, if I were to give my
students a choice about which they would like to use as the basis for a small group
discussion, the choice again would be the YouTube video.
Fourth, the process transfers. Most people will not be writing poetry, stories, creative
essays, or YouTube scripts in their adult professional lives; however, these provide a
strong basis for other types of writing. As indicated earlier, the processes used to cre-
ate language arts are similar to the processes used to create academic, technical, pro-
fessional, and formal writing. With both types of writing, you are looking to express an
idea. You look for form and patterns. You shape your ideas and revise.
And fifth, the arts help you perceive things you might otherwise have missed. This per-
ception may be internal, in terms of emotions, motivation, and intention. It can be
external, in the form of people, conditions, and situations in your own life or the world
around you. In this sense, it expands consciousness or that of which you are aware.
In Appendix A, I wrote a story about a homeless man I encountered. As I had this experience,
I knew I was going to write about it and share it with my class. Immediately, I started notic-
ing. And as I sat down to write the story, I remembered more things about the incident. And
16 Writing
as I revised, I connected it to other things and began to see it in a larger context. As I wrote
I discovered what I wanted to write. In this sense, we sometimes write to see what it is we
want to say.
Big Ideas
This leaves us with four big ideas:
• Students need to write in order to learn how to write. We must celebrate the expression
of ideas first. Form will follow function. There are times and places to learn and become
proficient in various writing forms and genre, including what Gloria Ladson-Billings
(2017) refers to as the dominant academic language (DAL) or the culture of commerce
and social advancement. However, learning and becoming proficient in the writing pro-
cess will enable students to become proficient in all forms.
The Language Arts and Learning to Write 17
• Students need their own writing topics. Students need to be able to express their
thoughts and describe their experiences to the greatest extent possible. This is called
authentic writing. Not all the time, but much of the time. When I sit down to write a book
or a journal article, nobody assigns me a topic. I get to write about what interests me.
I get to research things about which I am curious. Research and writing about things
that interest me seem effortless. I’ve also had experiences in which I’ve had to write a
chapter, article, or report that I wasn’t really interested in writing. Writing is incredible
difficult here. It seems as if I stare at my computer for hours and nothing comes out of
my head.
• Students need to get real responses from real people. Sharing writing with others is
what makes it come alive. Seeing how people respond to your words gives you a sense
of what is effective and what is not.
• Finally, we must keep the art in language arts. Again, art is not something beautiful; art
is something beautifully expressed. The beauty of words should be celebrated in your
writing instruction. Using language to create art can be very motivating for students.
The processes used to create language art are easily transferred to the formal types of
writing found in most real-world settings.
“I understand,” I said.
He had trouble standing. I helped him across the street so that he could rest.
As I walked back to the parking lot, I saw a young couple, putting their baby in a stroller.
They were going for a walk. Their child, what was most precious in the world to them, was
lovingly put in the stroller. The man on the corner was somebody’s precious child once upon
a time. He was taken for walks in a stroller. He was lovingly touched. But something went
wrong in his movie.
By writing this, I am making him appear in my movie. He has a role. Every time I read this
to a class, the man will reappear – and maybe the countless other men standing on corners
that people have disappeared, will reappear my students’ movies…
There’s nothing new and exciting in this chapter. The five-step writing process as described
by Donald Graves (1983) has been around for a while. This chapter will expand on the brief
outline of the five-step writing process found in Chapter 2. Subsequent chapters will describe
strategies for each step of the process.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-7
22 The Writing Process
• Step 3 – Revising. Revising is at the heart of the writing process. Here the writer revis-
its, reshapes, and reviews the writing many, many times. Parts are added, moved around,
or taken away. As an example, the first draft of this chapter was pretty bad. As a matter
of fact, it was horrible. It looked much different than the version you’re reading now.
This is because during the process of revising, new ideas began to appear. Some ideas
were cut, some were reworded, and others were put in different places. Staying with the
potter’s wheel analogy, revising in writing is like a potter beginning to mold and shape
the blob of clay on the wheel to make a pot. And the pot does not appear as a finished
product with one spin of the wheel. It begins to appear over time with much shaping.
• Step 4 – Editing. This is the step where grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors are
corrected. The quickest way to ruin a good writing project or damage a writer is to insist
that Step 4 be Step 1, 2, or 3. If writers are editing or worrying about mechanics at the
pre-writing, drafting, and revising stages, the flow of ideas and the quality of writing
suffers. Precious brain space that could be devoted to generating and connecting ideas
will instead be used instead to worry about writing mechanics.
• Step 5 – Publishing and sharing. Sharing writing with real people is what makes it
become real and come alive (Graham & Harris, 2019). It also helps the writer develop a
sense of audience and voice (this will be described in Chapter 10). Here students might
read parts of their work in small or large group, exchange their writing with others, or
utilize some other form of publication.
• Use direct and explicit instruction. Use small bits of direct instruction to teach each
step the of writing process (as well as to teach grammar, punctuation, and other writing
mechanics). Direct instruction includes the elements of effective skills instruction: Input,
modeling/demonstration, guided practice, independent practice, and review. (These ele-
ments will be expanded upon in Chapter 12.)
• Demonstrate the steps. Demonstration usually involves cognitive modeling where you
think aloud as you are demonstrating steps or related strategies. For example, Ms. Bell
was giving a mini-lesson to her third-grade students about a pre-writing strategy. She
used her own writing project to demonstrate:
Boys and girls, I want to write about going to the state fair. I have some ideas in my
head, but I’m still a little fuzzy about what I want to say. I need to use one of our pre-
writing strategies: Listing. This is when you write a list of ideas that pop into your
head about your writing topic before you start writing.
Here Ms. Bell began listing ideas on the board, naming each one as she did. She
paused. “As I’m listing these things, some other ideas are starting to pop in my head. I’m
going to add these new ideas to my list.”
She listed these new ideas on the board and said, “And these new ideas are giving me
more new ideas. That’s what can happen when you just start listing. And as I’m thinking
of these ideas, I’m going to list some of the sounds, smells, and sights.”
The Five-Step Writing Process 23
Wow, if I wanted to write about recess, I would have some great ideas for my starting
my first draft. Now think about the idea that you’ve decided to write about today. I’ve
given you some thinking paper. In the next three minutes, I want you to start listing
things that pop into your mind about your topic. Put all the ideas down, even the silly
ideas, because these will help you think of other ideas. You’ll be sharing your list with
your writing partner before you start writing today.
• Write. This is a good place to reinforce once again the importance of you writing along
with your students. Writing enables you to better understand each of the five steps.
When you write you also remember things about writing to pass along to your students.
And as shown above, writing enables you to demonstrate steps and strategies using
your own writing products.
I want you to know that I’m practicing what I’m preaching here. As I’m writing this
book, I’m also teaching a graduate course in scholarly writing. Here my goal is to help
students complete their capstone projects for their Masters degree thesis. While writ-
ing this book, I’m remembering little writing tips to pass along to my students. These
become the basis of short mini-lessons. (visit my YouTube channel at: http://www.
youtube.com/c/DrAndyJohnson) It also makes me a more credible writing teacher.
Now you might think that since the students in this class are adult writers taking a
graduate course and doing high-level graduate level writing that they would need to use
super-special, complicated, high-caliber writing strategies that have nothing to do with
elementary, middle school, or high school writers. Nope. Writers are writers. The writing
processes used are essentially the same no matter what the age or level. For example,
I find myself telling graduate students things that I tell writers at all levels, “You have
to write garbage before you can write well. Get that garbage on the paper. It’s called a
draft. We’ll revise and reshape it later.”
• Put up posters listing the five steps. Posters can be used as a reference when teach-
ing and when conferencing with writers. They also remind student of the five steps as
they’re writing. Ideally, the five-step writing process would be taught to students in kin-
dergarten through graduate school and posters would be visible wherever there is writ-
ing taking place (hopefully in every classroom).
• Use scaffolds. Writing shapes and organizes our thinking (Langer & Applebee, 2007).
Our thinking also shapes and organizes our writing. Scaffolds provide a temporary struc-
ture for thinking that gradually becomes internalized (Graham, Harris, & Santangelo,
2015). Scaffolds include things such as graphic organizers or step-by-step guides. A
scaffold could also include things like a teacher writing prompt. However, any type of
scaffold is meant to be a temporary guide for thinking and writing and not a permanent
recipe to follow.
24 The Writing Process
Types of Writing
This chapter will end with a brief description of the types of writing you might include in a
writing curriculum. Lucy Calkins (2020) describes three common types of academic writing:
Persuasive, narrative, and expository writing. These are the types of writing addressed by
the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). However, we should not allow academic stan-
dards of any kind to narrowly define our writing curriculum. Thus, three other types of writ-
ing are included here: Inquiry writing, the arts, and communication. Each of these will be
addressed in subsequent chapters.
Persuasive Writing
The purpose of this type of writing is to make a case for or against an issue or to construct
an argument using concise, objective language, and sound reasoning.
Narrative Writing
The purpose of this type of writing is to describe incidents and events or to tell a story. In
other words, the writer becomes a narrator.
Expository Writing
The purpose of this type of writing is to explain, describe, provide information, or to com-
municate knowledge in some form.
Scientific Writing
The purpose of this type of writing is to describe all phases of the inquiry process. Inquiry
is the process of asking a question, gathering data, and then using that data to answer
The Five-Step Writing Process 25
the question. Inquiry is another name for research. Data can be gathered using primary
sources through direct observation, survey, interviews, or other means. Data can also be
collected using secondary sources such as books and articles. Inquiry and inquiry writing will
be described in Chapter 23.
The Arts
The purpose of this type of writing is to create art. As stated in Chapter 3, art is not some-
thing beautiful; rather, it’s something beautifully expressed. Art seeks to evoke a variety of
responses, including aesthetic, emotional, social, and intellectual responses. Included here
are poetry, drama or scripts, song lyrics, comedy monologs, podcasts, and other types of
creative writing.
Communication
The purpose of this type of writing is personal communication. This includes email, letters,
memos, newsletters, personal letters (remember those?), and things like X (that was Twitter),
blogs, Facebook posts, podcasts, websites, and digital media that we haven’t even thought of
yet. It also includes oral communication and listening.
Big Ideas
• Students should be allowed to select their own writing topics to the greatest extent pos-
sible. This creates greater motivation to write. Also, students are writing about topics
they know about and care about.
• The steps of the five-step writing process are: Pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing,
and sharing/publishing. The five-step writing process has been around for a long time
because it works. Writers at all levels benefit from using it.
• Each step of the five-step writing process must be explicitly taught and modeled. The
steps should be reviewed throughout a K–12 writing curriculum.
• There are six types of writing that should be included in a K–12 writing curriculum:
Persuasive writing, narrative writing, expository writing, inquiry writing, the arts, and
communication.
• Schools should never let a set of academic standards define or confine a K–12 writing
curriculum.
5 Pre-Pre-Writing Strategies
This book is based on the premise that human beings have an innate desire to communicate
with other human beings. They naturally want the ideas to leak out of their head and be
absorbed by the heads of others. The inclination to express ourselves and to share our ideas
and experiences with other humans is inherent within us. Good writing instruction is built
upon this natural inclination. Bad (ineffective) writing instruction stymies this natural impulse
by focusing on form over function. And if students have been stymied for years, it may take a
bit of work to un-stymie them. This chapter addresses the “un-stymization” process.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003334798-8
Pre-Pre-Writing Strategies 27
Pre-Pre-Writing
The pre-pre-writing strategies here are designed to become obsolete. That is, once students
get used to choosing their own writing topics, the need for strategies is greatly diminished or
even eliminated. However, if students aren’t used to selecting their writing topics, they may
need a little help to get going. Below are described nine pre-pre-writing strategies for helping
students to identify what it is that they want to write about. These strategies can be adopted
and adapted for students in kindergarten through graduate school.
Choice
First, maximize opportunities for students to select writing topics that they care about, top-
ics that invite them to say what they want to say in a way they want to say it. This will create
greater motivation to write which, in turn will improve students’ writing and communicating
skills. It will also create a much more interesting and engaged classroom.
Ask Them
Ask your students, “What do you want to write about today?” Sometimes you may need to
go a little bit deeper and ask, “What are you thinking about right now?” “Have you noticed
anything interesting?” “Did you do anything fun yesterday?” “What are you going to do after
school today?”
Group List
Before writing, ask volunteers to share what they will be writing about. As students report,
list their ideas on the board. The human brain naturally creates links and associations when
it encounters things. Thus, encountering ideas always begets more ideas.
Public Posting
During the week, post a chart in the classroom with space for students to list possible writing
ideas. Again, the very act of encountering an idea naturally creates links with other ideas as
students make connections with their own lives and experiences.
Keep a List
Here students designate a page in their writing journal or portfolio listing possible writing
topics. They should try to add to their list every week. You might even designate a list-writing
day. Also, students can occasionally be asked to share their writing topic ideas in small groups.
Encourage them to piggyback on the ideas they hear to develop their own writing topics.
28 The Writing Process
Categories
Categories can be used to both generate ideas and keep track of possible writing topics. Students
can staple of copy of the things-chart in Figure 5.1 inside their writing journal or portfolio. You can
also create a public posting with a pencil on a string for students to list ideas under each category.
Brain Walk
Demonstrate this technique to students in large group before inviting them to do one inde-
pendently. Here you simply take your brain out for a walk. First, write a word at the top of a
page of thinking paper (scratch paper) or a journal page. Then identify the first thought or
idea that pops into your head. Use a word or short phrase to capture it. Don’t use complete
sentences. Instead, use a word or the fewest words possible to hold the idea. The steps for
the brain walk are shown in Figure 5.2.
If done correctly, the brain walk shouldn’t make sense to anybody except the writer. (See
Figure 5.3) A good brain walk usually provides three or four good ideas to use for stories.
Students can then record these story ideas in their writing journals or writing portfolios.
To prime the pump and get writing ideas going, the teacher reads something, usually some-
thing that he or she has written. For example, before reading my story about going on a scary
Steps
1. Write a word on top of paper.
2. Identify first thought that comes.
3. Use word or phrase to capture it.
4. Move to next thought.
5. Repeat until the page is full.
My wife and I are at the fair. A beautiful day. Before we went home, we decided to go on one
ride.
A challenge. I see all these young kids with their text messaging and flip-flops. They think
they’re so cool cause they can go on a scary ride and laugh.
I decided to show them a little old school. I’ll show them that I still got a little snort left in the
tank. I was going on amusement park rides before their parents were born.
It was called the Zipper, or Whipper, or Zinger, or Whizzer, or something like that. Feet
hanging in the air. Bar over your head. Twirled around in circles and tipped upside down.
The fear circuits in my brain started beeping and buzzing like cell phones at a middle school
teen dance. “You’re gonna diiiiiiee!” the incoming message said over and over.
The logical circuits tried to over-ride the fear circuits. “You’ll be fine. Thousands of people ride
these things every year. You’ll be just …”
“You’re gonna diiiiiee!” my fear circuits screamed. “You’re high up in the air. You’re upside
down. You’re gonna diiiiiiiee! It’s gonna hurt! You’re gonna diiiiiee!”
After what seemed like hours, the ride finally stopped. Staggered off. Sweaty, green, and
nauseous. Middle-aged men weren’t designed to be shaken upside down like warm cans of
Pepsi-Cola.
ride at the state fair (see Figure 5.4), I told my students to think about a time when they were
scared. I then read my story to prime the writing pump. After, I said, “Tell us about a time when
you were scared.” This again points to the importance of teachers of writing being writers.
Brainstorming Game
Before writing, students are moved into groups of four to five. One person is designated as
the scribe to record all ideas. On a given signal, students have four minutes (the time will
vary) to generate as many writing ideas as possible. The team with the most ideas wins a
fabulous prize of some sort.
I also include a nutty prize award. Each team selects what they think is the nuttiest idea.
They share with the class and the idea I deem the nuttiest also wins a prize of some sort. This
30 The Writing Process
second award can vary. You can also look for ideas that are the most boring, biggest, involve
the most people, the happiest, and so on. The point is, you’re generating writing ideas and
having a little fun in the process.
Reading Class
Letter Sounds
In the primary grades, writing prompts can be used to reinforce letter sounds or patterns.
I was teaching the /tr/ beginning blend in a second-grade reading class. I did a short lesson
using explicit instruction and the elements of effective skills instruction (see Chapter 12).
I could have sent students back to their desks and had them do a boring worksheet that they
would hate to do, and I would hate to correct. That would have just created a whole bunch of
hate. Instead, I asked students if they had ever gotten in trouble. I over-emphasized the /tr/
blend in trouble. Then, I read a very short two-paragraph story about a time I got in trouble
when I was a kid. I said, “Think about a time when you got in trouble. Tell us about it. Tell us
about a time when you got in trouble.”
Students started talking at first, then I said, “Get those good ideas on paper. We’ll be shar-
ing in a minute.” Students started writing. I watched their pencils moving on the paper. When
I could see the energy starting to leave, I said, “Try to finish the idea you are on in the next
minute or so and get ready to share.”
After another minute I moved students into pre-established groups of four. (I vary
groups size from three to five students. Each week I randomly create different groups for
students so that everybody gets a chance to work with everybody.) I then told students
that they could read their story, exactly what’s written on the paper, or just share their
ideas. This takes some of the pressure off students who had a hard time getting all their
ideas on paper.
I walked around the room and listened from a distance as students shared their stories.
There was laughter and good conversation as students read and shared. After six minutes I
could see that all the groups had finished, but there was still a good buzz of healthy conversa-
tion going on, so I let this go for another two or three minutes. Then I said, “Okay, put your story
drafts in your writing folders. You might want to take this story to the revision stage during our
writing time.”
Total time for this was around ten minutes. Did students “master” the /tr/ blend? Nobody
masters anything after a single encounter. A skill of any kind is mastered with multiple
encounters over time. These students would encounter the /tr/ blend in the following days
with a partner worksheet, letter and word games, and other /tr/ writing prompts. In the
meantime, they had a chance to be engaged in an authentic writing activity where they were
writing and sharing their ideas and experiences.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
TROISIÈME PARTIE
I
LES NAINS ROUGES
D'abord les Nains Rouges n'avaient point paru, par crainte d'une
embûche ou parce qu'ils attendaient une imprudence des Oulhamr.
Ils se montrèrent vers le déclin du jour. On les voyait jaillir de leurs
retraites et s'avancer jusqu'à l'entrée de l'arête granitique, avec un
singulier mélange de glissements et de sauts, puis, arrêtés, ils
considéraient le marécage. L'un ou l'autre poussait un cri, mais les
chefs gardaient le silence, attentifs. Au crépuscule, les corps rouges
grouillèrent; on eût dit, dans la lueur cendreuse, d'étranges chacals
dressés sur leurs pattes de derrière. La nuit vint. Le feu des Oulhamr
étendit sur les eaux une clarté sanglante. Derrière les buissons, les
feux des assiégeants cuivraient les ténèbres. Des silhouettes de
veilleurs se profilaient et disparaissaient. Malgré des simulacres
d'attaque, les agresseurs se tinrent hors de portée.